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MacPaint
DevelopersApple Computer, Claris
Initial release1984; 41 years ago (1984)
Final release
2.0 / January 24, 1988; 37 years ago (1988-01-24)
Written inPascal
Operating systemClassic Mac OS
(System 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
System 6
System 7)
TypeRaster graphics editor
LicenseProprietary
MacPaint image
Filename extension
.pntg[1]
Type codePNTG[1]
Uniform Type Identifier (UTI)com.apple.macpaint-image[1]
Developed byApple Computer
Type of formatImage file

MacPaint is a raster graphics editor developed by Apple Computer and released alongside the original Macintosh personal computer on January 24, 1984.[2] It was sold bundled with its word processing counterpart, MacWrite, for US$195.[3] MacPaint was notable because it could generate graphics that could be used by other applications. It taught consumers what a graphics-based system could do by using the mouse, the clipboard, and QuickDraw picture language.[4][5] Pictures could be cut from MacPaint and pasted into MacWrite documents.[5]

The original MacPaint was developed by Bill Atkinson, a member of Apple's original Macintosh development team.[6] Early development versions of MacPaint were called MacSketch, still retaining part of the name of its roots, LisaSketch.[7] It was later developed by Claris, the software subsidiary of Apple which was formed in 1987. The last version of MacPaint was version 2.0, released in 1988. It was discontinued by Claris in 1998 because of diminishing sales.[8]

Development

[edit]

MacPaint was written by Bill Atkinson, a member of Apple's original Macintosh development team.[6] The original MacPaint program consisted of 5,804 lines of Pascal computer code, augmented by another 2,738 lines of 68000 assembly language.[9] MacPaint's user interface was designed by Susan Kare, also a member of the Macintosh team.[10] Kare also beta-tested MacPaint before release.[10]

MacPaint allows users to edit a 576-by-720 pixel, 72-dpi bitmap (slightly wider than the screen, and slightly more than twice as tall as the screen). A drawing canvas occupies most of the screen real estate, offering a viewport into a portion of the bitmap, with toolbars and pattern palettes around it.[citation needed]

MacPaint uses two offscreen memory buffers to avoid flicker when dragging shapes or images across the screen.[11] One of these buffers contained the existing pixels of a document, and the other contained the pixels of its previous state.[11] The second buffer was used as the basis of the software's undo feature.[11] In April 1983, the software's name was changed from MacSketch to MacPaint.[12] The original MacPaint was programmed as a single-document interface. The palette positions and sizes were unalterable, as was the document window. This differed from other Macintosh software at the time, which allowed users to move windows and resize them.

FatBits

[edit]

The original MacPaint did incorporate a double zoom function. Instead of a zoom function, a special magnification mode called FatBits was used. FatBits showed each pixel as a clickable rectangle with a white border. The FatBits editing mode set the standard for many future editors.[13] MacPaint included a "Goodies" menu which included the FatBits tool. This menu had been named the "Aids" menu in prerelease versions, but was renamed "Goodies" as public awareness of the AIDS epidemic grew in the summer of 1983.[14][15]

Release and version history

[edit]

MacPaint was first advertised in an 18-page brochure in December 1983, following the earlier announcement of the Macintosh 128K.[16] The Macintosh was released on January 24, 1984,[15][2] with two applications, MacPaint and MacWrite. For a special post-election edition of Newsweek in November 1984, Apple spent more than US$2.5 million to buy all 39 of the advertising pages in the issue. The Newsweek advertisement included many pages dedicated to explaining how MacWrite and MacPaint worked together.[17] After launch, a New York Times reviewer noted how MacPaint unfolded numerous graphic possibilities for the personal computer; he went further to say "it is better than anything else of its kind offered on personal computers by a factor of 10."[5]

MacPaint 2.0 running on System 7

MacPaint 2.0 was released on January 11, 1988, by Claris.[18] It added many improvements to the software, including the capability to open and use up to nine documents simultaneously.[19] The original MacPaint operated as a single-document application with an immovable window. MacPaint 2.0 eliminated this limitation, introducing a fully functioning document window, which could be sized up to 8 x 10".[19] Several other features were introduced, such as a Zoom tool, MagicEraser tool for undo actions and stationary documents.[19] MacPaint 2.0 was developed by David Ramsey, a developer at Claris.[20] MacPaint 2.0 was sold for US$125, with a US$25 upgrade available for existing users of MacPaint.[19] Claris discontinued technical support for the original MacPaint in 1989.[21] Claris stopped selling MacPaint in early 1998 because of diminishing sales.[8]

Since 2010, MacPaint 1.3's source code (written in a combination of Assembly and Pascal) has been available through the Computer History Museum,[22] along with the QuickDraw source code, a library to draw bitmapped graphics,[23] due to the support of Steve Jobs.[24]

MacPaint inspired other companies to release similar products for other platforms;[25] within a year a half-dozen clones existed for the Apple II and IBM PC.[26] Some of these included Broderbund's Dazzle Draw for the Apple II, Mouse Systems' PCPaint for the PC, and IBM's Color Paint for the IBM PCjr.[27]

An unofficial update by Mac Aspect called MacPaint X was released for Mac OS X as a donationware beta in 2008. It was intended as a simple drawing program for learning to draw on a computer or for quick sketches on Apple's then current operating systems.[28][29]

Version history

[edit]
Version Release date Release information
1.0 January 24, 1984 Initial release with System Software 1.0[30]
1.3 May 1984[31] Released with System Software 1.1[32]
1.4 September 1984 Released with Macintosh 512K
1.5 April 1985 Released with System Software 2.0[33]
2.0 January 1988[34] Last release

References

[edit]
[edit]
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MacPaint

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from Grokipedia
MacPaint is a raster graphics editing application developed by Apple Computer and released on January 24, 1984, bundled with the original Macintosh 128K personal computer.[1] Created by Bill Atkinson, a key member of the Macintosh development team, it began as an evolution of his earlier LisaSketch program and was completed in October 1983 after starting in early 1983.[2] The software operated within the constraints of 128 KB of RAM on an 8 MHz processor, utilizing innovative techniques like a hidden memory buffer to enable smooth dragging without screen flicker.[2] Key features included the Fat Bits mode for pixel-level editing, the Paint Bucket tool for filling enclosed areas with color (limited to black and white in the original), and the Lasso tool for making irregular selections, which together made bitmap manipulation accessible to non-artists.[2] These tools, powered by Atkinson's QuickDraw graphics library, allowed users to draw freehand with brushes and pencils, erase, magnify images, and perform basic transformations like rotating and flipping selections.[2] MacPaint's simple yet powerful interface exemplified the Macintosh's graphical user interface philosophy, enabling the creation of icons, fonts, and illustrations that were essential for the system's software and marketing materials.[3] The program quickly became one of the first "killer applications" for personal computers, showcasing the potential of desktop publishing and digital art to a wide audience during the Macintosh's launch demonstration by Steve Jobs in January 1984.[4] Development was later transferred to Claris, Apple's software subsidiary formed in 1987, which released version 2.0 in 1988 with enhancements like support for multiple open documents and larger image sizes up to 8 by 10 inches.[2][5] Claris discontinued MacPaint in 1998 due to declining sales amid the rise of more advanced graphics software like Adobe Photoshop.[1] Its source code, consisting of approximately 5,800 lines of Pascal and 3,600 lines of assembly, was donated by Apple to the Computer History Museum in 2010, preserving a foundational piece of computing history.[2]

Development

Origins and Early Design

MacPaint's origins trace back to early 1983, when Bill Atkinson, a key member of Apple's Macintosh development team, began creating a bitmap graphics editor to demonstrate the system's graphical capabilities. Atkinson, who had previously contributed to the Lisa computer's graphics software including LisaSketch, ported and adapted these elements to the Macintosh's more constrained environment.[2] His work started in February 1983, shortly after he joined the team, with the initial version named MacSketch in reference to its Lisa predecessor. The program was renamed MacPaint around April 1983 to better reflect its expanded painting and editing functionalities. It was completed in October 1983. Atkinson developed it as one of the two core applications for the Macintosh, alongside MacWrite, the word processor developed by Randy Wigginton, to provide essential productivity tools within the system's integrated software ecosystem.[6] This pairing emphasized the Macintosh's focus on user-friendly, graphical applications that leveraged the new hardware's bitmap display. Susan Kare, who joined the Macintosh team in January 1983 as Apple's first graphic designer, played a pivotal role in shaping MacPaint's visual identity.[7] She designed the application's icons, patterns, and interface elements, including the tool palette and brush styles, using pixel-editing techniques to create a cohesive, approachable aesthetic that aligned with the Macintosh's overall user interface philosophy. Early development faced significant challenges due to the Macintosh 128K model's limited resources, including only 128 kilobytes of RAM and a single-sided 400KB floppy drive.[8] Atkinson had to optimize code meticulously to fit MacPaint and the Finder within these constraints while ensuring seamless integration with the emerging graphical user interface (GUI), for which he also authored foundational components like the Window Manager, Menu Manager, and Event Manager.[8] These efforts addressed the need to support intuitive, direct-manipulation interactions on monochrome bitmapped screens. One innovative outcome was the FatBits mode, which allowed pixel-level editing by magnifying the canvas, emerging from the demands of precise bitmap work on the small display.

Technical Implementation and Innovations

MacPaint was developed using Apple Pascal for its high-level logic, comprising 5,804 lines of code, augmented by 2,738 lines of 68000 assembly language for performance-critical operations such as graphics rendering and event handling.[9] This combination allowed for efficient execution on the limited resources of the original Macintosh, with the compiled program occupying less than 0.05 MB of memory.[9] The assembly portions optimized interactions with the Macintosh's hardware, including the 68000 processor and custom video display system, ensuring smooth operation despite the era's constraints. A core architectural feature was the use of two offscreen memory buffers, each matching the size of the active document window, to achieve flicker-free drawing and support unlimited undo operations.[9] Drawing operations were composed entirely in one buffer before being transferred to the screen in a single atomic update, eliminating visual artifacts during brush strokes or shape manipulations.[9] The second buffer maintained a copy of the prior image state, enabling instant reversion to the previous configuration upon undo requests without recomputing from scratch, which was particularly innovative given the Macintosh's 128 KB RAM limitation.[9] This double-buffering approach, combined with a third temporary buffer for selections like the lasso tool, maximized the available memory while providing responsive editing.[9] The introduction of FatBits represented a significant innovation in pixel-level editing, functioning as a magnification tool accessed via the "Goodies" menu, which was renamed from "Aids" in mid-1983 amid growing public awareness of the AIDS epidemic. In this mode, a section of the canvas was rendered at an 8x scale using an offscreen buffer, displaying each pixel as an enlarged, clickable square to facilitate precise manipulation.[9] All drawing tools remained functional in FatBits, allowing seamless transitions between normal and magnified views without interrupting the workflow, and this technique set a precedent for pixel editing in subsequent graphics software.[9] The program's bitmap was constrained to a fixed resolution of 576 × 720 pixels at 72 dpi, optimized for the Macintosh 128K's 512 × 342 pixel monochrome display and allowing for scrolling within the larger virtual canvas.[9] This resolution equated to a standard 8 × 10 inch page at the system's native density, balancing detail with memory efficiency in a 1-bit depth format.[9] Files were saved with the .pntg extension, employing the PNTG file type code and the Uniform Type Identifier com.apple.macpaint-image, structured as a 512-byte header followed by packed pixel data rows, each 72 bytes wide to accommodate the horizontal resolution.[10] This format ensured compatibility with the Macintosh Finder and QuickDraw graphics library, facilitating easy import and export in early desktop publishing workflows.[10]

Features and Functionality

Core Editing Capabilities

MacPaint provided a suite of basic tools for raster image creation and manipulation, centered on pixel-level control within its fixed 720x576 pixel monochrome canvas. The pencil tool enabled precise freehand drawing of lines and shapes, producing black pixels on a white background or vice versa, with the option to constrain lines to straight angles by holding the Shift key.[11] The brush tool allowed freehand painting with 32 selectable shapes, applying patterns along the stroke path, also supporting straight-line constraints.[11] The eraser tool removed pixels by inverting them to the background color, with a double-click clearing the entire window, and finer control available through the FatBits magnification mode for pixel-by-pixel adjustments.[11] For filling enclosed areas, the paint bucket tool applied selected patterns to bounded regions, provided the outline was solid to prevent leakage.[11] Selection tools included the lasso for irregular shapes, drawn by tracing a rope-like path around the target area, and the rectangle for straight-edged regions, enabling operations on defined portions of the image.[11] Text insertion was supported via a dedicated tool, allowing entry of characters in selectable fonts, sizes from 9 to 72 points, and styles like bold or italic, which converted to permanent pixels upon confirmation.[11] Pattern and fill options enhanced shading and texturing, with 38 predefined monochrome patterns available for use across tools like the brush and paint bucket.[11] Users could create custom patterns through the pattern editor, which displayed an 8x8 pixel grid for manual design and immediate application to the canvas.[11] These patterns facilitated effects such as gradients or textures, applied selectively to selections or freehand areas, promoting creative variation within the binary color constraint.[11] Editing operations on selections included cut, copy, and paste functions that interacted with the Macintosh clipboard, allowing removal, duplication, or relocation of image portions.[11] Additional manipulations encompassed flipping selections horizontally or vertically for mirroring effects, rotating them 90 degrees counterclockwise, and inverting colors to swap black and white pixels within the area.[11] These operations treated selections as movable bitmap chunks, supporting tasks like resizing by stretching or shrinking with modifier keys.[11] As a bitmap editor, MacPaint operated exclusively on individual pixels without support for layers, vector graphics, or non-destructive editing, requiring direct alteration of the raster data for all changes.[11] This pixel-by-pixel approach emphasized meticulous control but limited scalability and complexity, as enlargements caused pixelation and text lost editability once rasterized.[11] The program's integration with the Macintosh clipboard enabled seamless interoperability, permitting cut or copied image selections to be pasted into other applications like MacWrite for combined text and graphics documents, or vice versa for importing elements.[11] This facilitated workflow across the system's early software ecosystem without file conversion.[11]

User Interface Elements

MacPaint's user interface featured a palette-based layout that emphasized intuitive visual navigation, with a vertical tool palette positioned on the left side of the screen for selecting drawing instruments, a horizontal patterns palette at the bottom for choosing fill styles and textures, and a standard menu bar at the top providing access to core commands.[9][2] This design allowed users to interact directly with graphical elements using the mouse, minimizing the need for text-based inputs and promoting a hands-on approach to digital painting.[12] The central scrollable canvas occupied the main workspace, enabling users to pan across larger images beyond the visible 512x342 pixel screen resolution of the original Macintosh.[9] For precise pixel-level editing, the FatBits mode provided an 8x magnification of the canvas, activated through the interface to reveal individual pixels as enlarged blocks, facilitating detailed work on the monochrome bitmap.[9][2] The menu structure included File for document management, Edit for copy-paste operations (with undo supported via offscreen buffers), Select for defining selection areas, and Goodies for advanced options such as toggling FatBits or adjusting grid visibility, alongside Font, Size, and Style menus for text handling.[11][9] In version 1.0, the application operated in a single full-screen window fixed to the Macintosh's display size, limiting multitasking but ensuring a focused drawing environment; subsequent updates introduced multi-document support with resizable, overlapping windows.[13][11] Susan Kare, a key graphic designer on the Macintosh team, crafted the interface's iconic elements using simple, symbolic pixel art on a 32x32 grid, including the paintbrush icon in the tool palette to represent freehand drawing and other motifs that conveyed functionality at a glance without text labels.[14][12] Her monochrome designs, constrained by the era's hardware, prioritized clarity and recognizability, setting a standard for accessible graphical user interfaces.[14]

Release and Evolution

Initial Launch

MacPaint debuted on January 24, 1984, as a bundled application with the original Macintosh 128K computer and the word processor MacWrite, included as part of the complete system priced at $2,495.[1][15][16] The software bundle itself was valued at $195, though it was provided free with hardware purchases during the initial 100 days of availability to encourage adoption of the new platform.[17][18] The launch coincided with Apple's public introduction of the Macintosh at a shareholders' meeting and subsequent dealer events, where demonstrations highlighted MacPaint's role in showcasing the system's graphical user interface innovations, such as mouse-driven drawing tools that allowed users to create and manipulate images intuitively on screen.[4][19] Developed primarily by Bill Atkinson, the program exemplified the Macintosh's emphasis on accessible visual computing.[2] MacPaint was designed for compatibility with System Software 1.0 and the Macintosh 128K's 9-inch monochrome display, supporting bitmap graphics at a resolution of 512 by 342 pixels to match the hardware's capabilities.[20][21] Initially, distribution occurred exclusively through Apple's authorized dealers, with no standalone software sales offered at launch to prioritize bundled system purchases.[22][18]

Version Updates and Discontinuation

Following its initial release, MacPaint received several minor updates to improve compatibility with evolving Macintosh hardware and system software. Version 1.3 was issued in May 1984 alongside System Software 1.1, providing bug fixes and minor enhancements for early users.[5][23] Version 1.4 followed in September 1984, optimized specifically for the newly introduced Macintosh 512K model to address memory management issues in the expanded RAM environment.[5] By April 1985, version 1.5 arrived with System 2.0, incorporating further stability improvements and support for the updated Finder interface.[5][24] In 1987, Apple established Claris as a wholly owned subsidiary to handle the development and marketing of its application software, including MacPaint, separating these efforts from its core hardware focus.[2][25] Under Claris, the application saw its final major revision with version 2.0, released in 1988. This update introduced multi-document support, allowing up to nine windows open simultaneously, each with a maximum size of 8 by 10 inches; tear-off palettes that could float independently; and a "magic eraser" tool for more precise removal of drawn elements.[23][5] Priced at $125, version 2.0 also included refinements to the FatBits magnification mode for finer pixel-level editing.[26][27] No further official updates followed after 1988.[2] Claris discontinued MacPaint in 1998 amid declining sales, as users increasingly adopted more advanced color-based graphics tools like Adobe Photoshop for professional workflows.[2][28] The software's operation remained confined to the Classic Mac OS environment, compatible with System versions 1 through 7 but lacking native support on later systems such as Mac OS 8 or subsequent releases.[29][28]

Reception and Legacy

Contemporary Reviews

Upon its release in January 1984, MacPaint received widespread acclaim from technology reviewers for its innovative approach to digital drawing on personal computers. A New York Times review described it as "better than anything else of its kind offered on personal computers by a factor of 10," highlighting its superior capabilities in unfolding graphic possibilities such as freehand drawing compared to existing software.[30] Similarly, a Los Angeles Times assessment praised MacPaint's intuitive mouse-driven interface, noting that even non-artists could produce pleasing images, likening it to a tool that democratized graphic creation akin to word processing with MacWrite.[18] In November 1984, Apple's $2.5 million advertising campaign in a special post-election issue of Newsweek further amplified MacPaint's visibility, purchasing all 39 ad pages to showcase Macintosh capabilities, with numerous spreads demonstrating how MacPaint artwork integrated with MacWrite for illustrated documents.[31] This promotion underscored the software's role in positioning the Macintosh as an accessible creative platform. Reviewers frequently lauded its ease of use, enabling ordinary users without artistic training to experiment with tools like brushes, shapes, and text overlays, which fostered immediate engagement among early adopters.[18] However, critiques also emerged regarding MacPaint's technical constraints. Its monochrome output was a common point of limitation, restricting visuals to black-and-white on the Macintosh's screen and printer compatibility, which some reviewers saw as a shortfall compared to emerging color-capable systems.[32] MacPaint quickly became integral to early Macintosh user creativity, powering demonstrations at Apple events and appearing in publications as a staple for generating custom graphics and icons.[2] As bundled software alongside MacWrite, it significantly enhanced the Macintosh's appeal as a versatile creative tool, contributing to strong initial sales by illustrating the system's potential for integrated writing and imaging tasks.[33]

Long-Term Influence

MacPaint's innovations in bitmap graphics editing inspired numerous clones and successors across computing platforms, establishing early standards for raster-based image manipulation software. For instance, Broderbund's Dazzle Draw, released for the Apple II in 1984, emulated MacPaint's tool palette and mouse-driven interface to enable similar freehand drawing on lower-resolution hardware.[34] Similarly, PC Paint, developed by Mouse Systems for the IBM PC in 1984, replicated MacPaint's icon-based tools and clipboard functionality, positioning itself as a direct competitor to bring graphical editing to MS-DOS users.[35] These efforts extended to Microsoft's Paint program, bundled with Windows 1.0 in 1985, which adopted MacPaint's bitmap approach and user-friendly gestures as a competitive response to Apple's marketing emphasis on intuitive graphics.[36] The release of MacPaint's source code in 2010 by the Computer History Museum, facilitated by Apple CEO Steve Jobs' approval following a request from developer Andy Hertzfeld, has enabled ongoing scholarly analysis, reverse engineering, and emulation projects that preserve its technical legacy.[2][37] This openness has allowed researchers to dissect its QuickDraw integration and efficient algorithms, influencing modern recreations and educational tools for studying early GUI programming.[23] Culturally, MacPaint pioneered pixel art as an accessible medium, with its FatBits magnification tool serving as a foundational concept for precise, grid-based editing that shaped subsequent digital illustration practices.[13] Preservation efforts, such as the 2011 launch of macpaint.org, have curated historical galleries of original artworks, ensuring that early user creations from the 1980s remain viewable and appreciated today.[38][39] In terms of modern relevance, unofficial ports like MacPaint X, a 2008 donationware beta developed by Mac Aspect for Mac OS X, revived its core functionality on contemporary hardware, allowing users to experience its minimalist interface without emulation.[5] MacPaint's raster editing paradigm also indirectly influenced advanced tools, such as Adobe Photoshop's pixel-level manipulation features, by demonstrating the viability of bitmap workflows in professional software ecosystems.[40] On a broader scale, MacPaint democratized graphics editing by making visual creation intuitive for non-experts through its graphical user interface, thereby influencing enduring standards for tool palettes and direct manipulation in creative applications.[41] Recent 2025 discussions surrounding Bill Atkinson's passing have highlighted MacPaint's role in his career, underscoring its lasting impact on personal computing as a "killer app" that transformed hardware into a creative platform.[42][43]

References

  1. MacPaint (Version 1.5) : Bill Atkinson / Apple Computer
  2. MacPaint and QuickDraw Source Code - Computer History Museum
  3. Folklore.org: MacPaint Gallery
  4. Macpaint History and Significance
  5. MacPaint FAQ - Low End Mac
  6. Designing the First Apple Macintosh: The Engineers' Story
  7. https://www.folklore.org/MacPaint_Gallery.html
  8. Software wizards of the 128K Macintosh - CNET
  9. MacPaint Evolution - Folklore.org
  10. Macintosh Paint - FileFormat.Info
  11. [PDF] .. Tim Field - Vintage Apple
  12. How Susan Kare Designed User-Friendly Icons for the First Macintosh
  13. From MacSketch to MacPaint - Low End Mac
  14. Susan Kare - Apple Macintosh - Queen of pixel design - Mac History
  15. MacWrite 1.0 - WinWorld
  16. Macintosh System package - Software - Computing History
  17. Classic Mac App MacPaint Redivivus On A Browser - MacPrices
  18. Larry Magid's 1984 review of the original Macintosh - CNET
  19. Steve Jobs' First Public Demonstration of the Macintosh, Hidden ...
  20. Introduction of the Apple Macintosh | Research Starters - EBSCO
  21. MacPaint - Apple Wiki | Fandom
  22. APPLE EXPANDS PRODUCT LINE - The New York Times
  23. Investigating MacPaint's Source Code | ℤ→ℤ
  24. Apple Macintosh before System 7
  25. Claris Absorbed - TidBITS
  26. NEWLN:Computer Comment MacPaint 2.0: The wait was worth it - UPI
  27. Tech Tidbits
  28. Definition of MacPaint | PCMag
  29. MacPaint + Source Code - Macintosh Repository
  30. PERSONAL COMPUTERS; SOFTWARE FOR THE MACINTOSH
  31. Advertising; Apple and Newsweek Special - The New York Times
  32. Jan. 1984: How critics reviewed the Mac | Fortune
  33. Review: The Apple Macintosh Computer (Byte - Issue 8/1984)
  34. PERSONAL COMPUTERS; HARDWARE REVIEW: APPLE WEIGHS ...
  35. Computers: The New Breeds of Software - Time Magazine
  36. PERSONAL COMPUTERS; THREE NEW PROGRAMS FOR ...
  37. Because of the Pixels: On the History, Form, and Influence of MS Paint
  38. MacPaint Source Code Donated to Computer History Museum ...
  39. Historical Gallery and Archive - Macpaint.org
  40. Preserving Old Mac Artwork at MacPaint.org
  41. Photoshop Hall of Famer Bert Monroy Shares “Insider” Secrets of the ...
  42. https://www.fastcompany.com/3025606/5-ways-the-macintosh-changed-creativity-forever
  43. Bill Atkinson, Who Made Computers Easier to Use, Is Dead at 74
  44. Remembering Bill Atkinson, A Creative Genius Who Helped Shape ...
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