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Mace (unit)
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| Mace | |||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chinese | 錢 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vietnamese alphabet | tiền, chỉ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chữ Hán | 錢 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hangul | 돈, 전 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanja | 錢 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mongolian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mongolian Cyrillic | цэн | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Kanji | 錢 (匁[1]) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hiragana | せん (もんめ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Malay name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Malay | mas | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Indonesian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Indonesian | mas | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Manchu name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Manchu script | ᠵᡳᡥᠠ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Möllendorff | jiha | ||||||||||||||||||||||
A mace (Chinese: 錢; pinyin: qián; Hong Kong English usage: tsin;[2] Southeast Asian English usage: chee[3]) is a traditional Chinese measurement of weight in East Asia that was also used as a currency denomination. It is equal to 10 candareens and is 1⁄10 of a tael or approximately 3.78 grams. A troy mace is approximately 3.7429 grams. In Hong Kong, one mace is 3.779936375 grams.[2] and in Ordinance 22 of 1884, it is 2⁄15 ounces avoirdupois. In Singapore, one mace (referred to as chee) is 3.77994 grams.[4]
In imperial China, 10 candareens equaled 1 mace which was 1⁄10 of a tael and, like the other units, was used in weight-denominated silver currency system. A common denomination was 7 mace and 2 candareens, equal to one silver Chinese yuan.
Name
[edit]Like other similar measures such as tael and catty, the English word "mace" derives from Malay, in this case through Dutch maes, plural masen, from Malay mas which, in turn, derived from Sanskrit māṣa (माष), a word related to "mash," another name for the urad bean, and masha, a traditional Indian unit of weight equal to 0.97 gram.[5] This word is unrelated to other uses of "mace" in English.
The Chinese word for mace is qián (Chinese: 錢), which is also a generic word for "money" in Mandarin Chinese. The same Chinese character (kanji) was used for the Japanese sen, the former unit equal to 1⁄100 of a Japanese yen, the Korean chŏn (revised: jeon), the former unit equal to 1⁄100 of a Korean won, and for the Vietnamese tiền, a currency used in late imperial Vietnam, although none of these has ever been known as "mace" in English. Besides in precious metal measurements (gold, silver) in Vietnam, mace is chỉ which is equivalent to 37.5 grams.
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]- ^ weight unit (1891–1933)
- ^ a b "Weights and Measures Ordinance". The Law of Hong Kong.
- ^ "Weights and Measures" in The Miners' Pocket-book.
- ^ "Weights and Measures Act (CHAPTER 349) Third Schedule". Singapore Statutes. Archived from the original on 2017-08-20. Retrieved 2010-11-22.
- ^ "Mace n³". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
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Mace (unit)
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Definition and Etymology
Definition
The mace (Chinese: 錢; pinyin: qián) is a traditional unit of mass in East Asian measurement systems, particularly those derived from Chinese standards, where it serves as a subdivision of larger weight units used in commerce and trade. It is equal to one-tenth of a tael (liang) and comprises 10 candareens (fen), forming a key component in the hierarchical structure of these systems.[4] In standard contexts, such as under Hong Kong's Weights and Measures Ordinance, one mace is legally defined as 1/160 of a catty (jin), with the catty fixed at 604.78982 grams, yielding a precise mass of 3.779936375 grams per mace; this value originates from Ordinance 22 of 1884, which established the tael at 1⅓ avoirdupois ounces (approximately 37.799 grams), making the mace equivalent to 2/15 avoirdupois ounce.[5] The broader system integrates the mace as follows: 10 mace equal 1 tael, and 16 taels equal 1 catty of 604.78982 grams.[1] A variant known as the troy mace, specifically employed for weighing precious metals like gold and silver in Hong Kong, differs slightly at 3.7429 grams, defined as one-tenth of the troy tael of 37.429 grams. This distinction ensures accuracy in transactions involving high-value commodities, where the troy system's finer calibration aligns with international precious metal standards.[6]Etymology
The term "mace" as a unit of weight derives ultimately from the Sanskrit word māṣa (माष), which refers to the black gram bean (Vigna mungo), a small legume used in ancient India as a standard for measuring small quantities of precious metals and spices.[7] This bean, weighing approximately 0.97 grams, formed the basis for the māṣa as a fundamental weight in traditional Indian systems, where it served as a building block for larger units like the tola or ratti.[8] The māṣa thus encapsulated both a natural reference object and a precise metric in early South Asian metrology, influencing weight standards across the Indian subcontinent.[7] The concept transmitted eastward and southward through trade routes, evolving into the Malay term mas, denoting a small gold weight derived from the same Sanskrit root and still referencing the urad bean's mass.[1] The term entered English in the 19th century through European traders adopting Asian weights.[1] This borrowing reflects the linguistic adaptations in colonial commerce, where the term retained its association with fractional weights for gold and silver, typically one-tenth of a tael.[8] In Chinese contexts, the equivalent unit is known as qián (錢), a term that originally denoted a small bronze coin or shell money but extended to signify both a weight measure and currency due to the metallurgical basis of early coinage.[9] The character 錢 combines the metal radical 钅 (indicating bronze or gold) with a phonetic component suggesting thinness or division, evoking the process of minting coins from metal ingots and underscoring the intertwined roles of weight and monetary value in imperial China.[9] This dual connotation highlights how qián bridged metrology and economics, with one qián equating to the mace in international trade nomenclature.[9] By the 19th century, "mace" was documented in English trade ledgers as a standardized fraction for valuing goods, marking the term's integration into global mercantile language amid expanding colonial networks.[1]Historical Development
Origins in Ancient Systems
Early Chinese weighing systems originated from natural standards, such as seeds or grains, during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE). These rudimentary measures, including barley grains or millet seeds, were used for commodities, metals, and agricultural products. The proto-tael (liang) framework employed subunits like the zhu (approximately 0.65 grams, equivalent to 100 millet seeds), facilitating measurements in bronze-age metallurgy and exchange. This period marked a shift from ad hoc natural standards to more standardized ones, though full uniformity was not achieved until later imperial reforms.[2] During the Qin (221–206 BCE) and Han (206 BCE–220 CE) Dynasties, weights were further standardized under imperial edicts, with the liang established as a key unit for taxation and trade. Bronze and iron standards were produced, typically dividing 1 liang into 24 zhu. Han-period artifacts show variability in weights between regions, reflecting practical adaptations in trade, but without the decimal subdivisions that would later define the mace. These systems emphasized accuracy for bronze coinage and bullion, laying the groundwork for later refinements.[2] Cross-continental trade along routes like the Silk Road introduced influences from Persian and Central Asian standards, promoting hybrid practices for commerce in silks, spices, and metals. However, Chinese units maintained indigenous hierarchies, with local calibrations ensuring economic cohesion.[10]Evolution in Imperial China
China's imperial measurement system saw significant advancements starting in the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), when the mace (qian), defined as one-tenth of a tael (liang), was introduced as a new subdivision. This reform, coinciding with the standardization of copper cash coins like the Kaiyuan Tongbao (weighing approximately 3.3 grams), tied the mace closely to monetary standards. The Tang mace weighed about 4.13 grams, supporting precise weighing in expanding commerce. Emperor Qin Shi Huang's earlier Qin unification had standardized the broader liang and jin framework (1 jin ≈ 240–280 grams, comprising 16 liang), but the decimal mace solidified in Tang edicts, with bronze standards distributed to enforce consistency and penalties for inaccuracies.[2][11] Further developments occurred in the Song (960–1279 CE) and Yuan (1271–1368 CE) Dynasties, as silver sycee ingots became prominent in currency. The mace, at approximately 4 grams, gained importance for weighing ingots amid silver imports from Persian and Arab traders. In the Song, sycee integration into economic activities enhanced the unit's role in quantifying silver flows, maintaining the tael structure while prioritizing fractional precision for trade.[12][2] During the Ming (1368–1644 CE) and Qing (1644–1912 CE) Dynasties, the mace underwent stricter enforcement via government-issued standards, with copies distributed to markets to prevent discrepancies. The Ming mace weighed about 3.69 grams, and the Qing about 3.7 grams. Official scales in mace and tael units were mandated for commodities like silk, opium in international trade, and precious metals. Qing authorities issued lighter variants for silver and heavier for general goods (1 qian = 10 fen, 1 liang = 10 qian), with edicts requiring annual verifications to integrate the mace into the economic framework.[2][13] The mace's use declined in the Republican era from 1912, as metric reforms were gradually introduced alongside traditional units, though it persisted in informal trade for precious metals. The People's Republic of China officially adopted the metric system in 1959, redefining the liang at exactly 50 grams and phasing out the mace in favor of grams for standardization.[14]Regional Variations
Mainland China and Taiwan
In mainland China, the mace (qian) was rendered officially obsolete for legal purposes with the adoption of the metric system under the State Council's Order on the Unified Measurement System issued on June 25, 1959, which retained traditional market units but redefined them in decimal metric equivalents, such as setting the qian at 5 grams within the broader system where the jin equals 500 grams. Despite this transition, the traditional value of the mace at approximately 3.74 grams persists in cultural and commercial contexts, particularly for weighing precious metals in jewelry trade and herbal ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine.[15][16] During the Republican era, the Nationalist government attempted to standardize weights in 1930 by aligning traditional market units with metric approximations, establishing the qian at 3.125 grams as part of a system where the liang equaled 31.25 grams and the jin 500 grams, though this reform preceded the full metric shift and did not fully supplant traditional values in specialized sectors like apothecary or precious metals.[17] In Taiwan, the mace maintains a traditional value of 3.75 grams in customary markets for gold, silver, and herbal remedies, reflecting influences from Japanese colonial standardization where the tael (liang) was set at 37.5 grams. This usage continues alongside the metric system, with traditional units permitted in informal and cultural trade settings, though official measurements have been metric since the post-war period.[18]Hong Kong and Singapore
In Hong Kong and Singapore, the mace unit was adopted during the 19th century British colonial era to standardize measurements in trade, including commodities like opium, silver, and precious metals across Asian ports. This colonial adoption tied the mace to avoirdupois standards for precision in commercial transactions, distinguishing it from varying indigenous systems. In Hong Kong, the mace was formally defined in the Weights and Measures Ordinance of 1884 (No. 22) as exactly 2/15 avoirdupois ounce, equivalent to 3.779936375 grams.[19] This definition persists under the current Weights and Measures Ordinance (Cap. 68), where the mace (tsin) is legally 1/160 catty, with the catty fixed at 0.60478982 kilogram, making the mace suitable for gold and silver transactions.[20] The unit remains authorized for precious metals trade, as confirmed by the Hong Kong Customs and Excise Department, ensuring continuity in bullion markets despite broader metric adoption.[3] In Singapore, the mace—locally termed "chee"—is specified at 3.77994 grams under the Weights and Measures Act 1975 (Chapter 349), aligning closely with the Hong Kong standard for compatibility in regional trade.[21] It continues to serve in bullion markets for valuing gold and silver, even as metric units predominate in general commerce, reflecting the act's provisions for customary weights in specialized sectors.[22] Today, the mace is permitted for use alongside SI units in both territories' financial districts, where dual labeling in traditional and metric measures has been mandatory since the 1980s to facilitate metrication while preserving trade practices in precious metals.[23] This legal framework supports ongoing application in gold trading, such as pricing per mace in bank offerings.[24]Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Japan, Korea)
In Southeast Asia and East Asia, the mace unit, derived from Chinese imperial measurements, spread through tributary systems and trade networks that facilitated cultural and economic exchanges between China and neighboring states such as Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. These interactions, often formalized through diplomatic tribute missions, introduced standardized weights for precious metals and currencies, adapting the mace to local nomenclature and uses while maintaining approximate equivalence to 3.75 grams. This diffusion occurred primarily during dynastic periods when these countries engaged in regular tribute to Chinese courts, exchanging goods like silk, ceramics, and metals, which reinforced the adoption of Chinese-inspired metrology for regional commerce.[25] In Vietnam, the mace was known as "chỉ," equivalent to one-tenth of a lượng (tael), and standardized at 3.75 grams for measuring gold in jewelry and trade. This unit persisted in traditional gold transactions, particularly for smaller denominations in artisanal and commercial settings, until the nationwide adoption of the metric system in 1975, after which it became largely informal though still referenced in cultural practices. The chỉ's use reflected Vietnam's historical integration into the Sinocentric trade sphere via tribute relations with China, where local currencies like the tiền incorporated similar weight-based subdivisions for silver and gold exchanges.[26] During Japan's Edo period (1603–1868), the mace adapted as the "monme," a subunit of one-tenth of a ryō (gold tael), weighing approximately 3.75 grams and employed primarily for valuing silver coins in domestic and international trade. Silver was often assayed and traded by monme weight, with coins like the ichibuban gin standardized to facilitate commerce in urban markets and export to Asia. The unit became obsolete following Japan's metric system adoption in 1891 under the Meiji reforms, which aligned measurements with Western standards to modernize the economy. This adaptation stemmed from earlier Sino-Japanese exchanges, including indirect tribute influences during the Muromachi and Sengoku periods.[27][28] In Korea, during the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897), the mace functioned as a subunit of the nyang (tael) system, equivalent to one-tenth nyang or about 3.75 grams, used for weighing silver in currency and bullion transactions. Silver nyang coins and ingots were subdivided accordingly for taxation, tribute payments to China, and local markets, emphasizing purity and weight over nominal value. The system phased out in the early 1900s under Japanese colonial rule, which imposed the yen and metric equivalents, ending traditional usage by 1910. Korea's adoption mirrored its deep tributary ties to China, where nyang-based weights standardized cross-border trade in metals and goods.[29]Usage and Applications
In Trade and Precious Metals
The mace served as a key subunit in the traditional Chinese weight system, primarily employed for measuring precious metals such as gold, silver, and gems in East Asian commerce from the Song Dynasty (960–1279) onward, when silver's role in monetary and trade transactions expanded significantly.[30] This unit, equivalent to one-tenth of a tael and approximately 3.78 grams, allowed for precise quantification of high-value commodities in bustling markets across China and beyond. In apothecary practices, the mace was integral to weighing medicinal herbs and spices, enabling accurate dosing in traditional Chinese medicine formulations; specialized mace scales remain a fixture in herbal shops for portioning ingredients like ginseng or cinnamon bark.[31] The mace contributed to trade standardization along the Silk Road and in maritime exchanges, where it provided a consistent measure for valuing portable valuables amid diverse regional systems. For instance, in 16th-century Southeast Asian ports, European merchants engaged in spice transactions adapted local Asian weights, including the mace, to facilitate deals in cloves and nutmeg from Indonesian sources.[32] A representative example of its application is the standard silver sycee ingot, typically weighing 10 taels or 100 mace, which during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) equated to roughly 100 days' wages for unskilled urban laborers, underscoring the mace's role in anchoring everyday economic value to precious metal reserves.[33]As a Currency Denomination
In the late Qing dynasty, the mace served as a key subunit in the silver-based monetary system, where currency values were often denominated by weight rather than abstract units. Following reforms in the early 1900s, particularly the 1903 attempt to standardize machine-struck coins, one yuan—equivalent to a silver dollar—was defined as weighing 7 mace and 2 candareens, approximately 27 grams at 0.880 fineness and containing 23.49 grams of pure silver.[34][35] This standard aimed to unify disparate provincial mints and facilitate trade, replacing irregular sycee ingots with consistent coinage. Across East Asia, the mace influenced currency subunits under silver standards inherited from Chinese systems. In Japan, the sen, as one-hundredth of the yen, was part of a monetary framework modeled on the international trade dollar, which weighed 7 mace and 2 candareens to align with Chinese preferences for silver valuation. Similarly, Korea's jeon under the Korean Empire maintained a silver basis tied to comparable weight standards, reflecting regional adoption of mace-derived metrics for fractional coinage. In Vietnam, the tiền functioned as a subunit equivalent to one mace, where 10 tiền equaled one quan, and 60 đồng (cash coins) made one tiền, embedding the mace directly into everyday monetary divisions during the Nguyễn dynasty.[36] Under the silver standard prevalent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mace-denominated instruments proliferated to support international commerce. Provincial Chinese mints, such as those in Guangdong and Jiangnan, issued silver coins explicitly valued in mace and candareens, like the 7 mace 2 candareens dollar, to compete with foreign trade dollars.[37] In Hong Kong, British authorities struck trade dollars from 1867 to 1906, each containing the equivalent of 7 mace and 2 candareens of silver (27.22 grams at 0.900 fineness), to integrate into the Chinese market and ease cross-border payments.[38] Banknotes, too, referenced mace weights; for instance, issues by the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation in the 1890s were backed by and redeemable in silver measured to mace standards, stabilizing exchange in treaty ports. The mace's role in currency waned with the shift to fiat money. The 1935 Chinese currency reform, enacted on November 4 by the Nationalist government, nationalized silver stocks, suspended convertibility, and introduced the fabi (legal tender) notes unpegged from metal weights, effectively ending the silver-mace system after centuries of dominance.[39][40] This transition, prompted by global silver price volatility from U.S. policies, unified China's fragmented monetary landscape under paper currency issued by state banks. Despite this, the mace persists in modern gold pricing, particularly in Hong Kong, where bullion is quoted per tael (10 mace) or even per mace by major banks, preserving its utility in precious metals markets.[41][42]Modern Equivalents and Conversions
Metric and Avoirdupois Equivalents
The mace (錢), a traditional unit of mass originating from Chinese measurement systems, equates to approximately 3.78 grams or 0.00378 kilograms in the metric system, with the precise conversion formula being mass in grams = mace × 3.78.[3] In Hong Kong, this standard mace is legally defined as 1/160 of a catty, where the catty measures 604.78982 grams, yielding exactly 3.779936375 grams per mace.[43] In avoirdupois units, 1 mace corresponds to 2/15 avoirdupois ounces, or approximately 0.1333 ounces.[43] The Hong Kong-specific value derives from this fraction applied to the avoirdupois ounce of 28.3495 grams, resulting in 1 mace = (2/15) × 28.3495 grams.[43] For precious metals trade, the troy mace is employed, weighing 3.7429 grams or 0.0037429 kilograms, equivalent to 1/10 of a troy tael defined at 37.429 grams. This troy mace measures approximately 0.1203 troy ounces, calculated from the standard troy ounce of 31.1034768 grams.Comparisons with Western Units
The mace (qian 錢), a subdivision of the tael equal to one-tenth of that unit, has historically varied slightly in mass but is standardized at approximately 3.7 grams in the Qing dynasty's kuping system for weighing precious metals and medicines.[2][44] This equates to about 0.119 troy ounces, the preferred Western unit for gold and silver in international trade, or roughly 0.131 avoirdupois ounces, the standard English unit for general commodities. These conversions facilitated 19th-century commerce between China and European powers, where silver payments were often denominated in maces and taels but settled using troy weights in Western ledgers.[2][44] In regions influenced by British colonial administration, such as Hong Kong and Singapore, the mace was legally aligned more closely with avoirdupois measures to ease trade. In Singapore, it aligns with the Hong Kong standard of 3.7799 grams. For instance, under Hong Kong's 1884 Weights and Measures Ordinance, one mace was defined as exactly 2/15 avoirdupois ounces (approximately 3.78 grams), reflecting an adjustment from the mainland Chinese standard to integrate with imperial British systems. This equivalence allowed merchants to convert between local and Western units without significant loss, though troy ounces remained dominant for bullion transactions due to their finer precision in assaying.[45][46]| Unit/System | Mace Equivalent | Context |
|---|---|---|
| Grams (historical to modern) | 3.7–3.78 g | General and regional standards[2][44] |
| Troy ounce (precious metals) | 0.119 ozt | Historical trade in silver and gold |
| Avoirdupois ounce (general) | 0.131 oz | Colonial-era legal definitions, e.g., Hong Kong Ordinance[45] |