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Learning cycle
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A learning cycle is a concept of how people learn from experience. A learning cycle will have a number of stages or phases, the last of which can be followed by the first.

John Dewey

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In 1933 (based on work first published in 1910), John Dewey described five phases or aspects of reflective thought:

In between, as states of thinking, are (1) suggestions, in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution; (2) an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity that has been felt (directly experienced) into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought; (3) the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis, to initiate and guide observation and other operations in the collection of factual material; (4) the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition (reasoning, in the sense in which reasoning is a part, not the whole of inference); and (5) testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action.

— John Dewey, How We Think, revised edition, 1933[1]

Kurt Lewin

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In the 1940s, Kurt Lewin developed action research and described a cycle of:

  1. Planning
  2. Action
  3. Fact finding, about the result of the action

Lewin particularly highlighted the need for fact finding, which he felt was missing from much of management and social work. He contrasted this to the military where

the attack is pressed home and immediately a reconnaissance plane follows with the one objective of determining as accurately and objectively as possible the new situation. This reconnaissance or fact-finding has four functions. First it should evaluate the action. It shows whether what has been achieved is above or below expectation. Secondly, it gives the planners a chance to learn, that is, to gather new general insight, for instance, regarding the strength and weakness of certain weapons or techniques of action. Thirdly, this fact-finding should serve as a basis for correctly planning the next step. Finally, it serves as a basis for modifying the "overall plan."

— Kurt Lewin, Action Research and Minority Problems, 1946[2]

Kolb and Fry

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Further information: Learning styles § David Kolb's model, and Kolb's experiential learning

In the early 1970s, David A. Kolb and Ronald E. Fry developed the experiential learning model (ELM), composed of four elements:[3]

  1. Concrete experience
  2. Observation of and reflection on that experience
  3. Formation of abstract concepts based upon the reflection
  4. Testing the new concepts

Testing the new concepts gives concrete experience which can be observed and reflected upon, allowing the cycle to continue.

Kolb integrated this learning cycle with a theory of learning styles, wherein each style prefers two of the four parts of the cycle. The cycle is quadrisected by a horizontal and vertical axis. The vertical axis represents how knowledge can be grasped, through concrete experience or through abstract conceptualization, or by a combination of both. The horizontal axis represents how knowledge is transformed or constructed through reflective observation or active experimentation. These two axes form the four quadrants that can be seen as four stages: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation (AE) and as four styles of learning: diverging, assimilating, converging and accommodating.[4] The concept of learning styles has been criticised, see Learning styles § Criticism.

Honey and Mumford

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In the 1980s, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed Kolb and Fry's ideas into a slightly different learning cycle.[5] The stages are:

  1. Doing something, having an experience
  2. Reflecting on the experience
  3. Concluding from the experience, developing a theory
  4. Planning the next steps, to apply or test the theory

While the cycle can be entered at any of the four stages, a cycle must be completed to give learning that will change behaviour. The cycle can be performed multiple times to build up layers of learning.

Honey and Mumford gave names (also called learning styles) to the people who prefer to enter the cycle at different stages: Activist, Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist. Honey and Mumford's learning styles questionnaire has been criticized for poor reliability and validity.[6]

5E

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In the late 1980s, the 5E learning cycle was developed by Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, specifically for use in teaching science.[7] The learning cycle has four phases:

  1. Engage, in which a student's interest is captured and the topic is established.
  2. Explore, in which the student is allowed to construct knowledge in the topic through facilitated questioning and observation.
  3. Explain, in which students are asked to explain what they have discovered, and the instructor leads a discussion of the topic to refine the students' understanding.
  4. Extend, in which students are asked to apply what they have learned in different but similar situations, and the instructor guides the students toward the next discussion topic.

The fifth E stands for Evaluate, in which the instructor observes each student's knowledge and understanding, and leads students to assess whether what they have learned is true. Evaluation should take place throughout the cycle, not within its own set phase.

Launch, Inquire, Act (LIA) Framework

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The LIA Framework was designed by the Australian Academy of Science's Primary Connections team to address a stated need from surveyed teachers for an online resource that “allows teachers to readily select, adapt and build their own program of work within the framework of Australia’s science curriculum. Coinciding with the continuing uptake of Version 9.0 of the Australian Curriculum in 2024, a new suite of online resources are being developed for Foundation to Year 10 that align with the updated curriculum and with the LIA framework while maintaining more adaptable, clearly framed lessons for teachers during the implementation[8] .  

The LIA Framework begins with the “Launch” phase, which was designed to engage students and provide both motivation and context for their learning. The Launch phase encourages students to begin scientific inquiry on a topic through common experiences that connect with their lives (for example, by having students walk into a darkened classroom with all electricity turned off to demonstrate the importance of electricity). This allows all students to develop a common language and provides equity in learning. Next is the “Inquire” phase, which consists of cycles of inquiry, promoting deepening understanding.  Students improve their knowledge of a topic via questioning, investigations, and contextual integration (for example, how a torch can be made with a battery, wires, and a bulb: experimenting with different forms of circuits). The last phase, “Act”, aims to empower students to act on their newly acquired knowledge and skills. It encourages students to have agency by designing new ways to interact with the world via science (for example, using their circuitry experiments to design an electrical product to support people in a blackout)[8].

Alistair Smith

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In the 1990s, Alistair Smith developed the accelerated learning cycle, also for use in teaching.[9] The phases are:[10]

  1. Create the supportive learning environment – safe but stimulating
  2. Connect the learning – useful knowledge we already have
  3. Give the big picture
  4. Describe the learning outcomes we want to achieve
  5. Input – new information to enable the activity
  6. Activity
  7. Demonstrate the findings of the activity
  8. Review for recall and retention

Unlike other learning cycles, step 8 is normally followed by step 2, rather than step 1.

ALACT

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In the 2000s, Fred Korthagen and Angelo Vasalos (and others) developed the ALACT model, specifically for use in personal development.[11] The five phases of the ALACT cycle are:

  1. Action
  2. Looking back on the action
  3. Aspects of essential awareness
  4. Creating alternative methods of action
  5. Trial

As with Kolb and Fry, trial is an action that can be looked back on. Korthagen and Vasalos listed coaching interventions for each phase.[11]

Levels of reflection

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See also: Coherence therapy § Hierarchical organization of constructs, and Onion model § In psychology

Korthagen and Vasalos also described an onion model of "levels of reflection" (from inner to outer: mission, identity, beliefs, competencies, behavior, environment) inspired by Gregory Bateson's hierarchy of logical types.[11] In 2010, they connected their model of reflective learning to the practice of mindfulness and to Otto Scharmer's Theory U, which, in contrast to a learning cycle, emphasizes reflecting on a desired future rather than on past experience.[12]: 539–545 

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Learning cycle

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The learning cycle is a model of that describes the process of acquiring knowledge through a continuous cycle of stages, typically involving concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. This framework, rooted in constructivist theories, emphasizes active engagement and reflection to build understanding across various educational contexts. Prominent examples include David Kolb's model (1984) for general and professional learning, and the inquiry-based approach in science education, which organizes instruction around phases of exploration, concept development, and application. The variant originated in the late 1950s through the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS), developed by Jerome Karplus and J. Myron Atkin to promote hands-on, over rote , drawing on Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development. In its classic three-phase form—exploration (hands-on activities to gather data), (guided discussion to form concepts), and expansion (applying concepts to new situations)—it fosters , retention, and positive attitudes toward science. Research supports its effectiveness in enhancing achievement, reasoning, and process skills compared to traditional lectures, particularly in settings. A key evolution is the 5E model, developed by the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) in the 1980s, adding engage (to spark interest and assess prior knowledge), explore (investigation), explain (concept clarification), elaborate (extension), and evaluate (assessment). This constructivist framework aligns with standards like the National Science Education Standards, offering flexibility for diverse learners and integrated assessment.

Introduction

Definition

The learning cycle is an inquiry-based instructional model primarily in science education that structures teaching around sequential phases of student , invention or , and application or expansion, promoting active and conceptual understanding through hands-on activities. This approach emphasizes learner-centered discovery over rote memorization, allowing students to build knowledge from empirical experiences in a cyclical process that can iterate based on new insights or challenges. Unlike traditional linear models that proceed unidirectionally from instruction to assessment, the learning cycle supports flexibility by enabling revisitation of phases as understanding evolves, fostering adaptive and deeper learning. The term "learning cycle" typically refers to this structured sequence in educational settings, often called the "instructional learning cycle" in contexts, with core phases including (hands-on investigation), (teacher-facilitated formation), and expansion (application to new situations).

Core Principles

The learning cycle follows a foundational three-phase archetype tailored to science instruction: exploration, where learners engage directly with materials or phenomena through guided activities to gather data and observations; invention, in which teachers facilitate discussions to help students construct formal concepts and explanations from their findings; and expansion, involving the application and extension of these concepts to novel contexts or problems. This progression integrates active doing with cognitive reflection, ensuring knowledge construction through dynamic interaction rather than passive reception. At its core, the model aligns with constructivist learning theory, asserting that students actively build scientific understanding through personal experiences and environmental interactions, rather than solely from authoritative sources. It prioritizes inquiry-driven engagement, where learners interpret data and refine ideas based on evidence, enhancing retention, , and relevance in science. This contrasts with didactic approaches by empowering student agency in the learning process to boost and conceptual grasp. The cyclical nature allows for iterative refinement, with repeated cycles building progressively on prior knowledge in a spiral toward advanced understanding. Cognitive disequilibrium, arising from discrepancies between experiences and existing ideas, propels this process, prompting reflection, reconceptualization, and further exploration to achieve resolution. For instance, an unanticipated result in an experiment may challenge preconceptions, leading to adjusted hypotheses in later phases. This draws from Jean Piaget's ideas of assimilation and accommodation, integrating new information or modifying schemas to address inconsistencies.

Historical Development

While early thinkers like Dewey and Lewin laid groundwork for experiential learning, the learning cycle model was formally developed in the late 1950s by Jerome Karplus and J. Myron Atkin through the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS), drawing on Piaget's ideas of to promote inquiry-based .

John Dewey's Contributions

, born on October 20, 1859, in , was a pivotal American philosopher and educator whose ideas on profoundly shaped in the early . His work emphasized the integration of active experience with reflective thought, laying foundational concepts for cyclical models of learning that continue to influence modern . In 1896, Dewey established the Laboratory School, an experimental institution that operated until 1904, where he implemented his philosophy of "," rooted in . At the school, students engaged in hands-on activities such as , cooking, and , which were designed to foster problem-solving and intellectual growth through direct interaction with the environment, rather than rote memorization. These practices demonstrated Dewey's belief that should reconstruct experiences to promote continuous personal and social development, as evidenced by the school's collaborative that integrated arts, sciences, and community involvement. Dewey's 1916 book, , further elaborated on these principles, arguing that education is the process of continuous reconstruction of , linking individual growth to democratic participation. He posited that genuine learning occurs when experiences are actively reflected upon and adjusted, enabling learners to adapt and expand their understanding in a cyclical manner that supports both personal maturity and societal progress. Building on this, Dewey's 1933 revised edition of How We Think introduced reflective thinking as a structured cycle involving the identification of a problematic situation, the formation of hypotheses, reasoned elaboration, and empirical testing, followed by revision based on outcomes. This process, which Dewey described as transforming doubt into clarity through , underscored the iterative nature of learning and its role in cultivating critical habits of mind. Dewey's cyclical framework of has directly influenced later models, such as David Kolb's, by highlighting the interplay of experience and reflection.

Kurt Lewin's Influence

Kurt Lewin, a German-born who emigrated from in 1933 as a Jewish , contributed to the theoretical foundations of experiential and cyclical learning approaches through his development of field theory and in the mid-20th century, influencing later models with similar iterative elements. After emigrating to the , Lewin held a position at from 1933 to 1935, then joined the faculty at the from 1935 to 1945, before moving to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1945, where he founded the Research Center for in 1945 to study group behavior and . His work emphasized learning as a dynamic process embedded in social and environmental contexts, influencing later models of cyclical learning by highlighting iterative interactions between individuals and their surroundings. Lewin passed away suddenly in 1947, leaving a legacy that bridged psychological theory with practical application in group settings. Central to Lewin's contributions was his field theory, developed in , which posited that is a function of both the person and their environment, encapsulated in the formula B=f(P,E)B = f(P, E). This topological approach viewed the psychological "life space"—the individual's total field of influences at any moment—as a dynamic system where learning emerges from tensions and forces within interdependent regions, rather than isolated internal processes. Applied to learning cycles, field theory underscored the cyclical interplay between personal experiences and external conditions, suggesting that effective learning requires ongoing adjustments to environmental forces, such as group norms or social pressures, to resolve behavioral conflicts. This perspective shifted educational and toward viewing learning as a holistic, iterative process in real-world contexts, influencing the emphasis on reflection and in subsequent cyclical models. In 1946, Lewin formalized as a spiral process that directly embodied the cyclical nature of learning, particularly in social and . He described it as an iterative cycle involving (reconnaissance to identify issues), (implementing changes), observing (gathering on outcomes), and reflecting (analyzing results to inform re-planning), forming a continuous spiral of improvement. This method was initially applied to address minority problems and social conflicts, demonstrating how collaborative, reflective cycles could facilitate learning and change in democratic group settings. Lewin's spiral thus provided a practical framework for , emphasizing empirical validation and iterative refinement in applied social contexts, distinct from purely philosophical approaches.

Experiential Learning Models

Kolb and Fry's Model

David A. Kolb and Roger Fry's model, a of theory, outlines a four-stage cyclical process through which individuals transform concrete experiences into abstract concepts and new behaviors. This framework emphasizes that learning is an iterative process driven by experience, rather than passive absorption of information. The model was first detailed in a 1975 chapter by Kolb and Fry and further developed in Kolb's seminal 1984 book, Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, where it serves as the theoretical foundation for understanding how experience fuels personal growth and development. The theory draws on the works of three key thinkers: , who highlighted the role of active engagement in learning; , whose emphasized iterative cycles of planning, acting, and reflecting; and , whose stages of underscored the adaptation of mental structures through interaction with the environment. By synthesizing these influences, Kolb and Fry proposed a holistic model that integrates , , and in a dynamic learning loop. The four stages of the cycle are as follows:
  • Concrete Experience (CE): The learner encounters a new situation or engages directly with a task, emphasizing feeling and experiencing without judgment. This stage initiates the cycle by providing raw sensory input.
  • Reflective Observation (RO): The learner reviews and reflects on the experience from multiple perspectives, often by observing outcomes or discussing with others. This stage focuses on watching and understanding implications.
  • Abstract Conceptualization (AC): The learner analyzes the reflections to form logical theories, generalizations, or models. This thinking-oriented stage involves creating concepts to explain the experience.
  • Active Experimentation (AE): The learner applies the new ideas to the world through planning and testing, leading to practical problem-solving. This doing-focused stage closes the loop by generating new experiences.
The cycle is represented as a continuous loop, where active experimentation feeds back into concrete experience, allowing learning to spiral iteratively rather than linearly; it can begin at any stage depending on the learner's entry point. A textual illustrates this flow: Concrete Experience (CE) → Reflective Observation (RO) → Abstract Conceptualization (AC) → Active Experimentation (AE) → (back to) Concrete Experience (CE) This structure underscores the model's adaptability to diverse learning contexts, such as or professional . From preferences across these stages, Kolb derived four learning styles, each representing a combination of dominant modes:
  • Diverging (CE and RO): Learners who excel at imaginative and empathetic approaches, generating ideas through observation.
  • Assimilating (RO and AC): Learners who prioritize logical analysis and theoretical models, focusing on concise concepts.
  • Converging (AC and AE): Learners who apply theories practically, emphasizing problem-solving and experimentation.
  • Accommodating (AE and CE): Learners who thrive on hands-on action and intuition, adapting quickly to changing circumstances.
These styles are assessed using the Learning Style Inventory (LSI), a self-report first published by Kolb in 1976 and revised in 1999 to enhance reliability and validity. Further revised as the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (KLSI) version 4.0 in 2011, incorporating a larger normative sample of over 10,000 respondents to improve validity. The tool measures tendencies on two dimensions—accommodative vs. assimilative and diverging vs. converging—helping individuals identify strengths and areas for balanced development.

Honey and Mumford's Adaptation

Peter Honey and Alan Mumford adapted David Kolb's experiential learning cycle in 1986 to create a more practical framework tailored for , particularly in contexts. Their model relabels Kolb's four stages into that emphasize individual preferences: Activists (corresponding to Kolb's Accommodating style, emphasizing CE and AE), who thrive on new challenges and hands-on activities; Reflectors (corresponding to Diverging style, emphasizing CE and RO), who prefer observing and pondering experiences; Theorists (corresponding to Assimilating style, emphasizing RO and AC), who favor logical analysis and theory-building; and Pragmatists (corresponding to Converging style, emphasizing AC and AE), who focus on practical application of ideas. This adaptation shifts the emphasis from a rigid cycle to flexible styles, enabling trainers to design sessions that accommodate diverse preferences in adult learning environments. The core of Honey and Mumford's approach is the Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ), first introduced in 1986 and revised in 1992, which serves as a tool comprising 80 items to diagnose an individual's dominant style or balanced profile. The LSQ provides detailed feedback, including strategies for each style—such as group discussions for Activists, quiet reflection time for Reflectors, structured models for Theorists, and real-world problem-solving for Pragmatists—to enhance learning effectiveness. By promoting awareness of these preferences, the encourages learners to adapt their approaches, fostering greater self-directed development in settings. Honey and Mumford's seminal work, detailed in The Manual of Learning Styles (1986), underscores the importance of as a foundation for optimizing learning outcomes among professionals. The manual outlines how recognizing one's style can mitigate weaknesses, such as an Activist's tendency to overlook details or a Pragmatist's resistance to untested theories, thereby supporting more balanced engagement with the learning cycle. This focus on practical diagnostics and style-specific tactics has made their adaptation a staple in , prioritizing actionable insights over theoretical abstraction.

Instructional and Reflective Models

5E Model

The BSCS 5E Instructional Model is an inquiry-based framework designed specifically for , structuring lessons to promote active student engagement and conceptual development. Developed by the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), it consists of five sequential phases: Engage, to motivate and access prior ; Explore, to facilitate hands-on investigation; Explain, to introduce and clarify scientific concepts; Elaborate, to apply in new contexts; and Evaluate, to assess understanding and progress. This model aligns with broader principles by emphasizing student-centered discovery before . The model's origins trace to the 1960s Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) program, which introduced a three-phase learning cycle of , , and discovery, drawing from Jean Piaget's theories of through assimilation and accommodation. In the 1980s, BSCS formalized the model with support from an IBM grant, expanding the SCIS cycle by adding the Engage phase at the beginning to spark interest and the Evaluate phase at the end to reinforce assessment, creating a comprehensive instructional sequence for K-12 science curricula. It was first fully integrated and published in the 1997 textbook BSCS Biology: A Human Approach, marking its widespread adoption in classroom materials. Research demonstrates the 5E model's effectiveness in enhancing conceptual understanding in K-12 . A 2006 BSCS report reviewed over 50 studies on learning cycle approaches, including 5E implementations, finding consistent gains in subject matter mastery, scientific reasoning, and student interest compared to traditional didactic methods; for instance, high-fidelity use of the model in units yielded a 28% in conceptual gains. Field tests of BSCS programs using the 5E model, such as Science for and Living, showed significant pre- to post-test improvements in seven of eight cognitive outcomes, with effect sizes indicating medium to large impacts on student achievement. These findings underscore the model's role in fostering deeper learning through structured .

ALACT Model

The ALACT model, developed by Dutch educational researcher Fred Korthagen, serves as a structured five-phase cycle for promoting and professional growth, with a particular emphasis on . Introduced in 1985, the model originated in the as part of efforts to bridge theory and practice in professional training programs. It guides individuals through a systematic process of learning from experience, encouraging deeper self-examination beyond surface-level analysis. The model's phases are: (1) Action, involving concrete engagement in a professional task or experience; (2) Looking back, where the individual reflects on what occurred during the action; (3) Awareness of essential aspects, focusing on identifying key patterns, feelings, and influences; (4) Creating alternatives, generating new conceptual understandings or strategies based on the reflection; and (5) , applying the newly formed ideas in practice to test their effectiveness. This cyclical structure supports iterative learning, allowing professionals to refine their skills through repeated application. A core feature of the ALACT model is its promotion of "core reflection," which delves into deeper psychological levels such as , mission, and professional identity to foster transformative growth rather than superficial adjustments. This approach draws on concepts, particularly the idea of holistic "gestalt" experiences that integrate unconscious and conscious elements of one's professional self. In teacher training programs, the model is widely applied to help educators process classroom experiences, enhance , and align personal values with teaching practices. Korthagen elaborated on the model's theoretical foundations and practical implementation in the seminal 2001 book Linking Practice and Theory: The Pedagogy of Realistic Teacher Education, co-authored with Jos Kessels, Bob Koster, Bram Lagerwerf, and Theo Wubbels, which outlines its integration into realistic curricula. The ALACT framework shares structural similarities with David Kolb's experiential learning cycle, particularly in sequencing experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation.

Alistair Smith's Accelerated Learning Cycle

Alistair Smith's Accelerated Learning Cycle is a structured instructional framework developed in the during the 1990s to optimize teaching efficiency in settings by aligning educational practices with cognitive and neurological insights. Originating from Smith's work as an educator and , the model emphasizes creating engaging, brain-compatible learning experiences to boost student and retention, particularly in primary and secondary classrooms. It builds on earlier cycles, such as Kolb's, by integrating motivational and multisensory elements tailored for formal education. The cycle consists of seven sequential stages designed to guide teachers through a complete or unit: Create the , Connect, Create the Challenge, Explore, Navigate, Celebrate, and . In the Create the stage, educators establish a positive, low-threat atmosphere to reduce anxiety and foster security. The Connect stage links new material to students' prior knowledge, activating existing schemas. Create the Challenge then presents clear objectives and the "big picture" to build purpose and excitement. During Explore, learners independently investigate concepts through guided . Navigate involves collaborative application and problem-solving to deepen understanding. Celebrate reinforces success with and recognition, while the final stage consolidates learning and previews future connections. These stages, outlined in Smith's foundational texts, ensure a balanced progression from to reflection. Central to the model are brain-based principles that promote holistic engagement, including Howard Gardner's to address diverse learner strengths and the VAK (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) modalities for multisensory input. Smith advocates for low-threat environments that minimize fear of failure while maintaining high challenge levels, drawing on research into attention spans, stress responses, and to enhance memory formation and . This approach encourages short, varied activities interspersed with "brain breaks" to sustain focus, as excessive can hinder retention. Practitioner reports from schools implementing the cycle in the early highlight improved student engagement and academic outcomes, with teachers noting increased enthusiasm and higher-quality work within months of adoption. For instance, at Brickhouse Junior and in , the model transformed low-attainment classrooms into vibrant learning spaces, corroborated by elevated pass rates at institutions like Community High School, rising from 55% to 73% over five years. These accounts underscore the cycle's practical impact on without relying on extensive empirical studies at the time.

Applications and Impact

In Classroom Education

In K-12 science classrooms, the 5E learning cycle is commonly implemented to structure hands-on experiments that promote active engagement and . For instance, during the exploration phase, students might conduct simple lab activities, followed by where they assess their hypotheses against data collected. This approach aligns with inquiry-based teaching by guiding students from initial curiosity to deeper conceptual understanding through structured phases. The 5E model integrates effectively with (PBL) in higher education and upper elementary settings, where students apply cycle phases to extended projects. In this combined framework, the and stages spark initial ideas, while elaboration allows teams to and refine solutions based on peer feedback and testing, fostering and real-world problem-solving. Such integration has been shown to enhance student motivation and skill application in STEM disciplines. Studies on learning cycles in classroom settings demonstrate benefits including improved knowledge retention and conceptual grasp, with meta-analyses indicating moderate to large effect sizes on student achievement in science compared to traditional instruction. Active methods within these cycles, such as hands-on exploration, contribute to retention rates by reinforcing memory through multiple sensory engagements. However, implementation faces challenges like time constraints, as teachers often struggle to cover curriculum breadth within fixed class periods, requiring careful lesson pacing and resource allocation. A prominent involves the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) 5E model, integrated into U.S. K-12 curricula through programs like BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach. Globally, the 5E model has seen adoption in inquiry-based reforms, including in European and Asian countries, where it underpins national STEM initiatives to promote and has been adapted for diverse cultural contexts. Recent developments as of 2025 include expansions like the 9E learning cycle model, applied in high school to improve students' habits of mind.

In Professional and Adult Learning

In professional and adult learning contexts, the learning cycle has been integrated into workplace training programs to foster skill development and self-directed growth. Honey and Mumford's adaptation of experiential models, such as Kolb's, is commonly applied in corporate training to customize sessions based on participants' preferred styles—activist, reflector, theorist, or pragmatist—enhancing engagement and retention in dynamic professional environments. The Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) derived from this model is frequently used in team-building exercises within organizations, where it helps identify diverse learning preferences to improve group and problem-solving during workshops. Similarly, the ALACT model (Action, Looking back on action, Awareness of essential aspects, Creating alternative methods, Trial) supports in workshops, guiding educators through structured cycles to refine instructional strategies and personal philosophies. These applications have demonstrated outcomes such as enhanced adaptability in rapidly changing work settings, enabling professionals to respond more effectively to challenges like technological shifts or organizational restructuring. In management programs from the 1980s onward, cycles have been embedded in initiatives like schemes, promoting continuous through cycles of experience, reflection, and experimentation, as seen in programs by the Council for National Academic Awards and subsequent higher education frameworks. For instance, in sectors like and has utilized these cycles to build resilience, with participants reporting greater confidence in applying new knowledge to real-world scenarios. Adaptations for adult learners often involve condensing traditional learning cycles into shorter iterations suited for , allowing busy professionals to engage in rapid action-reflection loops without disrupting workflows. These modified cycles emphasize practical application over extended theorizing, aligning with adults' need for immediate relevance in vocational settings. Effectiveness is typically assessed using Kirkpatrick's four-level evaluation framework, which measures participant reactions to , knowledge acquisition, behavioral changes on the job, and broader organizational results, providing a structured way to quantify impact in professional contexts.

Criticisms and Evolutions

Key Limitations

Learning cycle models, while influential, often overemphasize a rigid, sequential that may overlook significant differences in how learners , such as variations in cognitive styles or , potentially leading to a one-size-fits-all approach that does not accommodate diverse needs. Critics argue that this cyclical structure can appear restrictive and narrow, failing to account for non-linear or paths that better suit individuals with unique neurological profiles. Additionally, some models lack sufficient empirical rigor; for instance, Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI), a key tool for assessing preferences within his cycle, has faced critiques for poor reliability and validity, with studies highlighting issues like low test-retest consistency and forced-choice formats that artificially support bipolar dimensions. Cultural biases represent another limitation, as many learning cycle models originate from Western individualistic perspectives, which emphasize personal reflection and , rendering them less effective in collectivist cultures where group harmony and relational learning are prioritized. research from the late 2000s and 2010s has demonstrated variations in across cultural clusters—for example, individuals from Confucian Asian regions tend toward more concrete and reflective approaches compared to the abstract conceptualization favored in cultures—suggesting that the models' universal application may perpetuate ethnocentric assumptions. Practical barriers further hinder widespread adoption, particularly in resource-constrained environments like large settings, where facilitating hands-on experiences and guided reflection demands substantial time, materials, and instructor facilitation that may not be feasible. Without adequate guidance, the reflection phase can result in superficial rather than deep , as learners may struggle to connect experiences meaningfully to abstract concepts. Specific models like the 5E instructional cycle, for example, impose significant time demands that challenge implementation in oversized classes.

Recent Developments

In the 2010s and beyond, learning cycles have been increasingly integrated into digital platforms, particularly through models that leverage learning management systems (LMS) like and to structure phases such as engagement and exploration outside class time. For instance, the 5E model has been adapted in online environments to facilitate pre-class video explorations and in-class elaborations, enhancing student-centered in subjects like and . This approach, popularized since the mid-2010s, allows asynchronous access to resources, promoting in hybrid settings. Post-2020, has enabled personalized reflection within learning cycles by analyzing learner data to prompt tailored debriefs and metacognitive exercises. Tools like AI-driven reflective writing assistants integrate with experiential phases to provide real-time feedback on observations and abstractions, fostering deeper in virtual simulations. Similarly, generative AI platforms support individualized cycles by adapting content to user progress, as seen in studies on AI-enhanced where reflection modules improved outcomes. These advancements address scalability in online education, making cycles more adaptive to diverse paces. Research in the 2020s has focused on inclusive adaptations of learning cycles for neurodivergent learners, incorporating (UDL) principles to accommodate sensory and cognitive variations. For example, explicit instruction on cycle-based study techniques, such as breaking Kolb's phases into visual and multisensory steps, has been recommended to support students with ADHD or autism in higher education settings. Recent studies emphasize flexible elaborations and evaluations, like choice-based reflections, to reduce barriers and leverage strengths in neurodiverse populations. This evolution promotes equity by embedding cycles within broader inclusive frameworks. Global meta-analyses highlight the efficacy of hybrid learning cycle models, particularly those blending traditional cycles with to emphasize networked in digital ecosystems. Emerging research integrates 's focus on connections with cycle phases, as in blended models where exploration occurs via social networks, enhancing co-creation in the digital age. These hybrids, analyzed in recent reviews, show promise for 21st-century skills like adaptability in global contexts.

References

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  5. https://iep.utm.edu/john-dewey/
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  7. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/democracy-and-education-chapter-6/
  8. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37423/37423-h/37423-h.htm
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