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Melilotus
Melilotus
Melilotus
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This article is about the genus of grassland plants. For the moshav, see Mlilot.

Melilotus
Melilotus officinalis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Tribe: Trifolieae
Genus: Melilotus
Mill.[1]
Type species
Melilotus officinalis
(L.) Lam.
Species

See text

Synonyms

Brachylobus Dulac (1867)[1][2]
Melilothus Homem. (1819)[2]
Melilota Medik. (1787)[1][2]
Meliotus Steud. (1841)[2]
Sertula O. Ktze. (1891)[1][2]

Melilotus albus

Melilotus, known as melilot[3][4] or sweet clover is a genus of legumes in the family Fabaceae, native to Europe, Asia, and Africa.[1] The genus is closely related to Trifolium (clovers). Several species are common grassland plants and weeds of cultivated ground, and some species are now found worldwide as naturalised plants.[1]

The scientific and English names both derive from Greek melílōtos from méli (honey), and lōtos (lotus), via Latin melilōtos and Old French mélilot.[5] The alternative name "sweet clover" varies in orthography, also cited as sweet-clover and sweetclover. Other names include "kumoniga", from the Cumans.[6]

Description

[edit]

The species are annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants, growing to 50–150 cm tall, with trifoliate leaves similar to clover but narrower, the leaflets only about half as wide as long, and with a serrated margin; each leaf also has two small basal stipules. The flowers are similar to clover flowers, but produced in open racemes 2–5 cm or more long, rather than the dense ovoid heads of Trifolium species; they are mostly white or yellow. The seeds are produced singly or in pairs in small pods 1.5–5 mm long.[3][4]

Species

[edit]

The genus Melilotus currently has 23 accepted species and two natural hybrids:[1]

Hybrids

Others

[edit]

Blue melilot (Trigonella caerulea; more often known as blue fenugreek) is not a member of the genus, despite the English name.

Uses

[edit]

Melilotus species are eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, such as those of the genus Coleophora, including C. frischella and C. trifolii.

The plants have a sweet smell, which is due to the presence of coumarin in the tissues. Coumarin, though responsible for the sweet smell of hay and newly mowed grass, has a bitter taste, and, as such, possibly acts as a means for the plant to discourage consumption by animals.[7] Some mould fungi (including Penicillium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Mucor[8]) can convert coumarin into dicoumarol, a toxic anticoagulant. Consequently, dicoumarol may be found in decaying Melilotus, and was the cause of the so-called "sweet-clover disease", identified in cattle in the 1920s.[9] A few cultivars have been developed with low coumarin content and are safer for forage and silage.[10]

Some species are used as a green manure, grown for a while and then ploughed into the soil to increase the soil nitrogen and organic matter content. It is especially valuable in heavy soils because of its deep rooting. However, it may fail if the soil is too acidic. Unscarified seed is best sown in spring when the ground is not too dry; scarified seed is better sown in late fall or even in the snow, so it will germinate before competing weeds the following spring.[11]

Melilotus siculus is notable for its high combined tolerance to salinity and waterlogging. As of 2019, the cultivar 'Neptune' has the highest tolerance and persistence under salinity among all pasture legumes, according to the Australian Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development. The salt-tolerant symbioant Ensifer medicae SRDI554 is recommended.[12]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Melilotus

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Melilotus is a of approximately 19 of , biennial, or short-lived herbs in the Fabaceae (legume family), native to temperate and subtropical regions of Europe, , and , with widespread introduction to other parts of the world, including , , and . Commonly known as sweet clovers or melilots, the plants are characterized by erect or ascending stems up to 3 m tall, odd-pinnate leaves with three serrulate leaflets, and small papilionaceous flowers—typically white or yellow—that are borne in slender, elongate racemes and emit a characteristic sweet, honey-like fragrance due to compounds in the foliage and flowers. The fruits are small, compressed, reticulate-veined or wrinkled legumes containing one or two smooth or papillate seeds. The genus derives its name from the Greek words meli (honey) and lotos (a clover-like plant), reflecting its attractiveness to bees and role in honey production. Notable species include Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover), Melilotus albus (white sweet clover), and Melilotus indicus (annual yellow sweet clover), which are among the most widely cultivated and naturalized. These plants thrive in disturbed habitats such as roadsides, fields, and waste areas, often forming dense stands due to their prolific seeding and tolerance of poor soils, drought, and temperature extremes. Ecologically, Melilotus species contribute to soil nitrogen fixation through symbiotic relationships with rhizobial bacteria, enhancing fertility in crop rotations, but they can also become invasive, outcompeting native vegetation in grasslands and prairies. Economically, sweet clovers are valued as crops for , green manures, cover crops for , and revegetation in reclamation projects, owing to their high production and nutritional quality when properly managed to minimize coumarin-induced risks. They also serve as important sources for pollinators and have been studied as model organisms for genetic research on . Taxonomically, Melilotus is placed in the tribe Trifolieae, with ongoing debates about its delimitation from related genera like , potentially leading to future revisions. Despite their benefits, management is required in non-native ranges to mitigate ecological impacts.

Taxonomy and Morphology

Taxonomy

Melilotus is a genus within the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae, and tribe Trifolieae. This classification places it among the legumes, characterized by nitrogen-fixing capabilities typical of the subfamily. The genus is closely related to Trifolium (clovers) and Trigonella, sharing phylogenetic affinities within the tribe Trifolieae, as evidenced by molecular analyses of chloroplast and nuclear DNA sequences. The etymology of Melilotus derives from the Greek word melilōtos, a compound of mēli (honey) and lōtos (a leguminous plant), alluding to the honey-scented, nectar-rich flowers that draw pollinators like bees. The genus was established by in 1754, based on Linnaean species, with Melilotus officinalis designated as the . Current recognizes 23 accepted species and 2 natural hybrids in Melilotus, primarily distributed in temperate . Phylogenetic studies confirm the of the within , distinguishing it from close relatives like Medicago through seed morphology and DNA markers, though some historical classifications grouped it under Trifolium. Recent updates, as per (POWO), follow the acceptance by Stalažs in 2024, resolving prior delimitation issues with genera such as Trigonella and Medicago. Notably, the plant commonly called "blue melilot" (Trigonella caerulea) is unrelated and belongs to a different in the same .

Morphology

Melilotus species are herbaceous plants that exhibit annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial growth forms, typically reaching heights of 50–150 cm, though some can grow up to 3 m under favorable conditions. They are erect and freely branched, with stems that are longitudinally ridged and sparsely puberulent to glabrescent. The root system features a prominent taproot that can extend 1.2–1.7 m deep, accompanied by lateral roots spreading 15–20 cm from the main axis, supporting nutrient storage in the first year of growth. The leaves are alternate and trifoliate, consisting of three lanceolate to ovate leaflets measuring 1–3 cm long and 0.5–1.5 cm wide, with serrated margins on the upper half and often a pointed apex. Stipules are linear, 3–7 mm long, and may be fused to the petioles, aiding in plant identification within the Fabaceae family. Leaflets are smooth or slightly hairy on the underside, contributing to the plant's overall glabrous to sparsely pubescent appearance. Inflorescences form as axillary racemes, which are open and one-sided, ranging from 4–12 cm in length and bearing 30–100 small, pea-like flowers. Flowers are bilaterally symmetrical, 3.5–7 mm long, with five petals and sepals, and occur in white (M. albus) or yellow (M. officinalis) varieties, attracting pollinators during the summer months. Fruits develop as small, ovoid to spherical , 1.5–5 mm long and 1.5–2 mm wide, that do not dehisce upon maturity and typically contain 1–2 smooth about 2.5 mm long. Seed production varies, with estimates of 100,000–350,000 per plant depending on the species and conditions. In their biennial life cycle, Melilotus plants in spring or fall, forming a rosette in the first year to store energy in the before bolting and flowering in the second year. often requires to break the hard, impermeable seed coat, particularly for fall sowing, where methods like mechanical abrasion, treatment, or brief exposure to high heat (e.g., 100 °C for 4 minutes) achieve rates above 50%; unscarified may show less than 25% due to . Chilling or alternated wet heat and ice water cycles can also enhance viability for stored .

Species and Distribution

Accepted Species

The genus Melilotus includes 23 accepted species, all herbaceous plants in the family , predominantly annual or biennial with trifoliate leaves and small, pea-like flowers arranged in racemes. Most species are native to temperate , with a few extending into subtropical and , and are distinguished primarily by flower color (yellow or white), stem pubescence, leaf serration, and pod morphology. Infrageneric classification recognizes two subgenera: Eumelilotus (biennials with larger flowers, including the white-flowered M. albus) and Micromelilotus (annuals with smaller flowers), further divided into sections such as Melilotus, Albus, and Dentati based on morphological traits like calyx shape and seed surface. The accepted species are listed below, with key distinguishing features including growth habit, flower color, and notable morphological traits.
SpeciesAuthorNative RegionKey Traits
Melilotus albusMedik.Temperate to Indo-China, N. Biennial; white flowers; erect stems up to 2 m tall; smooth pods.
Melilotus altissimusThuill.Temperate Biennial; yellow flowers; tall stems (1-2.5 m); finely serrated leaflets.
Melilotus arenariusGrecescuTemperate (sandy habitats)Annual; yellow flowers; prostrate habit; adapted to arid sands.
Melilotus bicolorBoiss. & BalansaSW Annual; bicolored flowers (yellow-white); small stature.
Melilotus dentatus(Waldst. & Kit.) Pers.Temperate Annual; yellow flowers; coarsely toothed leaflets; pubescent stems.
Melilotus elegansSalzm. ex Ser.Mediterranean to SW Annual; yellow flowers; slender, elegant racemes; smooth seeds.
Melilotus hirsutusLipsky to Annual or biennial; yellow flowers; densely hairy stems and leaves.
Melilotus indicus(L.) All.Mediterranean to , Annual; small yellow flowers; low-growing (up to 0.5 m); drought-tolerant.
Melilotus infestusGuss.MediterraneanAnnual; yellow flowers; aggressive growth in disturbed areas; ridged pods.
Melilotus italicus(L.) Lam.MediterraneanAnnual; yellow flowers; narrow leaflets; occurs in coastal habitats.
Melilotus macrocarpusCoss. & DurieuN. , SW Annual; yellow flowers; large pods (up to 5 mm); robust habit.
Melilotus messanensis(L.) All.MediterraneanAnnual; yellow flowers; finely pubescent; common in Sicily and Greece.
Melilotus neapolitanusTurraMediterranean to Annual; yellow flowers; short racemes; limited to Italy and nearby.
Melilotus officinalis(L.) Lam.Europe to W. Himalaya, Arabian PeninsulaBiennial; yellow flowers; erect to 2 m; sweetly scented when dry.
Melilotus polonicus(L.) Desr.Temperate Annual or biennial; yellow flowers; Polish origin, weedy habit.
Melilotus segetalis(Brot.) Ser.Mediterranean to IberiaAnnual; yellow flowers; field weed; small seeds.
Melilotus serratifoliusTackh. & BoulosMiddle EastAnnual; yellow flowers; serrated leaves; arid-adapted.
Melilotus speciosusDurieuN. Annual; showy yellow flowers; ornamental-like appearance.
Melilotus suaveolensLedeb.Temp. to Indo-ChinaAnnual or perennial; pale yellow flowers; mild fragrance.
Melilotus sulcatusDesf.Mediterranean to Middle EastAnnual; yellow flowers; furrowed pods; prostrate forms.
Melilotus siculusTurraMediterranean (Sicily)Annual; yellow flowers; similar to M. neapolitanus but with distinct pod veins.
Melilotus tauricus(M.Bieb.) Ser.Black Sea region, CrimeaAnnual; yellow flowers; coastal dunes; salt-tolerant.
Melilotus wolgicusPoir.S. & E. Europe to MongoliaAnnual or biennial; yellow flowers; Volga River basin endemic traits.
Two natural hybrids are recognized within the : Melilotus × dalmaticus Beck (parentage M. albus × M. dentatus), characterized by intermediate white-yellow flowers and partial sterility, and Melilotus × macrorrhizus (parentage M. albus × M. officinalis), with larger roots and hybrid vigor but reduced fertility. These hybrids occur rarely in overlap zones and highlight the close phylogenetic relationships among Eurasian species. No infraspecific varieties are universally accepted across all species, though some like M. officinalis var. micranthus are noted in regional floras for minor pod size differences.

Global Distribution

The genus Melilotus is native primarily to temperate regions of , extending from and the Mediterranean Basin through central to Indo-China, as well as parts of including the , , and southern . Specific native distributions encompass a wide array of countries such as , , , (various regions), , , , , , , , , , (multiple areas), , , , and many others across these continents. Several Melilotus species have been widely introduced and naturalized outside their native ranges, particularly in temperate zones worldwide. In , species like M. officinalis and M. albus are established across the and , from to and to . In , they occur in countries including , , , , and . Naturalization has also occurred in (e.g., , , , and ), , and scattered locations in , , and oceanic islands such as and . The global spread of Melilotus has largely resulted from human activities, especially agricultural introduction as crops, green manures, and soil improvers since the . For instance, M. officinalis (yellow sweetclover) was brought to in the early 1800s and has since become invasive in regions like the Midwestern U.S. prairies, northern floodplains, the Territory, and southern Ontario, where it outcompetes native vegetation. Similarly, M. albus (white sweetclover) is considered invasive in parts of the U.S. and has naturalized aggressively in Australian temperate grasslands. As of recent assessments, these species continue to expand in disturbed habitats globally, though their status varies by region—ranging from beneficial in some agricultural contexts to problematic weeds in natural ecosystems.

Ecology and Interactions

Habitats and Growth

Melilotus species, commonly known as sweet clovers, thrive in a variety of open and disturbed habitats worldwide, including grasslands, roadsides, prairies, riparian zones, and floodplains. These plants are particularly well-suited to temperate regions with moderate , where they often colonize nutrient-poor or compacted soils that other struggles to occupy. For instance, they are frequently found in sand dunes, sagebrush steppes, and bunchgrass communities, demonstrating a preference for sunny, well-drained sites with minimal competition from established perennials. In terms of growth dynamics, Melilotus exhibits a biennial life cycle in most temperate climates, with rapid establishment under moist conditions during the first . develop into low-growing rosettes that overwinter successfully, enabling quick bolting and stem elongation the following spring to heights of 1-3 meters. This fast growth allows the to outcompete slower-establishing natives in disturbed areas, with flowering typically occurring from to depending on species and —yellow-flowered M. officinalis often blooming earlier than white-flowered M. albus. The genus shows remarkable environmental adaptations that enhance its persistence in challenging conditions. Melilotus tolerates through a deep system that accesses subsoil moisture, performing well in areas with as little as 9-12 inches of annual , and is more resilient in dry years than many associated species. It grows on a wide range of textures from sands to clays, preferring neutral to alkaline pH levels above 5.5-6.0 and substrates, though productivity increases with moderate fertility and available and . tolerance varies by species, with M. officinalis and M. albus showing moderate tolerance up to an electrical conductivity (EC) of 10 dS/m, and yield thresholds around 4 dS/m; while M. siculus, exemplified by the salt-tolerant 'Neptune' accession, persists in higher saline environments up to 30 dS/m EC akin to Mediterranean saltlands. Additionally, as nitrogen-fixing , Melilotus species form symbiotic root nodules with , improving nitrogen levels by 12-100 kg/ha annually and enabling growth on low-fertility sites.

Biological Interactions

Melilotus species, particularly M. officinalis and M. albus, attract a variety of pollinators due to their abundant and production. These plants are primarily cross-pollinated by , including honey bees (Apis mellifera), bumble bees, and leaf-cutter bees, which visit the perfect flowers during blooming periods from late spring through fall. Yellow sweetclover (M. officinalis) and white sweetclover (M. albus) serve as major sources, enabling significant production with yields supporting surplus honey of light color and mild flavor. In the northern , Melilotus spp. account for a substantial portion of bee-collected , with M. officinalis receiving up to 78% of honey bee visits in conservation fields. Melilotus acts as a host for herbivorous , notably serving as a larval food source for certain . The large clover case-bearer moth (Coleophora trifolii) uses seeds of M. officinalis, M. altissimus, and M. albus as primary , with larvae constructing protective cases from seedpods and feeding from to May. Other , including various seed-feeding and foliage-consuming , contribute to herbivory on Melilotus, influencing and fitness in natural habitats. In symbiosis, Melilotus forms mutualistic associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, primarily Sinorhizobium meliloti (formerly Rhizobium meliloti), which colonize root nodules to convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable forms. This process enhances soil nitrogen levels, benefiting the host and subsequent vegetation. Additionally, Melilotus exhibits potential allelopathic effects through root and shoot exudates containing coumarin and flavone glycosides, which inhibit seed germination and seedling growth in co-occurring species. For instance, coumarin from M. neapolitana reduces germination by up to 86% and root elongation by 100% in associated grasses and forbs at concentrations as low as 10⁻⁴ M. As an in introduced regions, Melilotus competes aggressively with native flora, altering community dynamics through resource dominance and shading. In Alaskan floodplains, M. albus presence increases native mortality by approximately 50% and reduces recruiting by 25% compared to removal plots, primarily due to decreased light availability ( PAR reduced to 529 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹). This competition facilitates its spread in disturbed habitats like roadsides and grasslands, often displacing indigenous plants and modifying succession patterns.

Cultivation and Uses

Cultivation Practices

Melilotus species, commonly known as sweetclovers, are typically sown in spring using scarified to ensure prompt , while fall or winter plantings often utilize unscarified to allow natural stratification over the cold period. Seeding rates vary by purpose and seed condition, ranging from 10-15 pounds per acre for scarified in pure stands to 25 pounds per acre for unscarified , with depths of 1/8 to 1/2 inch recommended for optimal establishment. These plants thrive in well-drained, medium-textured soils with a greater than 5.5, preferring full sun exposure and tolerating annual precipitation of 9-20 inches, though they exhibit moderate resistance once established. To prevent and other diseases, sweetclover should be incorporated into crop rotations that include non-legume crops for at least three to four years prior to planting. Varietal selection depends on intended use and environmental conditions; for production, low-coumarin cultivars such as Norgold (yellow sweetclover) and Polara (white sweetclover) minimize risks, while salt-tolerant strains like (Melilotus siculus) are suitable for saline or waterlogged sites. Harvesting for hay or is best timed at the bud to 10% bloom stage to maximize yield and , leaving 10-12 inches of stubble to promote regrowth, with to 12-14% moisture for storage. For seed production, should be swathed when 30-60% of pods turn brown or black, followed by combining, potentially yielding 50-700 pounds per acre depending on support.

Agricultural and Medicinal Uses

Melilotus species, particularly (yellow sweetclover) and (white sweetclover), serve as important crops in , providing high-quality hay, , or for such as , sheep, and . Their is comparable to in the first year of growth, with second-year yields typically reaching 2-3 tons per acre , though declines as mature. As cover crops and , Melilotus plants excel in , contributing 90-170 pounds of nitrogen per acre annually, which enriches soil for subsequent crops. Their deep taproots, extending up to 5 feet, aerate compacted subsoil, enhance water infiltration, and mobilize nutrients like and , while total production ranges from 3,000 to 9,000 pounds per acre over one or two seasons, equivalent to 5-10 tons per in biennial systems. Melilotus is a major nectar source for honey production, attracting bees and supporting yields of up to 200 pounds of honey per colony, making it a favored plant for beekeepers in regions like the northern United States. In traditional medicine, infusions of Melilotus aerial parts have been used to alleviate digestive disorders, arthritis, bronchitis, and edema related to poor circulation, with external applications for wounds and burns. Modern applications include standardized extracts in supplements for chronic venous insufficiency and leg discomfort, where doses of 200-400 mg daily reduce swelling and improve symptoms, attributed to bioactive coumarins and flavonoids like quercetin and hyperoside. Beyond and , Melilotus aids on disturbed sites such as road cuts, mine spoils, and post-fire areas through rapid accumulation and self-seeding on slopes. It also improves by increasing and structure, facilitating reclamation of degraded lands like abandoned fields.

Toxicity and Management

Toxicity Mechanisms

The primary toxin in Melilotus species is coumarin, a secondary metabolite present in concentrations ranging from 0.05% to 1.5% of dry matter, depending on the species and environmental conditions. This non-toxic compound in fresh or properly dried plants becomes hazardous when the forage spoils under damp conditions, as molds such as Penicillium and Aspergillus species convert coumarin into dicoumarol (3,3'-methylenebis-4-hydroxycoumarin), a potent anticoagulant. Dicoumarol concentrations can reach 20–30 mg/kg in weathered hay bales, sufficient to induce toxicity in ruminants. Dicoumarol acts as a by inhibiting the enzyme , which disrupts the gamma-carboxylation of factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X in the liver. This leads to prolonged and impaired blood clotting, resulting in hemorrhagic diathesis known as "sweet clover disease," primarily affecting but also sheep, horses, and pigs. The toxin readily crosses the , causing neonatal hemorrhages, and is excreted slowly in ruminants due to enterohepatic recirculation, exacerbating chronic exposure effects. Clinical manifestations include spontaneous external bleeding (e.g., epistaxis, subcutaneous hematomas) and internal hemorrhages (e.g., , ), often accompanied by lameness, stiffness, and from . Pathologically, affected animals exhibit widespread ecchymoses, organ hemorrhages, and, in fatal cases, ; survivors may develop regenerative with elevated prothrombin times. The disease's severity correlates with dicoumarol intake, with requiring ingestion of 0.025–0.05 mg/kg body weight daily for clinical signs to appear. Coumarin content varies significantly among Melilotus species, with higher levels typically in M. officinalis (mean 0.83% dry matter, range 0.3–1.5%) compared to M. albus (mean 0.73%, range 0.2–1.3%). Other species like M. suaveolens reach up to 0.753%, while M. siculus and M. segetalis show lower means (0.007–0.100%). This intraspecific and interspecific variation influences toxicity risk, prompting breeding programs since the mid-20th century to develop low-coumarin cultivars, such as NORGOLD (M. officinalis) and DENTA (M. albus), which reduce coumarin to negligible levels while maintaining agronomic traits. The condition was first documented in the in North American livestock, particularly in the northern U.S. and , where wet summers led to widespread spoilage of sweet clover hay and an of fatal hemorrhagic in herds. Canadian veterinarian Frank Schofield initially linked the outbreaks to moldy Melilotus in , and subsequent research by Karl Paul Link's team at the University of Wisconsin isolated dicoumarol in 1939–1941, confirming the biochemical basis.

Safety and Management

To mitigate risks associated with Melilotus species, particularly the coumarin-derived dicoumarol formed in moldy , proper management during harvesting and storage is essential. Hay or containing Melilotus should be thoroughly dried before baling to prevent fungal growth that converts to dicoumarol, with ideal moisture levels below 20% to minimize spoilage. Selecting low- varieties, such as certain cultivars of or M. albus, further reduces potential in feed, as these contain less than 0.1% on a dry weight basis compared to wild types. For animals exhibiting symptoms of dicoumarol poisoning, such as hemorrhage or prolonged clotting times, immediate removal from contaminated feed is critical to halt exposure, with new cases potentially appearing up to six weeks later due to the toxin's persistence. Treatment involves parenteral administration of vitamin K1 (phytonadione), typically at 1.1–3.3 mg/kg body weight intramuscularly, which restores clotting factors within hours to days and has proven effective in calves and cattle. Regulatory guidelines for animal feed limit dicoumarol to below 20 mg/kg in hay to avoid chronic exposure leading to poisoning after 100 days of feeding, while levels above 60 mg/kg can cause acute issues within weeks. In human applications, Melilotus poses low risk when used in food or medicinal preparations if properly processed to degrade , such as through drying or extraction methods that limit intake to under the European Food Safety Authority's tolerable daily intake of 0.1 mg/kg body weight. Allergenic reactions are rare, though possible in sensitive individuals, and clinical studies indicate good tolerance for herbal extracts at doses up to 2.4 g daily without . As an in non-native regions like , Melilotus management focuses on preventing spread through repeated mowing at the full-bloom to deplete reserves over two years, often combined with prescribed burns in spring to target seedlings. applications, such as chlorsulfuron at 17.6 g per in fall or early spring, effectively reduce viable production by over 90% when timed to the rosette , though integrated approaches with native restoration are recommended for long-term control.

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  41. https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258%2819%2962862-0/fulltext
  42. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00288233.2010.495743
  43. https://extension.sdstate.edu/sweet-clover-poisoning
  44. https://vetster.com/en/conditions/horse/moldy-sweet-clover-poisoning-dicoumarol-toxicosis
  45. https://www.canadiancattlemen.ca/vet-advice/vet-advice-sweet-clover-poisoning-in-cattle/
  46. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2414258/
  47. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/special-pet-topics/poisoning/sweet-clover-poisoning
  48. https://poisonousplants.cvmbs.colostate.edu/plant/9
  49. https://www.fitoterapia.net/archivos/201704/wc500225876.pdf?1
  50. https://www.tnipc.org/invasive-plants/plant-details/?id=97
  51. https://conservemc.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/INHS-White-Yellow-Sweet-Clover.pdf
  52. https://www.mdc.mo.gov/trees-plants/invasive-plants/white-yellow-sweet-clover-control
  53. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232672196_Invasive_White_Sweetclover_Melilotus_officinalis_Control_with_Herbicides_Cutting_and_Flaming
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