Hubbry Logo
LucaniaLucaniaMain
Open search
Lucania
Community hub
Lucania
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Lucania
Lucania
Lucania
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Multi-color map of northern Italy
Map of ancient Lucania according to The Historical AtlasMap of ancient Lucania according to Naturalis Historia
Lucanian chimera, alleged to be used in Lucanian shields [1][2]

Lucania was a historical region of Southern Italy, named after its native Lucani, an Oscan people. It extended from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. It bordered with Samnium and Campania in the north, Apulia in the east, and Bruttium in the south-west, and was at the tip of the peninsula which is now called Calabria. It comprised almost all the modern region of Basilicata, the southern part of the Province of Salerno (the Cilento area), the western part of Province of Taranto and a northern portion of the Province of Cosenza.

The precise limits were the river Silarus in the north-west, which separated it from Campania, and the Gravina which flows into the Gulf of Taranto in the east. The lower tract of the river Laus, which flows from a ridge of the Apennine Mountains to the Tyrrhenian Sea in an east-west direction, marked part of the border with Bruttium.

Geography

[edit]

Almost the whole area is occupied by the Apennine Mountains, which here are an irregular group of lofty masses. The main ridge approaches the western sea and continues from the lofty knot of mountains on the frontiers of Samnium, in a mostly southerly direction, to within a few miles of the Gulf of Policastro. From then on it is separated from the sea by only a narrow interval until it enters Bruttium.

Just within the frontier of Lucania rises Monte Pollino, 7,325 ft (2,233 m), the highest peak in the southern Apennines. The mountains descend in a much more gradual slope to the coastal plain of the Gulf of Taranto. Thus the rivers which flow to the Tyrrhenian Sea are of little importance compared with those that descend towards the Gulf of Tarentum. Of these the most important are the Bradanus (Bradano), the Casuentus (Basento), the Aciris (Agri), and the Siris (Sinni).

The Crathis, which forms at its mouth the southern limit of the province, belongs almost wholly to the territory of the Bruttii, but it receives a tributary, the Sybaris (Coscile), from the mountains of Lucania. The only considerable stream on the western side is the Silarus (Sele), which constitutes the northern boundary, and has two important tributaries in the Calor (Calore Lucano or Calore Salernitano) and the Tanager (Tanagro or Negro) which joins it from the south.

Etymology

[edit]

Historians at the Orientale University of Naples concluded that the root of the name Lucania is derived from luc, the Osco-Sabellic peoples word for light, which has the same meaning in the Latin idiom (lūx and descendants). The people that moved from the Osco-Sabellic tribes to occupy the land east of the Silarus river, which was an area associated with the "morning star", Lucifer (Latin for 'bringer of light'). Therefore, Lucania means 'eastern land' or 'land from which there is light'. The study also explains that theories of a Greek origin for the name should also be rejected because the Greeks referred to this region as Oenotria.[3]

History

[edit]

Antiquity

[edit]
A mounted Lucani warrior, fresco from a tomb of Paestum, Italy, c. 360 BC

The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing the name Lucani (Lucanians) by whom it was conquered about the middle of the 5th century BC. Before that period it was included under the general name of Oenotria, which was applied by the Greeks to the southernmost portion of Italy.

The mountainous interior was occupied by the tribes known as Oenotrians and Choni, while the coasts on both sides were occupied by powerful Greek colonies which doubtless exercised a protectorate over the interior (see Magna Graecia). The Lucanians were a southern branch of the Samnite or Sabellic people, who spoke the Oscan language. They had a democratic constitution save in time of war, when a dictator was chosen from among the regular magistrates.

A few Oscan inscriptions survive, mostly in Greek characters from the 4th or 3rd century BC, and some coins with Oscan legends of the 3rd century.[4] The Lucanians gradually conquered the whole country (with the exception of the Greek towns on the coast) from the borders of Samnium and Campania to the southern extremity of Italy. Subsequently the inhabitants of the peninsula, now known as Calabria, broke into insurrection, and under the name of Bruttians established their independence, after which the Lucanians became confined within the limits already described.

After this they engaged in hostilities with the Tarentines, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who was called in by that people to their assistance, 334 BC. In 298 BC (Livy x. II seq.) they made alliance with Rome, and Roman influence was extended by the colonies of Venusia (291 BC), Paestum (273), and above all Tarentum (272).

Subsequently they were sometimes in alliance, but more frequently engaged in hostilities, during the Samnite Wars. On the landing of Pyrrhus in Italy (281 BC) they were among the first to declare in his favor, and found themselves exposed to the resentment of Rome when the departure of Pyrrhus left his allies at the mercy of the Romans. After several campaigns they were reduced to subjection (272 BC). Notwithstanding this they espoused the cause of Hannibal during the Second Punic War (216 BC), and their territory during several campaigns was ravaged by both armies. The country never recovered from these disasters, and under the Roman government fell into decay, to which the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the Samnites against Rome (90–88 BC), gave the finishing stroke.

In the time of Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen into insignificance, and owing to the decrease of population and cultivation malaria began to obtain the upper hand. The few towns of the interior were of no importance. A large part of the province was given up to pasture, and the mountains were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, bears and wolves. There were some fifteen independent communities, but none of great importance.

For administrative purposes under the Roman Empire, Lucania was always united with the district of the Bruttii, a practice continued by Theodoric.[5] The two together constituted the third region of Augustus.

Middle Ages

[edit]

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Lucania fell to Odoacer and became part of the Kingdom of Italy before being turned into the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths in 493 CE. Ostrogothic rule in the region was short lived due to Justinian’s reconquest of Italy in the mid-Sixth century. The Byzantine conquest reintroduced Greeks and Greek culture to the region. In the early 7th, Byzantine rule was cut short as another Germanic people, the Lombards conquered Lucania from the Byzantines and became part of the Kingdom of the Lombards. In 774, after the Frankish invasion, Lucania became a part of the independent Duchy of Benevento and later, under Holy Roman Emperor Louis II, part of the Duchy was turned into the independent Principality of Salerno in 851.

In the late 10th century the Byzantines began to re-enter the region of Lucania forming the Catapanate of Italy with Salerno being granted autonomy. By the early 11th century the Byzantine revival in Lucania came with both a process of Hellenization and significant Greek migrations from southern and central Calabria and Salento, into regions such as Cilento. Lucania would remain largely Greek till the 12th century when a gradual process of Latinization would occur. By the 14th century, there were few Greek inhabitants as the majority had been assimilated.[6][7][8]

In the mid-11th century, Lucania was conquered by the Normans first becoming the County of Apulia and Calabria then becoming part of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1130. In 1194, Lucania would become part of the Holy Roman Empire under the Hohenstaufen dynasty. After that the Angevins would take control of Lucania in the mid-13th century before being part of the Kingdom of Aragon in the 14th century after the War of the Sicilian Vespers.

Cities and towns

[edit]
A Lucani man riding a chariot, from a tomb in Paestum, Italy, 4th century BC

The towns on the east coast were Metapontum, a few miles south of the Bradanus; Heraclea, at the mouth of the Aciris; and Sins, on the river of the same name.

Close to its southern frontier stood Sybaris, which was destroyed in 510 BC, but subsequently replaced by Thurii. On the west coast stood Posidonia, known under the Roman government as Paestum; below that came Elea (Velia under the Romans), Pyxus, called by the Romans Buxentum, and Laüs, near the frontier of the province towards Bruttium.

Of the towns of the interior the most considerable was Potentia, still called Potenza. To the north, near the frontier of Apulia, was Bantia (Aceruntia belonged more properly to Apulia); while due south from Potentia was Grumentum, and still farther in that direction were Nerulum and Muranum.

In the upland valley of the Tanagrus were Atina, Forum Popilii and Consilinum (near Sala Consilina); Eburi (Eboli) and Volceii (Buccino), though to the north of the Silarus, were also included in Lucania.

The Via Popilia traversed the district from north to south, entering it at the northwestern extremity; the Via Herculia [it], coming southwards from the Via Appia and passing through Potentia and Grumentum, joined the Via Popilia near the southwestern edge of the district: while another nameless road followed the east coast and other roads of less importance ran west from Potentia to the Via Popilia, northeast to the Via Appia and east from Grumentum to the coast at Heraclea.

Later use

[edit]
See also: Theme of Lucania

The modern name Basilicata originates from the 10th century AD, when the area was under Byzantine control. During the early 19th century, during the Carbonari revolution of 1820–21, the region was renamed and divided into Eastern and Western Lucania (Lucania Orientale and Lucania Occidentale). From the latter half of the 19th century some residents campaigned to reinstate that name.

In 1932 the Fascist regime changed the name to Lucania, as part of its appropriation of symbols from the Roman Empire. After the end of the war and Italy's defeat, the new government restored the name of Basilicata to the province in 1947. In the late 20th century, Lucania was still in vernacular use as a synonym to Basilicata.[9]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lucania

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Lucania was an ancient territorial division in , encompassing much of the modern region of along with portions of northern and southern , inhabited primarily by the , an Oscan-speaking Italic tribe originating from Samnite stock that migrated southward during the late and early Iron Ages (11th–8th centuries BC). The consolidated control over the rugged Apennine interior by the mid-, displacing or absorbing pre-existing populations such as the and engaging in conflicts with Greek colonies in , notably defeating the city of in 390 BC. Their society featured democratic elements with elected leaders during crises, and they adopted aspects of Greek , including early red-figure vase painting from sites like Pisticci in the 5th century BC. Initially allying with against common foes like the in 298 BC, the later rebelled, supporting in his wars against (280–275 BC) and during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), before being definitively subjugated and incorporated into the following the Second Samnite War (325–304 BC) and subsequent campaigns. This conquest marked the end of Lucanian independence, with the region contributing troops and resources to while retaining some ethnic identity into the late , as evidenced by participation in the Social War (91–88 BC). Lucania's historical significance lies in its role as a zone blending Italic tribal structures with Hellenistic influences, evidenced by fortified hilltop settlements and sanctuaries that reflect socio-political dynamism in the 4th–3rd centuries BC.

Geography

Physical Landscape

Lucania's terrain is predominantly mountainous, dominated by the Southern Apennines, which form a northwest-southeast oriented thrust-and-fold belt extending across the region. These irregular chains of lofty elevations, including massifs like Pollino and the , create a rugged interior with limited plains comprising only about 8% of the area. The elevated landscape, rising to peaks over 2,000 meters in places such as Monte Pollino at 2,267 meters, features steep slopes and deep valleys that historically constrained large-scale agriculture to fertile pockets while promoting pastoral activities. River systems, including the Agri (ancient Aciris) and Sinni, originate in the Lucanian Apennines and carve valleys that serve as natural corridors linking the interior to the coasts. The Agri River, spanning approximately 40 kilometers in its upper course through mountainous terrain, and the 94-kilometer-long Sinni, facilitated connectivity between the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas via the region's foredeep basins. These waterways, along with others like the Bradano and Basento, drain the Apennine slopes into the Gulf of Taranto on the Ionian Sea to the east and the Gulf of Policastro on the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, providing limited coastal plains amid otherwise steep shorelines. In the northern sector, the extinct volcano rises to 1,326 meters, its activity leaving basaltic and tuffaceous deposits that enrich surrounding soils with minerals conducive to and . Volcanic soils here, derived from lava and ash, exhibit high fertility due to rapid and nutrient retention, supporting forested covers and groves in the elevated, often densely wooded interior. This combination of volcanic features and Apennine ruggedness defines a of forested highlands interspersed with cultivable valleys, shaping the region's environmental character in antiquity.

Historical Boundaries

The historical boundaries of ancient Lucania, as delineated in classical geographical accounts, primarily encompassed the interior highlands and valleys of , corresponding roughly to the modern region of while extending northward into the southern portion of Campania's , particularly the area, and southward into northern . To the north, Lucania's frontier with was fluid, often marked by the Silarus River (modern Sele), beyond which lay territories influenced by Samnite expansions. Southern limits were defined by the Laus River, separating Lucania from Bruttium, as consistently noted by and , with the Tyrrhenian Sea forming the western coastal boundary interspersed with Greek colonial enclaves like and . Eastern extensions toward the varied across sources; describes Lucania adjoining Iapygia () inland while Greek cities such as marked coastal influences, whereas Livy's historical narratives imply broader Lucanian control during conflicts, reaching into areas contested with Apulian tribes. These boundaries remained dynamic due to tribal migrations and warfare, lacking rigid demarcation until Roman administrative impositions. Classical authors emphasized Lucania's mountainous core, with frontiers shaped by natural features like rivers and the Apennines rather than fixed political lines, distinguishing it from the more coastal-oriented Greek and later Roman provincial divisions. Accounts from in the early 1st century CE provide the most systematic description, portraying Lucania as commencing south of the Silarus and terminating at the Laus, a delineation echoed in Pliny's but subject to interpretive variations in extent during periods of Samnite-Lucanian alliances or Roman conquests.

Etymology

Linguistic Origins

The name Lucania derives directly from the Lucani, an ancient Italic tribe that spoke an Oscan dialect and established dominance in the region by the 5th century BCE. The ethnonym Lucani is proposed to originate from the Proto-Italic form loukos, denoting a "sacred grove" or forest clearing, which evolved into the Latin lucus and traces to the Proto-Indo-European root leuk- meaning "light" or "to shine," evoking bright open spaces amid dense woods. This derivation aligns with the landscape of ancient Lucania, noted for its extensive oak and beech forests that covered much of the terrain, potentially imbuing such groves with ritual importance for the Lucani. Linguistic analysis posits that the term reflects the Sabellic branch of spoken by the Lucani, where Oscan preserved archaic features like aspirated stops and vowel shifts from Proto-Italic, facilitating forms related to natural clearings or luminous areas. Ancient Roman sources, such as , describe the Lucani as descending from Samnite migrants led by a figure named around the 4th century BCE, offering an eponymous interpretation tying the name to a personal or origin rather than purely environmental connotations, though this lacks direct phonetic linkage to Oscan dialects. The forest-related etymology predominates in scholarly reconstructions due to the root's consistency across Italic cognates and the region's , which featured sacred sites prior to Roman efforts.

Alternative Theories

One prominent alternative etymology derives Lucania from the Latin lucus, denoting a "sacred grove" or wooded sanctuary, posited to reflect the region's extensive ancient forests. This theory draws on environmental descriptions in classical accounts and aligns with archaeological pollen data indicating dense woodland coverage in during the . However, linguists regard it as a post hoc , since the tribal name Lucani attests in Oscan inscriptions from the 5th century BCE, predating Latin linguistic overlay and rooted instead in Sabellic Italic forms. A separate attributes the name to an eponymous leader named Luca or , envisioned as guiding Osco-Sabellian migrants into the area around 500 BCE. This narrative echoes mythic founder traditions in other Italic groups but finds no support in primary ancient texts, such as those of or , nor in epigraphic evidence from Lucanian sites. Speculation of Greek etymological influence, such as from leukos ("white") via Magna Graecia's coastal colonies, has been advanced informally but dismissed in favor of Italic primacy; the Lucani's and inland territorial core show no phonological or onomastic borrowing patterns consistent with Hellenic origins, as confirmed by comparative analysis of Sabellic ethnonyms. Modern scholarship thus prioritizes endogenous Italic derivations, critiquing external or mythic links for lacking empirical attestation in linguistic corpora or material records.

Pre-Roman History

Early Settlements and Pre-Lucanian Inhabitants

Archaeological findings reveal evidence of settlements in the Lucania region, corresponding to modern , as part of the Neolithization process that spanned approximately 6200–5700 cal BC across and , marked by the adoption of farming, ceramics, and domesticated animals. These early communities likely represented a mix of indigenous hunter-gatherers and incoming agriculturalists, with including impressed ware typical of the impressed-cardial horizon. Bronze Age occupations, from around 2200–900 BC, show increased settlement density, particularly in upland areas like the Vulture massif in northern , where sites yield evidence of , fortified enclosures, and pastoral economies indicative of proto-Italic groups transitioning toward more hierarchical societies. Middle Bronze Age remains, including city walls at certain sites, suggest defensive structures amid environmental pressures and inter-group interactions. In the southern fringes of Lucania, the Enotrians (or ), an early Italic people, inhabited territories extending from northward into and borders by the late , engaging in and as described in Greek sources, though their remains tied to indigenous Italic roots rather than confirmed pre-Indo-European origins. Similarly, the Chones, another pre-Lucanian group possibly affiliated with Oscan-Umbrian speakers, occupied coastal and inland areas, contributing to a of hill settlements and early trade networks before broader Italic consolidations. While some hypotheses posit pre-Indo-European substrates in southern Italy's and , direct archaeological attribution to non-Indo-European peoples in Lucania lacks robust material corroboration, with most evidence aligning with incoming Italic migrations overlaying earlier layers. By the 8th–7th centuries BC, during the Early Iron Age, dispersed Bronze Age villages evolved into fortified proto-urban centers on hilltops, such as those in the Basentello Valley and Ionian hinterlands, featuring expanded habitation, communal structures, and defensive walls that presaged later ethnic formations without yet reflecting Lucanian dominance. This shift correlates with , intensified resource exploitation, and intercultural exchanges, evidenced by pottery styles and burial practices showing continuity from traditions.

Emergence of the Lucani

The Lucani, an Oscan-speaking branch of the , emerged as a recognizable ethnic entity in the southern Apennine highlands of what became known as Lucania during the late 6th and 5th centuries BC, amid broader patterns of Italic expansion southward from . Ancient geographers like described them as deriving from Samnite stock through organized efforts, whereby Samnite communities dispatched groups of youths to settle around 500 BC, fostering ties across regions. This narrative aligns with linguistic evidence, as Oscan inscriptions and link the Lucani to Sabellic dialects prevalent among and related groups. Archaeological findings, however, indicate no evidence of large-scale population displacement or sudden influxes from the north during this period; instead, settlement patterns show gradual intensification in upland sites, suggesting through local aggregation of tribes rather than wholesale migration. from the , including coarse with regional variants and chamber featuring deposits, reflects continuity from earlier indigenous Italic practices while incorporating Oscan-influenced motifs, such as geometric incised designs akin to those in Samnite territories. These artifacts, found at proto-urban hillforts like those in the Agri and Sinni valleys, underscore the consolidation of decentralized tribal confederacies focused on and small-scale in defensible highland zones. This inland orientation allowed the Lucani to maintain relative autonomy from contemporaneous Greek colonial establishments along the Tyrrhenian and Ionian coasts, such as founded circa , with interactions limited to trade in metals and ceramics rather than direct subjugation. By circa 450 BC, the Lucani had delineated a core territory in the interior, distinct from neighboring Enotri and Chones to the south, through these socio-economic adaptations that prioritized mobility and fortified refugia over coastal urbanization.

Classical Period

Conflicts with Greek Colonies

The Lucani, an Italic expanding from the northern Apennines into during the 5th and 4th centuries BC, initiated incursions into the Greek colonies of , targeting fertile coastal territories controlled by cities such as , , and Heraclea. These movements, dated approximately to 420–390 BC, were driven by demographic pressures and the pursuit of suitable for , rather than systematic ideological campaigns, as evidenced by the opportunistic nature of tribal expansions in the region. In response to early Lucanian threats around 433 BC, Tarentum founded Heraclea as a strategic bulwark inland from the Ionian coast, allying with Thurii to counter native incursions that disrupted Greek agricultural hinterlands. Metapontum similarly faced pressures from Lucanian raids, which exploited vulnerabilities in isolated outposts, leading to temporary disruptions in trade and settlement expansion. By 390 BC, a direct Lucanian assault on Thurii prompted defensive measures, including appeals for aid from Syracuse under Dionysius I, whose forces repelled the invaders but highlighted the colonies' reliance on external support. While overt hostilities dominated, pragmatic alliances occasionally emerged against mutual threats, such as shared resistance to other Italic groups, though these proved fleeting as Lucanian forces subjugated weaker Greek settlements like (Poseidonia) around 410 BC, transitioning control through military dominance over economically strained colonies. Archaeological findings in , including fortified hilltop sites from the and hybrid ceramics blending Greek imports with local Italic styles, attest to cultural interactions amid conflict, suggesting exchanges of technology and motifs despite underlying antagonism.

Samnite Wars and Regional Dynamics

The Lucani and , both Oscan-speaking with shared ethnic origins tracing back to Sabellian migrations, maintained close kinship ties that facilitated military cooperation against common foes in during the . This relationship manifested in joint campaigns pressuring Greek colonies, particularly after approximately 370 BC, when Lucani expansion from inland territories intensified incursions into coastal regions held by cities like and , disrupting Hellenic dominance and prompting defensive alliances among the Greeks. Samnite involvement amplified these dynamics, as their conflicts with Tarentum spilled southward, creating a broader Italic front that shifted power from Greek city-states toward tribal confederacies. The Third Samnite War (298–290 BC) exemplified these interconnections, as the , under leader Gellius Egnatius, invaded Lucania in 297 BC to coerce the Lucani—initially nominal Roman allies—into defection and , thereby extending the conflict and forcing to confront a coalition encompassing , Lucani, , and Etruscans. This maneuver ravaged Lucanian lands, compelling submission and altering regional balances by buffering Samnite heartlands while exposing to Roman counteroffensives, culminating in Roman victories that weakened but did not immediately dismantle Italic unity. In the subsequent Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC), Lucani involvement revealed emerging internal fragmentation, with major contingents allying alongside Samnites and Bruttii to support Pyrrhus of Epirus against Roman forces, contributing troops to battles like Heraclea and Asculum. However, not all Lucani subgroups adhered uniformly, as tribal overextension from prior expansions against Greeks and Romans eroded cohesive leadership, a process ancient sources attribute to logistical strains and factional rivalries that diminished collective resistance. This disunity foreshadowed further regional realignments, as Roman diplomacy exploited divisions to secure partial Lucani submissions post-Pyrrhus.

Roman Era

Conquest and Administration

The Romans first formed an alliance with the in 298 BC during conflicts with the , but this partnership frayed as the Lucanians opposed Roman expansion southward. By 282 BC, tensions escalated when Lucanian forces attacked the Greek colony of , prompting Roman intervention, which set the stage for broader confrontation. The decisive shift occurred during the (280–275 BC), where the Lucanians allied with King against ; following Pyrrhus's defeat and withdrawal, Roman legions subdued Lucanian resistance, culminating in the capture of key territories and the establishment of the colony at in 273 BC as a strategic foothold. Although nominally incorporated into Roman Italy by the early 3rd century BC, Lucanian loyalty proved tenuous, with many communities defecting to Hannibal during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Roman forces under commanders like Quintus Fulvius Flaccus reconquered defiant cities, such as Grumentum in 207 BC, imposing harsh penalties including land confiscations that facilitated later colonization efforts. Full annexation followed the Carthaginian defeat at Zama in 201 BC, integrating Lucania more firmly into Roman administrative oversight, though local autonomy persisted for allied (socii) communities denied full citizenship. Initial Roman administration divided Lucania into judicial districts (conventus) overseen by praetors responsible for provincial allies, with Potentia emerging as a central hub for and due to its inland position and defensibility. Colonies like and later Grumentum (founded circa 183 BC) served as anchors of control, housing veteran settlers and enforcing tax collection, while local elites managed day-to-day affairs under Roman oversight. This structure emphasized military pacification over immediate civic equality, as evidenced by recurrent revolts. Lucanian resistance peaked during the Social War (91–88 BC), where communities in the region joined Italic allies in rebelling against Rome's refusal to extend citizenship beyond the socii treaty obligations, capturing swathes of Lucania alongside Apulia and Campania. Roman legions, led by figures like Sulla, brutally suppressed the uprising through sieges and mass executions, restoring order but highlighting the fragility of pre-war alliances. These suppressions entrenched praetorian authority, paving the way for selective grants of Latin rights to compliant towns, though widespread citizenship came only post-war via the lex Julia of 90 BC.

Integration and Romanization

The extension of the Via Appia into from Beneventum around 268 BC, followed by further development to Venusia and Tarentum by the mid-2nd century BC, marked a pivotal step in Roman integration efforts, enabling efficient and stimulating in , timber, and from the region's interior. This infrastructure, characterized by its durable stone paving and drainage systems, supplanted earlier tribal paths, fostering economic ties to and coastal ports while asserting administrative control over formerly autonomous Lucanian territories. Latin colonies like Venusia, established in 291 BC, and , refounded in 273 BC, introduced Roman legal frameworks, , and citizen settlers, serving as enclaves that gradually diffused Roman customs among local populations. Archaeological from these sites reveals the imposition of grid layouts, aqueducts, and fora, which coexisted with indigenous sanctuaries, indicating a phased rather than abrupt replacement. Post-Actium, reinforced this by settling veterans in refounded colonies such as Buxentum (as Colonia Heraclea), distributing land allotments of up to 200 iugera per settler to secure loyalty and populate strategic areas. Inscriptions from Lucanian elites, dating from the late Republic onward, document the adoption of Roman tria nomina—combining praenomina like or with gentilicia such as Julius—alongside retention of Oscan cognomina, signaling pragmatic alliance with Roman power structures without full erasure of ethnic identity. This onomastic shift, observed in funerary and dedicatory texts from sites like Grumentum, reflects how local aristocrats gained and senatorial access, mediating between Roman administrators and rural communities. Agrarian transformations underscored , as pastoral tribal economies yielded to villa-based estates and emerging latifundia worked by slaves and coloni, with surveys showing a proliferation of rural villas in central Lucania from the , correlating with depopulation of dispersed hilltop settlements and intensified and cereal production for export. This economic reorientation, driven by absentee Roman landowners, marginalized smallholders but integrated Lucania into Italy's broader market, evidenced by increased amphorae production and road-linked distribution networks by the early Imperial period.

Post-Roman Developments

Medieval Transitions

Following the collapse of Roman authority in the West, Lucania experienced contested control amid the Byzantine reconquest of Italy under (535–554), which temporarily restored imperial oversight but left the region vulnerable to subsequent invasions. The Lombard invasion of 568 under King Alboin rapidly overran much of the Italian peninsula's interior, establishing semi-autonomous duchies; Lucania fell within the sphere of the , founded around 571, which encompassed the ancient provinces of , , , Lucania, and parts of Bruttium, excluding coastal enclaves. This duchy operated with significant autonomy from the Lombard kings in , fostering early feudal fragmentation through local gastaldi (counts) who managed estates and levies rather than any centralized monarchy. Lucania served as a zone in the protracted Byzantine-Lombard wars (568–750), where imperial forces retained footholds in southern coastal areas like and , while Lombard expansion pushed inland, leading to raids, skirmishes, and shifting alliances. By the late , under I of (c. 662–687), the asserted greater independence, allying sporadically with against Frankish threats but primarily consolidating control over Lucanian highlands through military settlements of Lombard warriors on confiscated lands. These conflicts devastated agriculture and urban centers, with archaeological evidence from sites like indicating disrupted trade and fortified refugia, reflecting the causal instability of divided rather than unified governance. In the 9th century, Saracen raids from bases in Sicily and Puglia exacerbated depopulation, as Muslim forces under emirs like those of Aghlabid Ifriqiya targeted vulnerable inland routes and monasteries, prompting inhabitants to flee lowlands for defensible hilltop settlements. Chronicles such as that of Erchempert of Monte Cassino record these incursions, including attacks on Beneventan territories around 839–871, which fragmented local authority further by weakening ducal responses and encouraging vassal defections. By the late 9th century, under Prince Radelchis I (c. 860–887), Benevento's integration of Lucania emphasized decentralized feudal oaths over imperial pretensions, setting the stage for Norman incursions in the 11th century amid ongoing Lombard-Byzantine-Lombard Carolingian rivalries.

Under Norman and Later Kingdoms

The Norman incursion into Lucania began in the early as part of the broader conquest of , with emerging as the dominant figure by the 1050s through relentless campaigns against Byzantine, Lombard, and Arab forces. In 1059, formally invested Guiscard as Duke of , , and , granting legitimacy to Norman expansion that encompassed Lucanian territories via strategic alliances and sieges. This consolidation involved erecting fortified castles, such as the motte-and-bailey structure at Satrianum, to secure mountain passes and suppress local resistance from residual Greek and Lombard populations. By the late , under Guiscard's successors, Lucania formed a peripheral but vital buffer in the Norman County of , marked by feudal land grants to knights that entrenched military overlordship amid sparse settlement. After the creation of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1130 under Roger II, Lucania transitioned into a patchwork of feudal baronies within the Kingdom of following the Sicilian Vespers of 1282, perpetuating a system of large fiefs controlled by absentee nobles who extracted rents from . Spanish Habsburg rule from 1504 reinforced this through viceregal administration, while Bourbon sovereignty from 1734 introduced piecemeal reforms like cadastral surveys and minor infrastructure, yet failed to dismantle entrenched latifundia or curb chronic rooted in overtaxation and land inequality. Rural underdevelopment persisted, with the region's isolation and seismic vulnerability compounding feudal stagnation; the 16 December 1857 earthquake, magnitude approximately 6.9, leveled towns like Montemurro and Acerenza, killing an estimated to 12,000 and destroying agricultural infrastructure without effective Bourbon reconstruction. Italian unification in 1861 triggered intensified in Lucania, as disbanded Bourbon troops and impoverished peasants formed armed bands engaging in , , and livestock against the Piedmontese state, a phenomenon empirically driven by economic desperation and loyalty to the old regime rather than coherent ideological revolt. Historiographical tendencies to romanticize these groups as folk heroes overlook their criminal tactics, including targeting civilians and alliances with clerical reactionaries, necessitating over 100,000 troops for suppression by 1865. This era underscored causal continuities from Norman —centralized authority's inability to penetrate rugged terrain—yielding persistent poverty that unification's liberal policies neither resolved nor exacerbated beyond short-term disorder.

Society and Culture

Ethnic Composition and Language

The Lucani, an Italic people closely related to the , formed the predominant ethnic group in ancient Lucania from the BCE onward, having migrated southward from the Samnite highlands to supplant or assimilate earlier pre-Italic inhabitants such as the and Chones. Archaeological and literary evidence indicates a relatively homogeneous Italic inland, with tribal divisions possibly reflected in place names and minor epigraphic variations, though no distinct subgroups like the Frentani—confined to Adriatic coastal areas—are attested in Lucanian contexts. Coastal enclaves near Greek colonies such as and Heraclea hosted limited Hellenic settler communities, but Greek ethnic admixture remained negligible in the interior due to geographic isolation and cultural resistance. The primary language of the Lucani was Oscan, a Sabellic branch of the within the Indo-European family, characterized by its distinct and morphology from Latin, as preserved in over 800 inscriptions across . In Lucania, Oscan texts appear in both native scripts adapted from Etruscan or Greek alphabets, with notable examples including the archaic Tortora inscription (ca. 6th-5th century BCE) and the Tabula Bantina from Bantia (ca. 100 BCE), a bronze tablet detailing municipal laws in Oscan alongside Latin overlays. These epigraphic records, often on public monuments or votive offerings, demonstrate Oscan's role in legal, religious, and administrative functions prior to Roman dominance. Following Roman conquest and the establishment of colonies like Grumentum in 216 BCE, linguistic Latinization proceeded gradually, driven by administrative impositions, , and elite emulation rather than wholesale suppression. Bilingual Oscan-Latin inscriptions persisted into the late , but by the early Imperial period (1st century CE), Latin overwhelmingly supplanted Oscan in official and funerary contexts, as seen in the shift from Oscan personal names to Latin equivalents in Lucanian necropoleis. Oscan substrate influences endured in regional and toponyms, indicating incomplete without evidence of abrupt linguistic extinction.

Economy, Agriculture, and Trade

The economy of ancient Lucania relied heavily on transhumant , with sheep and herding predominant in the rugged highlands, supplemented by cereal crops such as and , and cultivation in terraced valleys suited to the . Strabo described the Lucani primarily as shepherds exploiting the mountainous terrain, which limited large-scale arable farming but favored seasonal migration between summer pastures in the interior and winter near the coasts. Archaeological surveys in southeast , encompassing Lucania, indicate a transition from subsistence-oriented in the early first millennium BCE to more market-integrated production of olives and grains by the , driven by interactions with neighboring Greek polities. Trade was constrained by the inland, fragmented nature of Lucanian settlements but occurred via coastal emporia like and , where pastoral goods, timber, and possibly hides were exchanged for Greek imports including , wine, and metal tools. Evidence includes hoards of Greek silver coins—such as didrachms from Poseidonia () dated to the 5th–4th centuries BCE—recovered from Lucanian hilltop sites, suggesting episodic commerce rather than sustained networks. Metallurgical activity remained limited to basic ironworking for agricultural implements and weapons, with no major ore deposits exploited locally until Roman times; artifacts in graves reflect imports over indigenous production. Under Roman administration after the conquests of 326–272 BCE, agricultural intensification occurred on the more fertile plains through slave-worked latifundia, emphasizing export-oriented grains, olives, and vines to supply urban markets in . This expansion, facilitated by villa estates and improved from rivers like the Agri and Basento, boosted output but strained marginal soils, contributing to long-term exhaustion as yields declined from overcropping without rotation or fallowing—patterns critiqued in Roman agronomists' accounts of southern Italian estates. of and other minerals emerged as a secondary Roman economic pillar, integrated into imperial routes, though persisted in the highlands.

Religion and Social Structures

The Lucanians adhered to a polytheistic religious framework typical of ancient Italic tribes, featuring deities with attributes paralleling those in the emerging Roman pantheon, such as protective gods associated with fertility, war, and natural forces. Worship occurred primarily in open-air sanctuaries, including sacred groves designated as lucus, where rituals involved votive offerings and communal ceremonies without monumental temples until later influences. Inscriptions and archaeological finds from sites like the sanctuary of in Lucania confirm these practices, with the term lucus denoting both the physical grove and its sacred status, emphasizing a direct, localized engagement with the divine absent elaborate priesthoods. Material evidence from Lucanian cult places, spanning the fourth century BC onward, includes altars, votive deposits of terracotta figurines, and bronze implements, indicating structured rituals tied to agricultural cycles and martial success rather than abstract . These sanctuaries evolved from simple groves to more defined enclosures by the third century BC, reflecting communal investment in religious continuity amid tribal expansions, yet lacking epigraphic evidence for a centralized pantheon or imported foreign cults in pre-Roman phases. Lucanian society exhibited a hierarchical structure dominated by a warrior aristocracy, as demonstrated by elite tombs containing panoplies of iron weapons, helmets, and horse gear from necropolises like Gaudo, dated to the fourth century BC, which signify status differentiation based on martial prowess and land control. This elite likely maintained clientage networks akin to those in neighboring Oscan-speaking groups, where lesser kin or dependents provided loyalty in exchange for protection and patronage, fostering tribal cohesion through personal allegiances rather than formalized state bureaucracy. Funerary frescoes and artifacts further depict dueling warriors and hierarchical processions, underscoring a culture valuing individual heroism and aristocratic lineage over collective egalitarianism. Archaeological data reveal no verifiable traces of matriarchal organization or proto-communal myths in Lucanian contexts; instead, grave goods consistently privilege male warrior burials with disproportionate wealth, pointing to patrilineal inheritance and stratified access to resources as causal drivers of social order. This warrior-centric hierarchy, evidenced across Italic southern Italy, prioritized martial alliances and elite mediation in disputes, aligning with the demands of territorial defense and expansion in rugged terrains.

Notable Settlements and Sites

Major Ancient Cities

Potentia, the chief inland city of the Lucani, was established in the BCE in the Basento valley, functioning as a stronghold for controlling the Apennine interior and facilitating communication among Lucanian settlements. Its strategic location enabled defense against external incursions, including Roman expansions, with the city captured by during the 4th century BCE subjugation of Lucania. Grumentum, another pivotal Lucanian center in the Agri valley, traces its origins to at least the 6th century BCE and gained prominence for its military role, notably during the Second Punic War when Carthaginian forces under Hanno engaged Romans nearby in 215 BCE. Positioned to dominate river routes and passes, it served as a hub for regional governance and trade until Roman colonization transformed it into a by the late Republic, underscoring its enduring control over Lucanian highlands. On the Tyrrhenian coast, —originally the Greek Poseidonia, founded circa 600 BCE—fell to Lucanian dominance around 400 BCE, integrating Oscan-speaking populations who overlaid native Italic elements on the existing urban fabric, including fortified expansions amid declining Greek influence. This shift marked a hybridization in administration and culture, with Lucani leveraging the site's ports for Mediterranean ties while adapting its temples and walls for defensive regional oversight, prior to full Roman incorporation in 273 BCE. These cities exemplified Lucanian , emphasizing defensible hilltop or valley sites for territorial , though many waned after the 3rd century CE due to incursions disrupting Roman infrastructure.

Key Archaeological Discoveries

Excavations at Monte Torretta di Pietragalla have uncovered a fortified pre-Roman hilltop settlement in northern , associated with Lucanian occupation from the 4th to 3rd centuries BC. The site, at an elevation of 1070 meters, features a defensive system identified through probes since the and confirmed by geophysical surveys conducted in the , revealing structures integrated into the natural topography for control over regional routes. In the area, Lucanian necropolises outside the former Greek city walls have produced approximately 200 painted tombs dating to the , with frescoes depicting banquets, armed warriors, and processions that reflect elite social hierarchies and cultural influences following Lucanian conquest around . These burials, including chamber tombs with rich , demonstrate stratification through variations in tomb size, decoration quality, and inclusions like imported ceramics, underscoring disparities in wealth and status among the settlers. Contemporary initiatives in , such as the Pietragalla Project since the 2010s and the CNRS-backed Topographical Directory of Archaeological Excavations in Lucania, employ geophysical methods, artifact analysis, and digital mapping to catalog and interpret sites, enhancing knowledge of Lucanian fortifications and networks. The Vultur Archaeological Project targets the area with surveys and digs, yielding data on multi-period occupations that contextualize Lucanian-era developments amid earlier volcanic landscapes.

Legacy and Modern Interpretations

In Roman and Medieval Historiography

Roman annalists, including Livy in his Ab Urbe Condita (Books 8–10), depicted the Lucani primarily as military adversaries during the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC, emphasizing their alliances with Greek kings like Pyrrhus of Epirus against Rome (280–275 BC) and subsequent revolts, such as the Lucanian participation in the Italic leagues opposing Roman expansion. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his Roman Antiquities, similarly framed the Lucani within narratives of Roman conquest, portraying them as a cohesive Italic ethnos originating from Sabellian migrations but integrated into broader conflicts rather than as culturally isolated barbarians. These accounts reflect a Roman-centric bias, prioritizing triumphalist causality—where Lucanian resistance served to highlight Roman resilience—over detailed ethnographic analysis, often reducing the region to a theater of war without acknowledging indigenous political structures or economic vitality. Archaeological evidence counters this reductive portrayal by demonstrating Lucanian self-sufficiency and organizational complexity from the onward, including networks of fortified hilltop settlements like those at Torre Braida and Satriano, which supported agricultural surplus, local production, and ritual sanctuaries independent of heavy Greek colonial dependence. Excavations reveal no substantive migration influx from as implied in some ancient theories, but rather indigenous adaptation with fortified enclosures enabling territorial control and , underscoring Italic agency rather than mere reactivity to Hellenic influences. This material record privileges empirical continuity over literary tropes of barbarism, revealing a society capable of sustaining warfare through endogenous resources, not external barbarity as occasionally inferred in Roman victory narratives. Medieval chroniclers, drawing on Byzantine administrative records, portrayed Lucania's rugged terrain as a strategic bulwark in defenses against Lombard expansions from the AD, with its Apennine passes and coastal enclaves forming natural barriers in the Theme of Calabria. Norman sources, such as those by William of in the , highlighted the region's fortresses during the conquest of Byzantine holdouts (c. 1050s), framing it as a contested where local Italic-Lombard populations leveraged geography for prolonged resistance, rather than passive submission. These accounts, often from conquering perspectives, underscore causal realism in imperial —prioritizing Lucania's defensible as a determinant of prolonged Byzantine tenure amid Arab and Lombard pressures—while downplaying cultural to justify Norman consolidation.

Contemporary Usage and Archaeology

In modern contexts, the term "Lucania" persists informally to denote the region of , particularly in promotion that highlights its rugged landscapes, ancient heritage, and relative seclusion from mass visitation. Italian resources, such as Italia.it, reference by its ancient name "Lucania" to evoke historical continuity amid its Tyrrhenian and Ionian coastal panoramas and inland Apennine terrains. This usage underscores empirical geographic and cultural persistence, though promotional narratives often emphasize "hidden" or "undiscovered" qualities tied to the region's infrastructural isolation—lacking international airports and limited rail access—which has kept visitor numbers low compared to neighboring areas like Puglia or . Such marketing, while drawing on verifiable pre-Roman Italic legacies, risks over-romanticizing socioeconomic realities; ranks among Italy's poorest regions by GDP, with efforts aiming to leverage rural authenticity without addressing underlying depopulation and underdevelopment driven by post-unification emigration patterns. Archaeological investigations in the have advanced comprehension of Lucania's pre-Roman Italic substratum through systematic excavations and digital integrations, prioritizing material evidence over speculative multicultural overlays. At Satrianum (modern Tito, province), multidisciplinary surveys initiated in 2006 have documented a fortified medieval settlement atop earlier layers, including traces from the 2nd millennium BCE and 6th-century BCE terracotta fragments indicative of indigenous ritual practices, with recent 2024 analyses employing for topographic and architectural reconstruction. These efforts reveal causal continuities in settlement patterns from Italic hilltop sanctuaries to later Norman adaptations, supported by petrographic studies of ceramics that confirm local production technologies rooted in Oscan-speaking Lucanian communities. Similarly, ongoing British-led excavations at Grumentum since have yielded epigraphic and structural data illuminating Roman-era transitions from Lucanian autonomy, with artifacts like inscriptions affirming Italic linguistic dominance prior to Latinization. Exhibitions of Hellenistic-period materials from further illuminate interactions between indigenous and Greek colonists without diluting verifiable Italic primacy, as evidenced by recent displays of over 300 artifacts from 11th–6th century BCE sites, many unearthed in the past decade. The 2024 exhibition "The Ancient Civilizations of : Treasures Emerging to Light" features indigenous wares and votives from inland contexts, emphasizing empirical pre-Hellenistic foundations over interpretive narratives of wholesale cultural fusion. These scholarly integrations, drawing on peer-reviewed geochronological and petrographic data, reject of exogenous dominance by privileging stratigraphic and artifactual sequences that trace causal evolutions from Enotrian- roots.

References

  1. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/ItalyLucani.htm
  2. https://trajectoires.cnrs.fr/en/projects/current-projects/ancient-lucania-archaeology-and-heritage/
  3. https://openpublishing.psu.edu/ahd/content/pisticci-and-amykos-painters-beginnings-red-figured-vase-painting-ancient-lucania
  4. https://www.academia.edu/4837067/Lucania_in_the_4th_and_3rd_century_BC_Articulation_of_a_new_self_awareness_instead_of_a_migration_theory
  5. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19475705.2018.1527786
  6. https://circabc.europa.eu/webdav/CircaBC/ESTAT/regportraits/Information/itf5_geo.htm
  7. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17445647.2016.1193776
  8. https://archaeopresspublishing.com/ojs/index.php/groma/article/view/1317/1032
  9. http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b5bf/ddaa08da21eb67bf47b8dab589d03dc34fb5.pdf
  10. https://www.maratea.info/basilicata-or-lucania.html
  11. https://www.italia.it/en/basilicata/things-to-do/landscapes-of-basilicata
  12. https://www.forbes.com/sites/susangordon/2018/05/16/why-italys-volcanoes-matter-to-its-wines/
  13. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/151492/1/jtsamu_1.pdf
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330286410_The_Basilicata_region_Southern_Italy_a_natural_and_%27human-built%27_open-air_laboratory_for_manifold_studies_Research_trends_over_the_last_24_years_1994-2017
  15. https://www.gtp.gr/LocInfo.asp?infoid=49&code=EITSCM1
  16. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:ff428442-ad6e-4bfc-91ac-ce4c25cf3033/files/m44f57aa12a064af8edab1432f507e14f
  17. https://www.deliciousitaly.com/basilicata-itineraries/lucania
  18. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3775
  19. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1040618217301635
  20. https://www.academia.edu/6690705/Il_Vulture_Il_Crocevia_della_Cultura_dei_Lucani_nel_nord_della_Basilicata_in_English_
  21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332325129_Searching_for_the_History_of_the_Ancient_Basilicata_Archaeogeophysics_Applied_to_the_Roman_Site_of_Forentum
  22. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/ItalyOenotri.htm
  23. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/ItalyChones.htm
  24. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/34558/408880.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  25. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/eurasia-at-the-dawn-of-history/intercultural-networks-and-urbanization-in-southern-italy-in-the-early-iron-age/73E1D248F0EFD9E4EDA1C72EF6C4C252
  26. https://www.philipharland.com/Blog/2024/05/italic-peoples-strabo-on-latins-sabines-samnites-umbrians-lucanians-and-others-early-first-century-ce/
  27. https://classics.uc.edu/apulian/Beyond_Magna_Graecia/Blank_2_files/lomas.pdf
  28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362924879_Mobile_Pastoralists_in_Archaic_Southern_Italy_The_Use_of_Social_and_Material_Evidence_for_the_Detection_of_an_Ancient_Economy
  29. https://www.academia.edu/11558771/Isayev_E_2014_The_Lucanians_A_history_of_the_4th_century_dynamism_through_archaeology_
  30. https://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=resources&s=war-dir&f=wars_lucanian
  31. https://warhistory.org/%40msw/article/before-pyrrhus
  32. https://coinweek.com/ancient-coins-of-lucania-part-1-metapontum-heraclea-and-sybaris/
  33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435327
  34. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1192469
  35. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/ItalySamnites.htm
  36. https://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/Ancient/SavageInterlude
  37. https://www.unrv.com/empire/samnite-wars.php
  38. https://play0ad.com/history-articles/battles/battles-romans/the-samnite-wars/
  39. https://storiespreschool.com/pyrrhic_war.html
  40. https://www.britannica.com/place/Lucania
  41. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lucanian
  42. https://www.worldhistory.org/Social_War/
  43. https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/wars/social-war/
  44. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40310723
  45. https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/article/via-appia-queen-of-roman-roads/
  46. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-the-roman-republic/italy-during-the-roman-republic-33831bc/A2716B6A351F0E5459CFED4CCFA705E0
  47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41342861
  48. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/roman-villa-in-the-mediterranean-basin/roman-villas-in-the-mediterranean/16C572A0F255EEF96539169B99D5598E
  49. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/lucania
  50. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004307704/BP000015.xml
  51. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/ItalyBenevento.htm
  52. https://www.academia.edu/30235215/Fragile_Borders_beyond_the_Strait_Saracen_Raids_on_the_Italian_Peninsula_8th_11th_century_A_D_
  53. https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/transmed/index.php/tmh/article/download/21/137/149
  54. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07072b.htm
  55. https://www.archcalc.cnr.it/indice/PDF21/06_Masini_et_al.pdf
  56. https://repec.unibocconi.it/baffic/baf/papers/cbafwp22183.pdf
  57. https://www.cracosociety.net/Basilicata.php
  58. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264370703000371
  59. https://dagliano.unimi.it/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/WP473.pdf
  60. https://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/2022-09/d2097.pdf
  61. https://academic.oup.com/book/1515/chapter/140937840
  62. https://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/68926/excerpt/9781107068926_excerpt.pdf
  63. https://www.prin-italia-antica.unifi.it/vp-133-the-oscan-language.html
  64. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/oscan-in-southern-italy-and-sicily/introduction/417B89821B38382AFB76054A8707D01F
  65. https://www.academia.edu/5224166/From_subsistence_to_market_exchange_the_development_of_an_agricultural_economy_in_1st_millennium_BC_Southeast_Italy
  66. https://blog.ma-shops.com/coins-from-lucania/
  67. https://www.academia.edu/43020478/The_spread_of_iron_metallurgy_and_its_socio_economic_role_in_Central_and_Southern_Italy_during_the_Final_Bronze_and_the_Early_Iron_Ages
  68. https://www.jstor.org/stable/283842
  69. https://historyofeconomicthought.mcmaster.ca/FrankTenney/EcHistRome.pdf
  70. https://investinhistory.ca/2023/09/18/lucania-land-of-the-lucani/
  71. https://www.academia.edu/25408166/Sanctuaries_and_ritual_practices_in_Lucania_from_the_3rd_c_B_C_to_the_early_Empire
  72. https://bollettinodiarcheologiaonline.beniculturali.it/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/4_GEE.pdf
  73. https://ualberta.scholaris.ca/items/bd291fed-9382-479d-8778-feedfe577184
  74. https://www.academia.edu/126982877/Lucanian_warrior_tomb_2_1958_Gaudo_necropolis_
  75. https://www.academia.edu/7518897/Warriors_and_Citizens_Models_of_Self_representation_in_Native_Basilicata_Atti_del_Convegno_Verso_la_citt%25C3%25A0_Forme_insediative_in_Lucania_e_nel_mondo_italico_tra_IV_e_III_sec_a_C_Venosa_May_13th_14th_2006_Venosa_Osanna_2009_pp_69_88
  76. https://student-journals.ucl.ac.uk/pia/article/422/galley/541/view/
  77. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/italic-people-of-ancient-apulia/pottery-in-context-italic-sites/5020C56B75EEE3605584277E4CD8F745
  78. https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/413272
  79. https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/442603
  80. https://www.ancient-history-sites.com/sites/grumentum/
  81. https://www.italythisway.com/places/articles/paestum-history.php
  82. https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/italy/paestum/
  83. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/arp.1793
  84. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344022209_The_pre-Roman_hilltop_settlement_of_Monte_Torretta_di_Pietragalla_preliminary_results_of_the_geophysical_survey
  85. https://followinghadrian.com/2014/07/15/the-painted-tombs-of-paestum/
  86. http://pietragallaproject.eu/index.php/project/
  87. https://www.facebook.com/vulturproject/
  88. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300370911_Lucanians_and_Southern_Italy
  89. https://www.academia.edu/7115677/The_Image_of_the_Byzantines_in_Early_Medieval_South_Italy_The_Viewpoint_of_the_Chroniclers_of_the_Lombards_9th_10th_centuries_and_Normans_11th_century_
  90. https://curatorialresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/TGoskar-PhD-2009-red.pdf
  91. https://www.italia.it/en/basilicata
  92. https://epicurean-traveler.com/basilicata-italys-best-kept-secret-part-one/
  93. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517724001882
  94. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303247533_The_medieval_settlement_of_Torre_Satriano_a_multidisciplinary_approach
  95. https://archaeopresspublishing.com/ojs/index.php/groma/article/view/2424
  96. https://www.imeko.org/publications/tc4-Archaeo-2022/IMEKO-TC4-MetroArchaeo2022-007.pdf
  97. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2021/2021.07.21/
  98. https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/temporary-exhibitions/the-ancient-civilizations-of-basilicata
  99. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/update-and-synthesis-of-the-available-archaeological-and-geochronological-data-for-the-lower-paleolithic-site-of-loreto-at-venosa-basilicata-italy/8A3FF5D7E5E83E122CB41C08F026F830
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.