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Hemofiltration
Hemofiltration
Hemofiltration
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Hemofiltration
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SpecialtyNephrology
ICD-9-CM39.95
MeSHD006440

Hemofiltration, also haemofiltration, is a renal replacement therapy which is used in the intensive care setting. It is usually used to treat acute kidney injury (AKI), but may be of benefit in multiple organ dysfunction syndrome or sepsis.[1] During hemofiltration, a patient's blood is passed through a set of tubing (a filtration circuit) via a machine to a semipermeable membrane (the filter) where waste products and water (collectively called ultrafiltrate) are removed by convection. Replacement fluid is added and the blood is returned to the patient.[2]

As in dialysis, in hemofiltration one achieves movement of solutes across a semi-permeable membrane. However, solute movement with hemofiltration is governed by convection rather than by diffusion. With hemofiltration, dialysate is not used. Instead, a positive hydrostatic pressure drives water and solutes across the filter membrane from the blood compartment to the filtrate compartment, from which it is drained. Solutes, both small and large, get dragged through the membrane at a similar rate by the flow of water that has been engendered by the hydrostatic pressure. Thus convection overcomes the reduced removal rate of larger solutes (due to their slow speed of diffusion) seen in hemodialysis.

Hemodiafiltration

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Hemofiltration is sometimes used in combination with hemodialysis, when it is termed hemodiafiltration. Blood is pumped through the blood compartment of a high flux dialyzer, and a high rate of ultrafiltration is used, so there is a high rate of movement of water and solutes from blood to dialysate that must be replaced by substitution fluid that is infused directly into the blood line. However, dialysis solution is also run through the dialysate compartment of the dialyzer. The combination is theoretically useful because it results in good removal of both large and small molecular weight solutes.[citation needed]

Intermittent vs. continuous

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These treatments can be given intermittently, or continuously. The latter is usually done in an intensive care unit setting. There may be little difference in clinical and health economic outcome between the two in the context of acute kidney failure.[3][4]

On-line intermittent hemofiltration (IHF) or hemodiafiltration (IHDF)

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Either of these treatments can be given in outpatient dialysis units, three or more times a week, usually 3–5 hours per treatment. IHDF is used almost exclusively, with only a few centers using IHF. With both IHF or IHDF, the substitution fluid is prepared on-line from dialysis solution by running dialysis solution through a set of two membranes to purify it before infusing it directly into the blood line. In the United States, regulatory agencies have not yet approved on-line creation of substitution fluid because of concerns about its purity. For this reason, hemodiafiltration, had historically never been used in an outpatient setting in the United States.[citation needed]

Continuous hemofiltration or hemodiafiltration (CHDF)

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Continuous hemofiltration (CHF) was first described in a 1977 paper by Kramer et al. as a treatment for fluid overload.[5] Hemofiltration is most commonly used in an intensive care unit setting, where it is either given as 8- to 12-hour treatments, so called SLEF (slow extended hemofiltration), or as CHF (continuous hemofiltration), also sometimes called continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) or continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT).[6][7] Hemodiafiltration (SLED-F or CHDF or CVVHDF) also is widely used in this fashion. In the United States, the substitution fluid used in CHF or CHDF is commercially prepared, prepackaged, and sterile (or sometimes is prepared in the local hospital pharmacy), avoiding regulatory issues of on-line creation of replacement fluid from dialysis solution.

With slow continuous therapies, the blood flow rates are usually in the range of 100-200 ml/min, and access is usually achieved through a central venous catheter placed in one of the large central veins. In such cases a blood pump is used to drive blood flow through the filter. Native access for hemodialysis (e.g. AV fistulas or grafts) are unsuitable for CHF because the prolonged residence of the access needles required might damage such accesses.

The length of time before the circuit clots and becomes unusable, often referred to as circuit life, can vary depending on the medication used to keep blood from clotting. Heparin and regional citrate are often used, though heparin carries a higher risk of bleeding.[8] However, a comprehensive analysis of audit data from intensive care units in the UK revealed that, compared with heparin, citrate-based drugs were not associated with fewer deaths among patients with acute kidney injury after 90 days of treatment. Citrate-based drugs were, however, associated with a substantially higher cost of treatment.[9][10]

History of continuous renal replacement therapy

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Before implementing continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT), acute renal failure (ARF) in critically ill, multiple organ failure patients was managed by intermittent hemodialysis and the mortality rate was very high.[11] Hemodialysis is effective in clearance and ultrafiltration, but it has deleterious effects on hemodynamic stability.[12] In 1971, Lee Henderson described the basis for convective transport in blood purification techniques. Subsequently, in 1974 he described hemodiafiltration combining convection and diffusion. These seminal papers represented the basis for the development of chronic hemodiafiltration by Leber and continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration (CAVH) by Peter Kramer.[13]

With his team, Peter Kramer (Died unexpectedly in 1984), had actually first reported the use of continuous hemofiltration in Germany in 1977.[14] Peter Kramer in ASAIO presented a paper describing the use of arteriovenous hemofiltration in the management of ARF.[15] Kramer tried that as a mean of managing diuretic-resistant fluid overload. Kramer described his experience of attaching a microporous hemofilter to the femoral artery and vein, and flowing blood through it at around 100 ml/minute. Liters of plasma filtrate poured out. He replaced it with an infusion of electrolyte solution.[16] Kramer explained that this could be done continuously, avoiding the volume shifts and other problems of intermittent hemodialysis. For those in the audience who cared for patients with anuric ARF, this was an epiphany of thunderbolt proportions.[17] He used a hollow fiber “haemofilter” that originally designed as an alternative to HD for chronic renal failure and produced 300-600 ml/hour of ultrafiltrate by convection. The simple, pumpless system made use of temporary dialysis catheters sited in the patient’s femoral artery and vein and could be rapidly established in critically ill patients.[18] Kramer explained that this could be done continuously, avoiding the volume shifts and other problems of intermittent hemodialysis. For those in the audience who cared for patients with anuric ARF, this was an epiphany of thunderbolt proportions.[19] He used a hollow fiber “haemofilter” that originally designed as an alternative to HD for chronic renal failure and produced 300-600 ml/hour of ultrafiltrate by convection. The simple, pumpless system made use of temporary dialysis catheters sited in the patient’s femoral artery and vein and could be rapidly established in critically ill patients. Using an isotonic salt solution for fluid replacement, continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration (CAVH) was soon extended to the management of ARF. In 1982, Kramer presented his experience with its use in more than 150 intensive care patients at a meeting of the American Society for Artificial Internal Organs(ASAIO).[20] Before that, Henderson et al and Knopp, had studied hemofiltration in animals and as an alternative to dialysis in chronic renal failure, but it was really Peter Kramer’s report in ASAIO meeting in 1982 that stimulated many of nephrologists and intensivists to undertake the serious evaluation of CAVH in ARF in the ICU.[21]

At first, in CAVH, the prescribed ultrafiltration rate was achieved manually by arranging the filtrate bag at the right height, thereby changing the negative pressure caused by the filtrate column. The replacement fluid was also regulated manually. Few years later, CAVH was developed in several centers for managing ARF in critically ill patients with multiple organ failure. In 1986, it has been reported that CAVH improve the patient survival from 9% to 38% with full nutrition in ARF.[22] Moreover, a workshop presented at ASAIO in 1988 summarized the development and role of continuous hemofiltration.[23] Since late 1980s, continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) has been studied extensively. In 1982, the use of CAVH in Vicenza was extended for the first time to a neonate with the application of specific minifilters . Two years later, CAVH began to be used to treat septic patients, burn patients and patients after transplantation and cardiac surgery, even with regional citrate anticoagulation.[24] In 1986, the term continuous renal replacement therapy was applied to all these continuous approaches.[25] The technology and terminology were expanded to include slow continuous ultrafiltration for fluid removal without replacement, continuous arteriovenous hemodialysis (CAVHD), and continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration.[26] Meanwhile, clinical and technical limitations of CAVH spurred new research and the discovery of new treatments, leading to the development of continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH), continuous veno-venous hemodialysis (CVVHD) and continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration (CVVHDF). The low depurative efficiency was overcome by applying filters with two ports in the dialysate/filtrate compartment and through the use of counter-current dialysate flow, allowing the addition of diffusion and the birth of continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration or hemodialysis (CAVHDF or CAVHD).[27]

Development of double-lumen venous catheters and peristaltic blood pumps was invented in the mid-1980s, when CVVH was proposed. The presence of a pump that generated negative pressure in part of the circuit made it necessary to add a device to detect the presence of air and a sensor to monitor the pressure in the circuit, to avoid, respectively, air embolisms and circuit explosion in case of coagulation or obstruction of the venous line. Later, ultrafiltrate and replacement pumps and a heater were added to the circuit.[28] The development of CVVH allows to increase the exchange volumes, and subsequently, the depurative efficiency. The use of counter-current dialysate flow led to further improvements and the birth of CVVHD and CVVHDF.[29] Now Continuous renal replacement therapy has become the mainstay of management of renal failure for multiple organ failure patients in the ICU.[30]

Information technology and precision medicine have recently furthered the evolution of CRRT, providing the possibility of collecting data in large databases and evaluating policies and practice patterns. The application of artificial intelligence and enhanced human intelligence programs to the analysis of big data has further moved the front of research ahead, providing the possibility of creating silica-trials and finding answers to patients’ unmet clinical needs. The opportunity to evaluate the endophenotype of the patient makes it possible to adjust treatments and techniques by implementing the concept of precision CRRT. This allows clinicians to normalize outcomes and results among different populations or individuals and establish optimal and personalized care [31]

See also

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References

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Hemofiltration

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Hemofiltration is a (RRT) that employs to remove excess fluid, s, and solutes from the blood of critically ill patients, particularly those with (AKI), by passing blood through a under hydrostatic . This process mimics the natural filtration function of the kidneys, using ultrafiltration to drag solutes along with the solvent, and requires replacement fluids to maintain the patient's volume and balance. Developed in the following advancements in hollow-fiber dialyzer technology, hemofiltration emerged as an alternative to traditional for hemodynamically unstable patients in intensive care settings, where it provides gradual solute and fluid removal to avoid rapid shifts that could exacerbate instability. Unlike , which relies primarily on across a concentration gradient to clear small solutes, hemofiltration's convective mechanism excels at removing larger middle-molecular-weight toxins (up to 20,000 Daltons), potentially including inflammatory mediators in conditions like . Indications for hemofiltration include refractory fluid overload, severe , exceeding 6.5 mmol/L, and uremic symptoms unresponsive to conservative management, often delivered continuously as veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) via a double-lumen . Its advantages encompass improved hemodynamic tolerance compared to intermittent therapies, better achievement of negative , and potential benefits in modulating , though outcomes depend on patient-specific factors and timely initiation.

Definition and Principles

Definition

Hemofiltration is a that employs convective transport to remove waste products, excess fluid, and middle- to large-molecular-weight solutes from the . This involves forcing plasma water and associated solutes across a semi-permeable using hydrostatic , thereby achieving clearance of molecules up to approximately 15,000 Da, including inflammatory mediators like cytokines and . The key components of hemofiltration include high-volume to generate an containing solutes and fluid, followed by the of replacement fluid—either pre- or post-filter—to restore intravascular volume and maintain electrolyte balance. This replacement fluid is typically administered at rates matching or exceeding the ultrafiltrate volume to prevent , with net ultrafiltration targeted at 1.5–2.0 mL/kg/hour for fluid management. Hemofiltration is primarily utilized in acute settings, such as intensive care units, for hemodynamically unstable patients with who cannot adequately perform renal functions, addressing issues like , , and imbalances. In distinction from diffusion-based therapies like , hemofiltration relies exclusively on for solute removal rather than concentration gradients, enabling more effective clearance of larger solutes while providing gentler hemodynamic control.

Principles of Operation

Hemofiltration relies on convective transport as its primary mechanism for solute and fluid removal, where plasma water and associated solutes are driven across a by a . This process achieves solute clearance proportional to the rate, distinguishing it from diffusive methods by effectively removing larger middle molecules alongside small solutes. The rate (UFR), equivalent to the filtrate flow rate (Qf), determines the extent of convective clearance and is calculated as UFR = Qf. In continuous hemofiltration modes, typical Qf values range from 20 to 35 mL/kg/h, balancing with risks such as hemoconcentration. To prevent and maintain physiological balance, a sterile replacement fluid—formulated to match or adjust and acid-base parameters—is infused either pre-filter (predilution) or post-filter (postdilution). This fluid replaces the volume of ultrafiltrate removed, with infusion rates matching Qf minus any net fluid removal goals. Solute removal efficiency in hemofiltration is assessed using the sieving coefficient (S), defined as S = Clearance / rate, which reflects the fraction of solute passing through the relative to its plasma concentration. For middle molecules like (approximately 11.8 kDa), S values around 0.6 indicate substantial permeability, enabling convective clearance. High-flux semi-permeable membranes, such as those made from , are essential to hemofiltration, featuring pore sizes that permit passage of solutes up to 20-50 kDa while retaining and larger proteins. These membranes enhance middle-molecule removal compared to low-flux alternatives, supporting the therapy's role in managing uremic toxins.

Clinical Applications

Indications

Hemofiltration is primarily indicated for the management of (AKI) in critically ill patients, particularly those with hemodynamic instability where continuous (CRRT) modalities are preferred over intermittent approaches to maintain cardiovascular stability. Current guidelines recommend initiating (RRT) for AKI stage 3 with urgent complications such as life-threatening (>6.5 mmol/L), severe (pH <7.15), or refractory fluid overload causing respiratory compromise. In the absence of such urgencies, delaying initiation for up to 72 hours is suggested to allow potential recovery (SFAR 2025, grade 1B). Recent randomized trials, such as STARRT-AKI (2019), have shown no survival benefit from early RRT initiation in non-urgent AKI, supporting a strategy of delayed start unless complications necessitate prompt intervention. CRRT is favored in unstable patients (KDIGO 2012, grade 2B). It is also used in cases of severe fluid overload unresponsive to diuretic therapy, allowing for gradual ultrafiltration to achieve negative fluid balance without exacerbating hypotension. In sepsis, hemofiltration facilitates the convective removal of middle-molecule inflammatory mediators like cytokines, potentially improving hemodynamic parameters in septic shock with AKI, though it does not consistently affect mortality. For patients with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), it supports renal support in the context of broader critical illness, especially when integrated with other organ support measures. Hemofiltration is indicated in scenarios requiring rapid clearance of uremic toxins or myoglobin, such as , where high-volume convective therapies enhance removal of larger solutes compared to diffusion-based methods. Similarly, in tumor lysis syndrome, it is employed to prevent or treat AKI by efficiently clearing uric acid, potassium, and phosphate, particularly in high-risk oncology patients undergoing chemotherapy. These applications leverage hemofiltration's convective mechanism to address toxin burdens that contribute to renal failure in these acute settings.

Contraindications

Hemofiltration, as a form of continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT), has few absolute contraindications, primarily centered on situations where the procedure cannot be safely or effectively initiated. The most definitive absolute contraindication is patient refusal or advance directives against renal replacement therapy, respecting autonomy in medical decision-making. Another absolute barrier is the inability to establish adequate vascular access, such as through central venous catheterization, which is essential for blood flow through the extracorporeal circuit; without viable access sites like the internal jugular or femoral veins, the therapy cannot proceed. Additionally, conditions demanding rapid solute clearance, such as life-threatening hyperkalemia or certain intoxications, contraindicate hemofiltration in favor of intermittent hemodialysis, which provides faster resolution. Relative contraindications emphasize patient-specific risks that may outweigh benefits, often manageable with alternatives or modifications. Severe coagulopathy, including thrombocytopenia or prolonged clotting times, increases bleeding risk, particularly with required anticoagulation to prevent circuit clotting; while regional citrate anticoagulation can mitigate this, systemic options like are hazardous in active bleeding scenarios. Hemodynamic stability sufficient for intermittent therapies may render continuous hemofiltration unnecessary, as less resource-intensive options like standard could suffice without the prolonged monitoring demands of CRRT. In patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), hemofiltration is rarely preferred for long-term management, as chronic or peritoneal dialysis offers more efficient solute removal and is the standard for stable outpatient care. Comorbidities further influence suitability, particularly severe liver failure, which complicates fluid balance and buffer selection in hemofiltration; irreversible cases without transplant eligibility heighten risks of metabolic derangements, such as citrate accumulation if used for anticoagulation, prompting consideration of non-continuous alternatives. These factors underscore the need for individualized assessment to prioritize safety, often involving multidisciplinary input from nephrology and critical care teams.

Types and Modalities

Intermittent Hemofiltration

Intermittent hemofiltration (IHF) is a convective renal replacement therapy modality that employs ultrafiltration to achieve solute clearance and fluid removal, delivered in discrete sessions typically lasting 3-5 hours and performed 3-5 times per week. This approach relies on high ultrafiltration rates, generally ranging from 1-2 L/h, to compensate for the limited treatment duration and ensure adequate depuration. Replacement fluid is infused either pre- or post-filter to maintain volume and electrolyte balance during the procedure. IHF is particularly suited for hemodynamically stable patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) who are transitioning from continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) or require scheduled treatments in settings where continuous modalities are impractical. It is also applied in resource-limited environments, where the need for less intensive monitoring and infrastructure makes intermittent therapies more feasible than prolonged continuous options. Key advantages of IHF include shorter treatment durations that facilitate easier scheduling and patient mobility, reduced exposure to anticoagulants, lower overall costs, and decreased nursing workload compared to continuous therapies. However, the rapid fluid and solute shifts associated with higher ultrafiltration rates can lead to hemodynamic instability, particularly in patients with marginal cardiovascular reserve. In contrast to continuous hemofiltration, which provides steady, low-intensity support for unstable patients, IHF prioritizes episodic, higher-intensity delivery for those who can tolerate it.

Continuous Hemofiltration

Continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) is a modality of continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) that employs convection to remove solutes and excess fluid from the blood of critically ill patients, utilizing hydrostatic pressure across a semipermeable membrane to generate an ultrafiltrate over an extended period, typically 24 hours per day. In CVVH, blood is pumped through an extracorporeal circuit via venous access, and ultrafiltration rates are set to achieve convective clearance of solutes up to approximately 15,000 Da in molecular weight, with replacement fluid administered to maintain hemodynamic stability and prevent hypovolemia. Typical ultrafiltration rates range from 20 to 35 mL/kg/h, allowing for controlled effluent volumes that balance solute removal with patient tolerance. CVVH is primarily applied in intensive care unit (ICU) settings for hemodynamically unstable patients experiencing (AKI), , or other critical conditions, where it facilitates precise management of fluid overload, electrolyte imbalances, and uremic toxins without exacerbating cardiovascular instability. In -associated AKI, CVVH supports the removal of inflammatory mediators and cytokines, potentially mitigating systemic inflammatory responses. These applications are particularly suited to patients intolerant of intermittent therapies due to risks of hypotension or rapid solute shifts. The benefits of CVVH include steady, gradual removal of solutes and fluids, which minimizes hemodynamic fluctuations and supports better tolerance in critically ill individuals compared to intermittent methods. This continuous approach enhances clearance of middle-molecular-weight toxins and provides a stable metabolic environment, reducing the risk of complications such as cerebral edema in high-catabolic states. CVVH operates in pre-dilution or post-dilution configurations: pre-dilution involves infusing replacement fluid before the filter to dilute blood and reduce clotting risk, though it may slightly decrease solute clearance efficiency; post-dilution infuses fluid after the filter for maximal convective removal but requires monitoring to keep filtration fractions below 25% to avoid hemoconcentration.

Hemodiafiltration

Hemodiafiltration (HDF) is a renal replacement therapy that integrates the convective solute removal of hemofiltration with the diffusive clearance of hemodialysis, enabling the elimination of a wider spectrum of uremic toxins, including small solutes and middle-sized molecules such as β2-microglobulin. This hybrid approach utilizes high-flux dialyzers to facilitate both mechanisms simultaneously within the same extracorporeal circuit, enhancing overall efficiency compared to diffusion- or convection-only modalities. In operation, HDF employs both dialysate flow for diffusive transport and replacement fluid infusion to support convection, with the ultrafiltration rate (UFR) typically exceeding 20 L per session in high-volume configurations to optimize clearance. High-volume HDF, often targeting a convection volume of at least 23 L per session (adjusted for body surface area), requires advanced dialysis machines capable of precise fluid management to prevent membrane fouling and maintain hemodynamic stability. Replacement fluid is infused either pre- or post-dialyzer to sustain plasma volume and promote solvent drag of solutes across the membrane. Clinically, HDF is applied in outpatient settings for patients with chronic kidney disease, particularly end-stage renal disease, where high-volume treatments have demonstrated reduced all-cause mortality (hazard ratio 0.77) and improved cardiovascular outcomes through superior middle-molecule removal. In acute settings, such as intensive care units for patients with acute kidney injury, HDF provides enhanced clearance of inflammatory mediators like cytokines, potentially aiding renal recovery and reducing inflammation in sepsis-associated cases. Online HDF further refines this therapy by generating ultrapure replacement fluid and dialysate in real-time through a two-stage ultrafiltration process from standard dialysate, ensuring sterility and enabling higher convection volumes without external fluid preparation. This approach, widely adopted in Europe and Asia, supports efficient, cost-effective sessions while minimizing contamination risks.

Comparison to Hemodialysis

Hemofiltration primarily employs convection as its mechanism of solute removal, where hydrostatic pressure drives ultrafiltration across a semipermeable membrane, effectively clearing both small solutes and larger middle-molecular-weight substances such as cytokines through solvent drag. In contrast, hemodialysis relies on diffusion, facilitated by a concentration gradient between blood and dialysate, which is more efficient for removing small solutes like urea and electrolytes but less effective for middle and larger molecules. This fundamental difference arises because convection in hemofiltration allows for the bulk transport of solutes proportional to their size up to the membrane's cutoff (typically around 40,000 Daltons), whereas diffusion in hemodialysis favors smaller particles (under 10,000 Daltons) and diminishes with increasing molecular weight. Regarding efficacy, hemofiltration demonstrates superior clearance of middle and large molecules, such as β2-microglobulin (up to 94% higher than hemodialysis, P<0.0001 across two trials involving 33 patients) and inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6, making it advantageous for conditions involving mediator accumulation. Hemodialysis, however, provides better clearance of small ions and urea (approximately 150 mL/min versus 20-35 mL/min in hemofiltration), achieving comparable overall small solute removal in acute settings (difference of +1%, P=0.60 across four trials with 49 patients). While some studies suggest hemofiltration's convective mechanism may enhance cytokine removal in inflammatory states, this benefit is not consistently demonstrated across all trials. Hemofiltration is predominantly used for acute kidney injury (AKI) in hemodynamically unstable patients, particularly in intensive care settings where continuous therapy supports fluid and solute balance without exacerbating instability. Hemodialysis, by comparison, is the standard modality for chronic end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in stable outpatients, delivered intermittently to efficiently manage small solute accumulation over longer intervals. In sepsis-associated AKI, hemofiltration is often selected for its potential to mitigate inflammatory burden through convective clearance, though it is not routinely preferred over hemodialysis in non-critically ill cases. Clinical outcomes show no significant difference in mortality between hemofiltration and hemodialysis for AKI (relative risk 0.96, 95% CI 0.73-1.25, P=0.76 across three trials with 121 patients; sensitivity analysis RR 1.10, P=0.38 across eight trials with 540 patients). In sepsis, hemofiltration may offer an edge in reducing early organ failure due to enhanced convective clearance of cytokines, as observed in select studies, but randomized trials like the RENAL study confirm no overall survival advantage. Both modalities achieve similar rates of renal recovery, though hemofiltration is associated with shorter filter lifespan (mean difference -5.6 hours, P=0.02 across five trials with 383 patients).

Procedure and Techniques

Vascular Access and Setup

Vascular access for hemofiltration is typically achieved using a double-lumen central venous catheter inserted into the femoral, internal jugular, or subclavian vein, with the right internal jugular vein preferred due to its straight path to the right atrium. Catheters are sized 13 to 15 French (Fr) for adults to accommodate adequate blood flow rates, with lengths varying by insertion site: 12 to 15 cm for the right internal jugular, 20 to 24 cm for the left internal jugular, and at least 24 cm for femoral access to ensure tip placement in the inferior vena cava. Ultrasound guidance is recommended during placement to minimize complications such as arterial puncture or pneumothorax. The setup process begins with priming the extracorporeal circuit to remove air and manufacturing residues, typically using 1 to 2 liters of sterile saline solution infused through the blood lines and hemofilter until effluent is clear, often with added heparin to prevent initial clotting. The primed circuit is then connected to the vascular access catheter and the hemofilter, ensuring all connections are secure and air-free to avoid embolization. Blood flow is initiated gradually at 150 to 250 mL per minute, starting low to assess hemodynamic stability before increasing to the target rate for optimal solute clearance. Anticoagulation is essential to maintain circuit patency and prevent hemofilter clotting, with regional citrate anticoagulation preferred over systemic heparin due to its lower risk of bleeding and longer filter lifespan. Regional citrate involves infusing citrate pre-filter to chelate calcium and inhibit coagulation locally, followed by systemic calcium replacement to normalize patient levels, targeting post-filter ionized calcium of 0.25 to 0.5 mmol/L. Systemic heparin, administered via the circuit or intravenously, is an alternative when citrate is contraindicated, with dosing adjusted to achieve activated partial thromboplastin time in the therapeutic range, though it increases bleeding risk compared to citrate. Hemofilter selection emphasizes high-flux synthetic membranes, such as polyarylethersulfone or polymethylmethacrylate, which provide efficient convective clearance of middle-molecular-weight solutes while minimizing bioincompatibility. For adult patients, filters with a surface area of 1.5 to 2.0 m² are commonly used to achieve adequate ultrafiltration rates without excessive pressure drops, tailored to body size and prescribed effluent volume.

Replacement Fluid Management

Replacement fluids in hemofiltration are sterile, isotonic solutions designed to restore volume and maintain electrolyte balance by compensating for the ultrafiltrate removed during the convective process. These fluids are typically bicarbonate-buffered to prevent acidosis, with a standard composition including sodium at approximately 140 mEq/L, potassium at 2-4 mEq/L, calcium at 1.5-3.5 mEq/L, magnesium at 1-1.5 mEq/L, chloride at 100-110 mEq/L, and bicarbonate at 22-35 mEq/L; glucose may be included optionally at low concentrations (e.g., 100-200 mg/dL) to mimic plasma but is often omitted to avoid hyperglycemia in critically ill patients. Lactate-based alternatives exist but are less preferred due to potential accumulation in hepatic dysfunction, with guidelines recommending bicarbonate-based fluids for such cases. Administration of replacement fluids occurs in two primary modes: pre-dilution and post-dilution, each influencing hemofilter performance and patient safety. In pre-dilution mode, the fluid is infused into the bloodline before the hemofilter, diluting the blood to reduce viscosity and filtration fraction, thereby minimizing the risk of clotting and filter occlusion, though this can decrease solute clearance by up to 15-40% depending on ultrafiltration rates. Conversely, post-dilution mode infuses the fluid after the filter, allowing for higher convective clearance but increasing hemoconcentration and the potential for thrombus formation if the filtration fraction exceeds 20-25% of plasma flow. The choice between modes depends on patient hemodynamics and filter patency needs, often integrating with the vascular access setup to optimize flow dynamics. Volume of replacement fluid is calculated to achieve precise fluid balance, equaling the ultrafiltrate volume plus any targeted net fluid removal, with typical effluent doses of 20-25 mL/kg/hour in continuous hemofiltration to ensure adequate solute control without overload. For instance, if the ultrafiltration rate is 2 L/hour and a net negative balance of 100 mL/hour is desired, the replacement rate would be set at 1.9 L/hour, monitored hourly via flowsheets to adjust for insensible losses or urine output. This approach supports volume management in critically ill patients, where daily net removals might target 1-2 L to address edema without compromising perfusion. Adjustments to replacement fluid composition and rate are made based on serial laboratory assessments to address specific imbalances. For metabolic acidosis, bicarbonate concentration can be increased to 32-35 mEq/L or supplemented separately to normalize pH, particularly in sepsis where lactate clearance is enhanced by convective removal. In hyperkalemia, potassium levels in the fluid are reduced to 0-2 mEq/L or omitted, with close monitoring to prevent hypokalemia from ongoing losses; similarly, calcium adjustments via separate infusions maintain ionized levels at 1.0-1.2 mmol/L during citrate anticoagulation. These modifications ensure hemodynamic stability and metabolic homeostasis throughout treatment.

Monitoring During Treatment

During hemofiltration, key parameters of the extracorporeal circuit are continuously monitored to ensure optimal treatment delivery and prevent complications. Blood flow rate is typically maintained between 150 and 250 mL/min to achieve adequate solute clearance while minimizing the risk of clotting or access issues. Net ultrafiltration rate is prescribed based on the patient's fluid status, generally not exceeding 1.5–2.0 mL/kg/hour to avoid hemodynamic instability. Transmembrane pressure (TMP) is closely watched, with limits ideally below 300 mmHg to prevent filter clotting, as higher pressures indicate increased resistance from fouling or coagulation. Circuit pressures, including arterial and venous lines, are also tracked; deviations such as elevated venous pressure may signal kinking or thrombosis, prompting immediate adjustments like line flushing. Patient vital signs and laboratory parameters receive regular oversight to maintain physiological stability. Hourly assessments of urine output and overall fluid balance are essential, with cumulative balance calculated as the difference between ultrafiltrate removed and replacement fluid administered, targeting negative balance in fluid-overloaded states. Electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphate, are monitored every 6–12 hours initially, with adjustments to replacement fluid composition to prevent imbalances like hyperkalemia or hypocalcemia during citrate anticoagulation. Acid-base status is evaluated via arterial blood gases every 4–6 hours at treatment onset, aiming for pH normalization through bicarbonate-buffered solutions. Filter performance is evaluated periodically through sieving coefficients, which quantify solute removal efficiency (calculated as the ratio of effluent to plasma concentration for a given solute), typically approaching 1 for small molecules like but declining over time due to membrane saturation. Circuit lifespan is generally 24–72 hours, influenced by anticoagulation efficacy and filtration fraction (kept below 25–30% to reduce clotting risk), with replacement indicated if pressures rise or effluent clarity diminishes. Alarms for hypotension trigger net ultrafiltration rate reduction or temporary cessation to allow vascular refilling, while filter fouling alarms necessitate circuit replacement; disequilibrium syndrome, though rarer in continuous modalities, is mitigated by gradual ultrafiltration rate initiation in high- patients to prevent osmotic shifts.

History and Development

Early Innovations

Hemofiltration originated in the late 1960s as a convective technique to enhance the removal of larger solutes beyond what diffusion-based hemodialysis could achieve effectively. In 1967, Lee W. Henderson and colleagues first conceptualized and described blood purification through ultrafiltration of whole blood combined with fluid replacement, termed diafiltration, which laid the groundwork for by leveraging hydrostatic pressure to drive convective clearance. This approach addressed limitations in solute removal for middle- and high-molecular-weight toxins, marking a pivotal shift toward convection-dominated therapies in renal replacement. A significant milestone occurred in 1977 when Peter Kramer in Göttingen, Germany, introduced continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration (CAVH) as the first continuous application of the technique. Kramer applied CAVH to a patient suffering from acute renal failure complicated by congestive heart failure, demonstrating its utility in managing fluid overload and azotemia without the hemodynamic instability often associated with intermittent dialysis. This innovation relied on the patient's arterial pressure to drive filtration across a hollow-fiber membrane, producing ultrafiltrate at rates of 5–15 mL/min and allowing replacement with balanced fluids to maintain volume and electrolyte balance. Early adoption of hemofiltration faced substantial technical hurdles, particularly the development of biocompatible membranes capable of withstanding high ultrafiltration rates without causing hemolysis or thrombosis. Initial devices used cellophane or early synthetic membranes, but these often triggered inflammatory responses, necessitating advancements toward more inert materials like polysulfone by the late 1970s. Equally critical was ensuring sterile, pyrogen-free replacement fluids, as treatments required 40–70 liters per session, raising risks of contamination and escalating costs significantly compared to dialysis solutions. The technique represented a transition from peritoneal methods, which relied on intraperitoneal instillation of hypertonic solutions for convective fluid and solute removal but suffered from inconsistent clearance and peritonitis risks, to extracorporeal convection-based systems offering superior hemodynamic stability and precise control over fluid balance. This shift enabled hemofiltration to supplant peritoneal ultrafiltration in acute settings, providing higher efficiency for uremic toxin elimination without peritoneal membrane limitations.

Advancements in Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy

In the 1980s, continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) emerged as a key modality in continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT), transitioning from earlier arteriovenous approaches to more reliable pump-driven systems that enhanced hemodynamic stability in critically ill patients. This innovation, pioneered by incorporating blood pumps into veno-venous circuits, allowed for consistent ultrafiltration rates and broader adoption in intensive care settings. Early applications focused on sepsis, with studies by Paganini and colleagues demonstrating CVVH's utility in managing oliguric acute renal failure complicated by septic shock through continuous solute and fluid removal, reducing the risks associated with intermittent dialysis. During the 1990s and 2000s, high-volume hemofiltration (HVHF) gained prominence for its potential in cytokine removal during septic shock, building on observations that elevated convective clearances could modulate inflammatory mediators. Landmark trials, such as the randomized controlled study by Ronco et al., compared standard (20 mL/kg/h) versus higher-dose (35 or 45 mL/kg/h) CVVH in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury and sepsis, revealing improved 15-day survival with the higher doses due to enhanced middle-molecule clearance. Concurrently, Cole et al. reported hemodynamic improvements in septic shock patients treated with HVHF at 6 L/h, alongside reductions in inflammatory mediators such as complement factors C3a and C5a. Technological progress included the development of online replacement fluid generation systems, which automated sterile fluid preparation from dialysate, improving efficiency and reducing costs in prolonged CRRT sessions; this was integrated into platforms like the Prisma machine by the mid-1990s. From the 2010s onward, evidence from large randomized controlled trials refined CRRT dosing strategies, emphasizing optimization over intensification. The Acute Renal Failure Trial Network (ATN) study, involving 1,124 critically ill patients, found no mortality benefit from intensive (35 mL/kg/h) versus standard (20 mL/kg/h) CRRT dosing, highlighting the adequacy of moderate intensities while underscoring the importance of reliable dose delivery. Similarly, the Randomized Evaluation of Normal versus Augmented Level (RENAL) trial, with 1,508 participants, confirmed equivalent 90-day survival between 40 mL/kg/h and 25 mL/kg/h post-dilution CVVHDF, establishing 25-35 mL/kg/h as a supported range for balancing efficacy and resource use in acute kidney injury. Integration of hemofiltration with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) advanced during this period, enabling seamless CRRT delivery via circuit shunts to manage concurrent renal and cardiopulmonary failure, as demonstrated in protocols that minimized interruptions and improved fluid-electrolyte control in ECMO-dependent patients. In the 2020s, emphasis has shifted toward personalized CRRT dosing and biofeedback systems to tailor therapy dynamically to patient needs, addressing variability in sepsis and multiorgan failure. Dynamic dosing protocols, which adjust effluent rates based on real-time biochemical feedback (e.g., urea levels and fluid status), have shown feasibility in maintaining target clearances while reducing over- or under-dosing, as evidenced by early implementations that improved solute control without increasing complications. Biofeedback-integrated machines, incorporating sensors for automated adjustments in ultrafiltration and anticoagulation, enhance precision in resource-limited settings, with preliminary data indicating better alignment of delivered versus prescribed doses in heterogeneous ICU populations.

Complications and Outcomes

Common Complications

Hemodynamic instability, particularly hypotension, is a frequent adverse event in hemofiltration, arising from rapid fluid shifts during ultrafiltration that reduce intravascular volume and preload, potentially leading to reflex vasodilation and impaired cardiac output. In intermittent hemofiltration sessions, this complication occurs in approximately 20-30% of cases, though rates are generally lower in continuous modalities due to slower fluid removal rates. The pathophysiology involves myocardial stunning from aggressive volume management, exacerbated by underlying critical illness factors such as sepsis or vasopressor dependence, which can increase the risk of sudden cardiac arrest. Clotting and circuit failure represent major technical challenges in hemofiltration, primarily due to inadequate anticoagulation allowing activation of the coagulation cascade upon blood contact with the extracorporeal circuit, resulting in thrombus formation within the filter or tubing. This often shortens filter lifespan to less than 24 hours in 10-20% of cases, with clotting accounting for up to 29% of circuit changes across studies. Pathophysiologically, factors like high filtration fractions, low blood flow rates, or patient hypercoagulability (e.g., in or ) promote stasis and platelet aggregation, necessitating frequent circuit replacements that interrupt therapy and increase costs. Electrolyte and acid-base disturbances are common in hemofiltration owing to the convective removal of solutes and the composition of replacement fluids, which can deplete essential ions or alter pH balance. Hypophosphatemia, for instance, affects up to 65% of patients on high-intensity continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) incorporating , stemming from continuous filtration of phosphate without adequate supplementation in phosphate-free fluids, and is associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation and muscle weakness. Metabolic alkalosis may also arise from citrate-based anticoagulation, where excess citrate metabolism generates bicarbonate, potentially leading to ionized hypocalcemia if not monitored. Infection risks in hemofiltration are heightened by the need for indwelling vascular catheters, with catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSI) occurring at rates of 4-6 per 1000 catheter-days, driven by biofilm formation and bacterial colonization (e.g., Staphylococcus species) at the insertion site. Pathophysiology involves microbial migration along the catheter lumen or extraluminal routes, particularly with femoral access in obese patients, contributing to systemic sepsis and increased mortality if untreated. Nutrient loss via convection in hemofiltration leads to significant depletion of small molecules, including amino acids and water-soluble vitamins, as the semipermeable membrane non-selectively removes these solutes into the effluent. Daily amino acid losses typically range from 10-20 g, exacerbating negative nitrogen balance and malnutrition in critically ill patients already under catabolic stress. Vitamins such as B1, C, and folate are similarly affected, with losses promoting deficiencies that impair immune function and wound healing.

Management Strategies

In hemofiltration, anticoagulation protocols prioritize regional citrate anticoagulation (RCA) over systemic heparin to minimize bleeding risks while maintaining circuit patency, as supported by evidence showing reduced hemorrhagic events and prolonged filter lifespan with RCA. The KDIGO guidelines recommend RCA for continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) in patients without contraindications such as severe liver failure, targeting post-filter ionized calcium levels of 0.25-0.35 mmol/L to achieve effective local anticoagulation without systemic hypocalcemia. Heparin remains an alternative for citrate-contraindicated cases but requires vigilant monitoring for thrombocytopenia and bleeding. Hemodynamic support during hemofiltration involves proactive vasopressor administration to stabilize blood pressure, particularly in critically ill patients at risk of instability upon CRRT initiation, with protocols emphasizing a preventive dose increase prior to connection. Ultrafiltration rate (UFR) adjustments should be gradual, starting low or without net ultrafiltration in hemodynamically unstable patients, and titrated based on real-time monitoring of perfusion variables to prevent hypotension. Discontinuation of ultrafiltration is indicated if hemodynamic instability persists despite support, with protocols recommending temporary suspension and reassessment to prioritize patient stability over fluid goals. Infection control measures for hemofiltration catheters focus on strict aseptic techniques during insertion, including maximal sterile barriers such as caps, masks, gowns, gloves, and full-body drapes, to reduce catheter-related bloodstream infection (CRBSI) incidence. Daily site care involves chlorhexidine-based disinfection and secure dressings to maintain barrier integrity, with routine assessment for signs of exit-site infection. If CRBSI is suspected—evidenced by fever, bacteremia, or purulent drainage—early catheter removal is recommended, especially in cases of severe sepsis or suppurative thrombophlebitis, per IDSA guidelines, followed by systemic antibiotics and replacement via a new site. Nutritional supplementation in hemofiltration addresses significant amino acid losses in the ultrafiltrate, estimated at 10-20 g per day, through intravenous administration of amino acids to maintain nitrogen balance and prevent catabolism. ASPEN guidelines advocate for protein delivery of 2.0-2.5 g/kg/day in CRRT patients, prioritizing essential amino acids via IV routes when enteral feeding is inadequate. Weekly laboratory monitoring of serum albumin, prealbumin, and electrolytes guides adjustments to supplementation, ensuring compensation for ongoing losses without over-supplementation. Dose adjustment in hemofiltration follows KDIGO recommendations to target an effluent dose of 20-25 mL/kg/h, with reductions in intensity for cases of over-clearance indicated by complications such as hypophosphatemia or unnecessary solute removal beyond clinical needs. Frequent assessment of delivered versus prescribed dose is essential, adjusting downward if higher intensities (e.g., >25 mL/kg/h) fail to improve outcomes, as evidenced by RCTs showing no survival benefit from intensive dosing. These strategies complement management of common issues like filter clotting by optimizing therapy delivery without excess.

Outcomes

Clinical outcomes of hemofiltration as part of CRRT include hospital survival rates of approximately 40-60% in critically ill patients with , depending on underlying conditions like . Randomized controlled trials have shown no significant survival benefit compared to intermittent renal replacement therapies, though CRRT is associated with better hemodynamic stability and fewer intradialytic hypotensive episodes. Kidney function recovery occurs in 50-70% of survivors within 90 days, with similar rates across continuous and intermittent modalities as of reviews through 2023. Early initiation of CRRT may improve kidney-related recovery metrics, but overall mortality remains high due to comorbidities.

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