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Saptakanda Ramayana
Saptakanda Ramayana
Saptakanda Ramayana
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Saptakanda Ramayana is the 14th–15th century Assamese version of the Ramayana attributed to the famous Assamese poet Madhava Kandali.[1] It is considered to be one of the earliest translations from the Sanskrit into a modern regional language, preceded only by Kambar's translation into Tamil and Ranganatha's translation into Telugu, and the first translation to an Indo-Aryan language. The work is also considered one of the earliest written examples of Assamese.

Key Information

A particular feature of this work is the non-heroic portrayal of Rama, Sita, and other characters, as explicitly stated by Madhav Kandali himself, which rendered the work unsuitable for religious purposes. This feature disturbed a later poet, Ananta Kandali, who was moved enough to comment on it. The first (Adikanda) and last (Uttarakanda) cantos of Madhava Kandali's work were lost, and were later inserted by Madhavdeva and Sankardeva respectively in the 16th century. The poem has been translated into English.

The Ramayana

[edit]

The Ramayana was written upon the request of the Barāha/Varāha king Mahamanikya. At that time, his kingdom centered on central Assam[2] Kandali writes:

kavirāj kandali ye āmākese buliwāyā
kariloho sarvajana bodhe.
ramayana supa yara, shri mahamanike ye,
baraha rajar anurudhe.
sat kanda ramayana padabandhe nibandhilo
lambha parihari sarodhrite.
mahamanikyoro bolo kavyarasa kicho dilon
dugdhak mathilo yena ghrite
pandit lokar yebe asantosa upajaya
hat yore bolon shudha bak
pustak bichari yebe taite katha napawaha
tebe sabe nindiba amak.

The poetic work uses various metres for different moods and situations. Some of the metres used are pada (fourteen syllables, four lines of verses), jhumura (four lines, with eight syllables each), dulari (three charana, first and second has six syllables each and the third has eight syllables), and chhavi (like dulari, but with different syllabilic structure). The pada metre became very popular in later Assamese compositions.

Kandali adapted his work according to the taste of the common folk, in order to make it more popular. He portrays Rama and Sita as human characters, with astonishing qualities but with some human weaknesses in certain situations. The original work was based on a vision that the Boraha king was reported to have experienced, of a naked man riding an upturned bowl full of milk.

Later additions and influences

[edit]

The adi kanda (Book 1) and the uttara kanda (Book 7) were lost by the 15th century, so they were later added by Madhavdev and Srimanta Sankardeva respectively. Sankardeva writes of Kandali:

purvakavi apramadi madhav kandali adi
pade virachila rama katha
hastira dekhiya lada sasa yena phure marga
mora bhaila tenhaya avastha.

Some other additions were made by Ananta Kandali (16th century) and others.

This work has cast a strong influence on Sankardeva, and also later Assamese works. A later Karbi Ramayana was also influenced by this work.

Notes

[edit]

References

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[edit]
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Saptakanda Ramayana

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The Saptakanda Ramayana is a 14th-century Assamese of the ancient epic , composed primarily by the poet and later expanded to seven cantos (kandas) through additions by 16th-century saints and . Commissioned by the Barahi Kachari king Mahamanikya, Kandali's original work covered five kandas—Ayodhyakanda, Aranyakanda, Kishkindhakanda, Lankakanda, and Yuddhakanda—written in vernacular Assamese to make the epic accessible to the common people, reflecting the region's oral traditions and socio-cultural norms of the time. The Adikanda and Uttarakanda were appended later by and , infusing devotional elements and completing the structure to align with the epic's traditional seven-part framework. This version stands out for its localized interpretations, portraying Rama as a heroic yet human figure without the full deification seen in other retellings, and emphasizing themes of , , and regional identity within Assam's medieval literary landscape. A particularly notable aspect is the depiction of as a fierce, intellectually sharp, and defiant woman who challenges patriarchal authority, rejects subjugation, and prioritizes personal dignity over royal restoration—contrasting sharply with her more passive portrayal in Valmiki's original . As one of the earliest translations of the into an Indo-Aryan vernacular language, the Saptakanda Ramayana played a pivotal role in the development of and the , influencing subsequent regional adaptations and preserving cultural narratives through poetry rich in tadbhav vocabulary and rhythmic verse.

Background and Authorship

Madhava Kandali

Madhava Kandali, revered as Kaviraja or "king of poets," was a distinguished 14th-century scholar and poet from Assam, originating from the village of Lanka in the undivided Nagaon district, corresponding to the ancient kingdom of Davaka in central Assam. Born around the early to mid-14th century, details of his early life remain sparse, with historical records indicating he flourished during this period amid a vibrant cultural milieu that blended indigenous and Sanskrit traditions. As a key figure in pre-Vaishnava Assamese literature, Kandali's scholarly pursuits positioned him as a bridge between classical Sanskrit epics and regional vernacular expression, earning praise from later luminaries like Srimanta Sankardev for his poetic prowess. Kandali's status as a scholar-poet is underscored by his title and the devotional undertones in his compositions, which reflect the syncretic religious landscape of medieval . His primary literary endeavor, the Saptakanda Ramayana, was motivated by a desire to democratize the for ordinary Assamese speakers, translating and adapting the epic into the to enhance accessibility, infuse local idioms, and cater to popular sensibilities rather than rigid scriptural fidelity. This commission by King Mahamanikya of the Baraha dynasty further highlights his role within the royal patronage system of the era. In addition to the Ramayana, Kandali is credited with other works that expanded Assamese poetic horizons, including the narrative poem Devajit, which extols Lord Krishna as the supreme avatar of , though its attribution to him is occasionally debated among scholars. Kandali's later life remains obscure, with no definitive records of his death, though scholars estimate it occurred around the mid-14th century, marking the close of his influential career in Assamese letters.

Historical Context

The Saptakanda Ramayana was composed during the rule of the Baraha dynasty in central , specifically under the patronage of King Mahamanikya, whose kingdom centered in the Kapili valley around 1350 CE. This period marked a time of relative stability for the Baraha rulers amid regional power dynamics involving neighboring kingdoms like the Kacharis and early Ahom influences, providing a conducive environment for literary patronage. Mahamanikya commissioned the work from the poet , reflecting the dynasty's support for cultural endeavors that reinforced royal legitimacy through epic narratives. In the cultural milieu of 14th-century Assam, the rise of emerged as a response to the dominance of , which was largely confined to elite Brahminical circles. Kandali's translation of the into Assamese verse represented a broader movement to democratize access to sacred epics, allowing non-elite audiences, including commoners and regional devotees, to engage with religious stories in their native tongue. This shift promoted cultural inclusivity and helped foster a sense of shared identity in a diverse society influenced by indigenous traditions and incoming Hindu practices. Religiously, 14th-century featured a syncretic blend of , , and an emerging , with the serving as a vehicle for moral instruction and devotional cultivation amid these traditions. and held strong sway through temple worship and tantric elements, while Vaishnava influences began to gain traction, emphasizing devotion that the epic's themes of and righteousness amplified for educational purposes in local communities. Linguistically, the Saptakanda Ramayana exemplifies the emergence of Old Assamese as a distinct Indo-Aryan language, evolving from earlier forms and incorporating local idioms and phonetic shifts that distinguished it from neighboring dialects. As one of the earliest extant works in this language, it documented the transition toward a standardized suitable for poetic expression, laying foundational elements for subsequent Assamese literary development.

Composition and Structure

Original Cantos by Kandali

composed the original cantos of the Saptakanda Ramayana as a translation and adaptation of Valmiki's into early Assamese verse, encompassing the Ayodhyakanda, Aranyakanda, Kishkindhyakanda, Sundarakanda, and Yuddhakanda. Completed in the mid-14th century, this work marks the first complete vernacular rendition of the epic in an Indo-Aryan language, succeeding earlier Dravidian versions such as Kamban's in Tamil during the 12th century and Gona Budda Reddy's Ranganatha Ramayanam in Telugu in the early 13th century. Kandali's adaptation humanizes the characters, shifting emphasis from divine heroism to ethical dilemmas, as exemplified by Rama's portrayal as deeply compassionate toward devotees, even when it leads to morally ambiguous actions. The text integrates local Assamese elements, incorporating regional customs, new incidents, and Puranic motifs to resonate with contemporary audiences while deviating from Valmiki's structure in select details. In Kandali's original version, the Adi and Uttara Kandas are absent, rendering the work incomplete relative to the full seven-kanda framework; this omission contributed to the retrospective application of the title "Saptakanda" after later 16th-century additions by Madhavadeva and Srimanta Sankardev.

Later Additions to the Text

In the 16th century, the Saptakanda Ramayana underwent significant expansion when Madhavdeva and Srimanta Sankardev added the Adi Kanda and Uttara Kanda, respectively, to Madhava Kandali's original five-canto version, thereby achieving the conventional seven-canto structure associated with Ramayana adaptations. These additions completed the work by providing the omitted introductory and concluding sections, restoring a complete narrative framework while aligning the epic with contemporary religious reforms. Composed around 1550–1580 CE amid the , the new cantos formed part of the Eka-Sarana Dharma initiative led by , which sought to propagate exclusive devotion to (as ) and simplify ritualistic practices for broader accessibility. The primary rationale was to fulfill the "Saptakanda" expectation for versions, ensuring the Assamese rendition matched the structural completeness of Valmiki's original, while infusing it with Vaishnava devotional elements such as the salvific power of and 's portrayal as a divine . Madhavdeva, acting under 's guidance, contributed the Adi Kanda, which introduces the epic's prelude and 's birth, thereby setting a devotional foundation from the outset. Sankardev's Uttara Kanda concludes the epic with post-exile events, including Sita's fate, and explicitly incorporates exhortations absent in the core text. Unlike Kandali's humanistic emphasis on the characters' human virtues and moral dilemmas, these later sections adopt a markedly devotional tone, prioritizing surrender to Rama's divinity to advance Eka-Sarana ideals and counter prevailing ritualism. This integration not only preserved the epic's literary integrity but also transformed it into a vehicle for religious propagation in Assamese society.

Content and Themes

Plot Overview

The Saptakanda Ramayana is a 14th-century Assamese adaptation of Valmiki's Ramayana, structured into seven kandas that largely follow the original epic's narrative framework while incorporating regional linguistic and cultural elements. Kandali composed five kandas—Ayodhyakanda, Aranyakanda, Kishkindhakanda, Lankakanda, and Yuddhakanda—emphasizing human virtues and moral dilemmas, with the Adikanda and Uttarakanda added later by Madhavdeva and Sankaradeva, respectively, to complete the seven-canto format. The overall arc traces Prince Rama's journey from divine origins and exile to victory over evil and restoration of dharma, underscoring themes of loyalty, righteousness, and personal struggles within an Assamese context. The Adikanda, added later, serves as a cosmological prelude, detailing the universe's creation, the gods' plea to for incarnation as to vanquish , and prophetic visions of the ensuing events, including Rama's birth and marriage. The Ayodhyakanda shifts to court intrigue, where promises his wife two boons, leading to Rama's 14-year exile decree to honor her wish for her son Bharata's ascension; Dasharatha's grief causes his death, and , , and depart for the forest despite protests from the kingdom. The Aranyakanda depicts the exiles' forest life, marked by encounters with demons like Viradha and , whose advances Rama rejects, prompting her brother to abduct after Jatayu's failed rescue attempt; this canto highlights the perils of wilderness exile and the onset of conflict. In the Kishkindhakanda, Rama allies with the monkey king , slaying his brother Vali in a from hiding to restore Sugriva's throne, with emerging as a devoted ally who leads the search for . The Lankakanda focuses on 's journey to , where he discovers in captivity and reports back to Rama, setting the stage for the confrontation. The Yuddhakanda culminates in the epic war, where Rama's forces bridge the ocean, and after fierce battles, Rama defeats with divine aid, rescuing and affirming his adherence to . The Uttarakanda, appended later, recounts the triumphant return to , Rama's coronation, and the tragic trial of Sita's purity amid public rumors, leading to her abandonment; in this version, Sita asserts her dignity and autonomy, rejecting further subjugation by descending to the earth, followed by the twins' birth, upbringing, and eventual reunion with Rama. Throughout, the epic maintains fidelity to Valmiki's plot while adapting dialogues and episodes to resonate with Assamese audiences, portraying characters with heightened emotional depth and regional nuances.

Character Portrayals and Themes

In the Saptakanda Ramayana by , is depicted as a relatable human king grappling with moral conflicts and personal dilemmas, rather than an infallible divine avatar as in Valmiki's version, emphasizing his earthly struggles with duty and relationships in a secular . This humanized portrayal underscores 's internal tensions, such as balancing kingship with familial obligations, making him a figure of everyday ethical quandaries accessible to Assamese audiences. Sita emerges as a fierce and defiant figure with significant agency, particularly during her abduction and the subsequent trial by fire, where she asserts her autonomy and rejects passive victimhood by prioritizing personal dignity over reunion with . In Kandali's adaptation, Sita embodies as an active force, challenging directly and critiquing patriarchal norms, as seen in her bold confrontations that highlight her emotional depth and resistance to injustice, diverging from Valmiki's more subdued depiction. This regionally inflected portrayal positions Sita as an empowered woman who embodies defiance, transforming her into a symbol of female strength in Assamese literary tradition. Hanuman is rendered as a devoted ally infused with local Assamese cultural nuances, portraying him as a steadfast companion whose loyalty to reflects community bonds and regional elements, rather than solely superhuman feats. , meanwhile, serves as a complex antagonist driven by , depicted with scholarly depth and tragic flaws that humanize his villainy, illustrating the perils of unchecked ambition within an earthly moral framework. Central themes in the Saptakanda Ramayana revolve around dharma as an integral part of daily life, portraying ethical dilemmas through relatable human interactions rather than grand cosmic battles, and integrating Assamese values like community harmony and familial interdependence. Gender roles are explored through empowered female figures like Sita, who challenge traditional subservience, promoting motifs of dignity and agency that resonate with subaltern and feminist reinterpretations in Northeast Indian contexts. Overall, these elements prioritize ethical harmony and social cohesion over epic heroism, adapting the narrative to reflect local Assamese ethics of mutual support and moral introspection.

Literary Style and Language

Poetic Metres and Forms

The , composed by in the 14th century, primarily utilizes the , a four-line where each line consists of fourteen syllables, enabling a steady flow suitable for epic storytelling. This form, rooted in traditions, allows for rhythmic and emphasizes simplicity over complex conventions. Kandali's choice of reflects his intent to make the epic accessible to everyday audiences in medieval , as it mirrors the oral patterns of local . Later expansions to the text, including the Adi Kanda added by and the Uttara Kanda added by in the 16th century, introduce devotional elements aligned with the , infusing the kandas with spiritual resonance suitable for ritualistic recitations in sattras (Vaishnava monasteries). This evolution maintains the pada foundation but layers in bhakti-oriented content to align with their reformist vision of devotional literature. Overall, these poetic metres and forms render the Saptakanda highly adaptable for village gatherings and oral traditions, fostering a sense of communal participation that distinguishes it from the more formal . By prioritizing rhythmic accessibility and folk elements, Kandali and his successors ensured the epic's enduring role in Assamese cultural expression.

Linguistic Features

The Saptakanda Ramayana exemplifies the linguistic characteristics of Old Assamese, a dialect that emerged as a distinct Indo-Aryan vernacular in the 14th century, blending influences from Sanskrit, local Indo-Aryan substrates, and Austroasiatic languages such as Khasi and Kolarian (Munda). Its vocabulary features a significant incorporation of Sanskrit loanwords, adapted through phonetic simplification to suit regional speech patterns, alongside indigenous terms that reflect everyday life and local flora, fauna, and kinship relations. For instance, Sanskrit-derived words like satiyari (from sapatni, meaning co-wife) coexist with homely local expressions such as zui for fire (distinct from Bengali agun), kakal for waist (from Sanskrit kar\kala), and kakai for elder brother (of possible Austroasiatic origin), while younger sibling terms like bhai retain Aryan roots. This lexical fusion simplifies complex Sanskrit concepts for lay audiences, evident in compound formations like solerjg (from cholar\ga, referring to a type of bird) and cheg (from chidra-bhagna, meaning perforated), as well as affixations such as -ariya, -bāñc, and -gila to denote relational nuances. Phonetic processes further streamline the vocabulary, including nasal reductions to mere nasalization in consonant clusters and voicing shifts like -k- to -g- in words such as bagali. In terms of syntax and grammar, the text draws on Apabhramsha influences, resulting in flexible sentence structures that prioritize narrative flow in verse form while introducing prose-like elements unprecedented in prior Assamese poetry. Conjunctive participles, such as hani-ere (meaning "does pierce"), and past participles in forms like -ila or -iba- (e.g., maribara prajd, denoting "slain people") facilitate concise, chained clauses suited to poetic rhythm. Grammatical innovations include personal endings on nouns of relationship, possibly influenced by Austroasiatic substrates, as in bopdi for "my father," and mechanisms to avoid vowel hiatus through contraction. A distinctive feature is the prefixing of negatives directly to verb roots, a trait unique to Assamese among related languages, enhancing the text's idiomatic expressiveness. The of the Saptakanda Ramayana represents an early adaptation of the Eastern Nagari script to capture Assamese phonetics, incorporating unique symbols for sounds absent or underrepresented in standard writing. It features specialized notations for diphthongs like ai and , the glottal fricative denoted as x, and a new symbol for the w-glide, while vowels i and u lack length distinctions, and palatal sounds shift to dentals (e.g., c rendered as s). Shortening of anterior -a- before another -a- further aligns the script with spoken Assamese prosody. As the oldest surviving literary text in Assamese, the establishes a fully individualized linguistic idiom that profoundly influences the development of modern standard Assamese, including its phonological patterns like diphthongization and syntactic flexibility. This foundational role underscores its contribution to the language's evolution from medieval vernaculars to contemporary usage.

Cultural and Literary Influence

Impact on Assamese Literature

The Saptakanda Ramayana by Madhava Kandali profoundly influenced subsequent Assamese literary traditions, particularly through its role in inspiring the Bhakti movement. Srimanta Sankardev (1449–1568), the founder of Assamese Vaishnavism, drew extensively from Kandali's vernacular retelling, incorporating Ramayana motifs into his devotional works like the Kirtana-Ghosha, a collection of over 2,400 verses emphasizing bhakti devotion to Rama as an avatar of Vishnu. This adaptation helped shape 16th–17th century Vaishnava literature, where Sankardev and his disciple Madhavdeva infused the epic's narratives with emotional and humanistic bhakti elements, making it accessible for congregational singing and dramatic performances such as Ankia Nat. Sankardev even composed an Uttarakanda to complete Kandali's five-canto version, addressing perceived gaps in devotional depth while preserving the epic's core human drama. As a pioneering epic—the first full translation into any Indo-Aryan language—the Saptakanda Ramayana established the genre of regional epics in , influencing who expanded on its narrative framework. In the 17th century, Ananta Kandali, a Vaishnava , built upon this tradition in works like Mahiravana Badha, which dramatizes the slaying of the demon Mahiravana, a supplementary episode from the lore, blending epic storytelling with fervor. This legacy extended to prose adaptations, such as Raghunath Mahanta's 18th-century Ramayana, reinforcing the epic's centrality in Assamese poetic and narrative forms. The text's impact reached beyond mainstream Assamese literature into regional and tribal adaptations, serving as a foundational source for Northeast Indian retellings. It provided the narrative basis for the Karbi Ramayana, known as Sabin Alun, an oral and musical tradition among the that integrates characters with indigenous animistic elements, such as invoking local deities alongside Rama's journey. This cross-cultural influence highlights how Kandali's work facilitated the epic's localization in Assam's diverse ethnic contexts. Scholars regard the Saptakanda Ramayana as a vital bridge between classical and modern Assamese expression, transitioning from elite and idioms to everyday forms that emphasized human virtues over divine abstraction. By rendering Valmiki's epic in 14th-century Old Assamese, Kandali not only democratized the but also laid the groundwork for the evolution of Assamese prose and poetry, influencing socio-cultural themes in later humanist works.

Adaptations and Modern Relevance

The Saptakanda Ramayana has seen selective English translations in the modern era, with Tilottoma Misra's 2024 publication Sita's Voice in the Assamese Rāmāyaṇa: Selected Verses from the Rāmāyaṇa of Mādhava Kandalī and the Uttarakāṇḍa of Śaṅkaradeva rendering key passages that emphasize Sita's agency and verbal assertiveness, drawing from Kandalī's original text and Śaṅkaradeva's additions. This academic edition highlights Sita's confrontations with patriarchal expectations, such as her rebuke of Rāma as "death incarnate" and her refusal to prioritize kingdom over personal dignity, contrasting with more subdued portrayals in other regional variants. In performance traditions, the text has been adapted into bhaona, Assam's classical folk theatre form originating from Śaṅkaradeva's ankiya nat plays, which incorporate episodes from the Saptakanda Ramayana to dramatize Rāma's exile and battles through song, dance, and masked enactments. These adaptations extend to community folk dramas staged during annual festivals like Rāma Navamī and Dussehrā in Assam, where local troupes retell the epic's narratives to reinforce cultural identity and moral teachings. Contemporary relevance of the Saptakanda Ramayana includes feminist interpretations that reframe Sita's character as a symbol of defiance against gender norms, as explored in Misra's work, where her outbursts—such as accusing Lakṣmaṇa of cruelty or empathizing with oppressed rākṣasī women—underscore themes of intellectual autonomy and resistance to subjugation. In education, it forms a core component of Assamese literature curricula at undergraduate levels, promoting regional linguistic heritage through studies of its poetic structure and thematic depth. Digital archives, such as those hosted by the Internet Archive, preserve scanned editions and facilitate global access, contributing to the safeguarding of this intangible cultural heritage amid broader UNESCO efforts to recognize epic traditions like Rāmleelā. In global Ramayana studies, the Saptakanda Ramayana enriches by illustrating Northeast Indian variants, where its humanized portrayals of deities and emphasis on local diverge from Sanskritic norms, influencing analyses of regional adaptations across . This perspective highlights Assam's role in diversifying the epic's transmission, fostering interdisciplinary scholarship on identity and .

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