Hubbry Logo
Metre (music)Metre (music)Main
Open search
Metre (music)
Community hub
Metre (music)
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Metre (music)
Metre (music)
Metre (music)
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Musical and lyric metre

In music, metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling) refers to regularly recurring patterns and accents such as bars and beats. Unlike rhythm, metric onsets are not necessarily sounded, but are nevertheless implied by the performer (or performers) and expected by the listener.[not verified in body]

A variety of systems exist throughout the world for organising and playing metrical music, such as the Indian system of tala and similar systems in Arabic and African music.

Western music inherited the concept of metre from poetry,[1][2] where it denotes the number of lines in a verse, the number of syllables in each line, and the arrangement of those syllables as long or short, accented or unaccented.[1][2] The first coherent system of rhythmic notation in modern Western music was based on rhythmic modes derived from the basic types of metrical unit in the quantitative metre of classical ancient Greek and Latin poetry.[3]

Later music for dances such as the pavane and galliard consisted of musical phrases to accompany a fixed sequence of basic steps with a defined tempo and time signature. The English word "measure", originally an exact or just amount of time, came to denote either a poetic rhythm, a bar of music, or else an entire melodic verse or dance[4] involving sequences of notes, words, or movements that may last four, eight or sixteen bars.[citation needed]

Metre is related to and distinguished from pulse, rhythm (grouping), and beats:

Meter is the measurement of the number of pulses between more or less regularly recurring accents. Therefore, in order for meter to exist, some of the pulses in a series must be accented—marked for consciousness—relative to others. When pulses are thus counted within a metric context, they are referred to as beats.[5]

Metric structure

[edit]

The term metre is not very precisely defined.[1] Stewart MacPherson preferred to speak of "time" and "rhythmic shape",[6] while Imogen Holst preferred "measured rhythm".[7] However, Justin London has written a book about musical metre, which "involves our initial perception as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of the music as it unfolds in time".[8] This "perception" and "abstraction" of rhythmic bar is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into "tick–tock–tick–tock".[1] "Rhythms of recurrence" arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups.[9] In his book The Rhythms of Tonal Music, Joel Lester notes that, "[o]nce a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, will maintain that organization as long as minimal evidence is present".[10]

Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division levels above and multiple levels below.

"Meter may be defined as a regular, recurring pattern of strong and weak beats. This recurring pattern of durations is identified at the beginning of a composition by a meter signature (time signature). ... Although meter is generally indicated by time signatures, it is important to realize that meter is not simply a matter of notation".[11] A definition of musical metre requires the possibility of identifying a repeating pattern of accented pulses – a "pulse-group" – which corresponds to the foot in poetry.[citation needed] Frequently a pulse-group can be identified by taking the accented beat as the first pulse in the group and counting the pulses until the next accent.[12][1]

Frequently metres can be subdivided into a pattern of duples and triples.[12][1]

For example, a 3
4 metre consists of three units of a 2
8 pulse group, and a 6
8 metre consists of two units of a 3
8 pulse group. In turn, metric bars may comprise 'metric groups' - for example, a musical phrase or melody might consist of two bars x 3
4.[13]

The level of musical organisation implied by musical metre includes the most elementary levels of musical form.[6] Metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm are general classes of rhythm and may be distinguished in all aspects of temporality:[14]

  • Metrical rhythm, by far the most common class in Western music, is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a fixed unit (beat, see paragraph below), and normal accents reoccur regularly, providing systematic grouping (bars, divisive rhythm).
  • Measured rhythm is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but there are not regularly recurring accents (additive rhythm).
  • Free rhythm is where the time values are not based on any fixed unit; since the time values lack a fixed unit, regularly recurring accents are no longer a possibility.

Some music, including chant, has freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse.[1] Some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric.[15] The music term senza misura is Italian for "without metre", meaning to play without a beat, using time (e.g. seconds elapsed on an ordinary clock) if necessary to determine how long it will take to play the bar.[16][page needed]

Metric structure includes metre, tempo, and all rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity or structure, against which the foreground details or durational patterns of any piece of music are projected.[17] Metric levels may be distinguished: the beat level is the metric level at which pulses are heard as the basic time unit of the piece.[citation needed] Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels.[17] A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level.[citation needed]

Frequently encountered types of metre

[edit]

Metres classified by the number of beats per measure

[edit]

Duple and quadruple metre

[edit]

In duple metre, each measure is divided into two beats, or a multiple thereof (quadruple metre).

For example, in the time signature 2
4, each bar contains two (2) quarter-note (4) beats. In the time signature 6
8, each bar contains two dotted-quarter-note beats.

\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 2/4 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4 d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a } } >>
\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 6/8 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4. = 80 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a } } >>

Corresponding quadruple metres are 4
4, which has four quarter-note beats per measure, and 12
8, which has four dotted-quarter-note beats per bar.

\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 4/4 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4 d' g, d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a a a } } >>
\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 12/8 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4. = 80 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. d' g, d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a a a a a a a } } >>

Triple metre

[edit]

Triple metre is a metre in which each bar is divided into three beats, or a multiple thereof. For example, in the time signature 3
4, each bar contains three (3) quarter-note (4) beats, and with a time signature of 9
8, each bar contains three dotted-quarter beats.

\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 3/4 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4 d' d } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8[ a] a[ a] a[ a] } } >>
\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 9/8 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4. = 80 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. d' d } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a a a a } } >>

More than four beats

[edit]

Metres with more than four beats are called quintuple metres (5), sextuple metres (6), septuple metres (7), etc.

In classical music theory it is presumed that only divisions of two or three are perceptually valid, so a metre not divisible by 2 or 3, such as quintuple metre, say 5
4, is assumed to either be equivalent to a measure of 3
4 followed by a measure of 2
4, or the opposite: 2
4 then 3
4. Higher metres which are divisible by 2 or 3 are considered equivalent to groupings of duple or triple metre measures; thus, 6
4, for example, is rarely used because it is considered equivalent to two measures of 3
4. See: hypermetre and additive rhythm and divisive rhythm.

Higher metres are used more commonly in analysis, if not performance, of cross-rhythms, as lowest number possible which may be used to count a polyrhythm is the lowest common denominator (LCD) of the two or more metric divisions. For example, much African music is recorded in Western notation as being in 12
8, the LCD of 4 and 3.

Metres classified by the subdivisions of a beat

[edit]

Simple metre and compound metre are distinguished by the way the beats are subdivided.

Simple metre

[edit]

Simple metre (or simple time) is a metre in which each beat of the bar divides naturally into two (as opposed to three) equal parts. The top number in the time signature will be 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.

For example, in the time signature 3
4, each bar contains three quarter-note beats, and each of those beats divides into two eighth notes, making it a simple metre. More specifically, it is a simple triple metre because there are three beats in each measure; simple duple (two beats) or simple quadruple (four) are also common metres.

\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 2/4 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4 d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a } } >>
\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 3/4 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4 d' d } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8[ a] a[ a] a[ a] } } >>
\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 4/4 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4 d' g, d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a a a } } >>

Compound metre

[edit]

Compound metre (or compound time), is a metre in which each beat of the bar divides naturally into three equal parts. That is, each beat contains a triple pulse.[18] The top number in the time signature will be 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 24, etc.

Compound metres are written with a time signature that shows the number of divisions of beats in each bar as opposed to the number of beats. For example, compound duple (two beats, each divided into three) is written as a time signature with a numerator of six, for example, 6
8. Contrast this with the time signature 3
4, which also assigns six eighth notes to each measure, but by convention connotes a simple triple time: 3 quarter-note beats.

Examples of compound metre include 6
8 (compound duple metre), 9
8 (compound triple metre), and 12
8 (compound quadruple metre).

\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 6/8 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4. = 80 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a } } >>
\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 9/8 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4. = 80 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. d' d } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a a a a } } >>
\new Staff << \new voice \relative c' { \clef percussion \numericTimeSignature \time 12/8 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4. = 80 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. d' g, d' } } \new voice \relative c'' { \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { a8 a a a a a a a a a a a } } >>

Although 3
4 and 6
8 are not to be confused, they use bars of the same length, so it is easy to "slip" between them just by shifting the location of the accents. This interpretational switch has been exploited, for example, by Leonard Bernstein, in the song "America":

"I like to be in A-mer-i-ca" from West Side Story

Compound metre divided into three parts could theoretically be transcribed into musically equivalent simple metre using triplets. Likewise, simple metre can be shown in compound through duples. When conducting in 6
8, conductors typically provide two beats per bar; however, all six beats may be performed when the tempo is very slow.

Compound time is associated with "lilting" and dancelike qualities. Folk dances often use compound time. Many Baroque dances are often in compound time: some gigues, the courante, and sometimes the passepied and the siciliana.

Metre in song

[edit]

See also: Musical form § Levels of organization
The German children's song "Drei Chinesen mit dem Kontrabass" shows a common fourfold multiplication of rhythmic phrases into a complete verse and melody.

The concept of metre in music derives in large part from the poetic metre of song and includes not only the basic rhythm of the foot, pulse-group or figure used but also the rhythmic or formal arrangement of such figures into musical phrases (lines, couplets) and of such phrases into melodies, passages or sections (stanzas, verses) to give what Holst (1963) calls "the time pattern of any song".[19]

Traditional and popular songs may draw heavily upon a limited range of metres, leading to interchangeability of melodies. Early hymnals commonly did not include musical notation but simply texts that could be sung to any tune known by the singers that had a matching metre. For example, The Blind Boys of Alabama rendered the hymn "Amazing Grace" to the setting of The Animals' version of the folk song "The House of the Rising Sun". This is possible because the texts share a popular basic four-line (quatrain) verse-form called ballad metre or, in hymnals, common metre, the four lines having a syllable-count of 8–6–8–6 (Hymns Ancient and Modern Revised), the rhyme-scheme usually following suit: ABAB. There is generally a pause in the melody in a cadence at the end of the shorter lines so that the underlying musical metre is 8–8–8–8 beats, the cadences dividing this musically into two symmetrical "normal" phrases of four bars each.[20]

In some regional music, for example Balkan music (like Bulgarian music, and the Macedonian 3+2+2+3+2 metre), a wealth of irregular or compound metres are used. Other terms for this are "additive metre"[21] and "imperfect time".[22][failed verification]

Metre in dance music

[edit]

Typical figures of the waltz rhythm.[23]
Dance from Terpsichore (Michael Praetorius, 1612)
"Volte"
Includes regular metre followed by an irregular metre
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Metre is often essential to any style of dance music, such as the waltz or tango, that has instantly recognizable patterns of beats built upon a characteristic tempo and bar. The Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing defines the tango, for example, as to be danced in 2
4 time at approximately 66 beats per minute. The basic slow step forwards or backwards, lasting for one beat, is called a "slow", so that a full "right–left" step is equal to one 2
4 bar.[24]

But step-figures such as turns, the corte and walk-ins also require "quick" steps of half the duration, each entire figure requiring 3–6 "slow" beats. Such figures may then be "amalgamated" to create a series of movements that may synchronise to an entire musical section or piece. This can be thought of as an equivalent of prosody (see also: prosody (music)).

Metre in classical music

[edit]

In music of the common practice period (about 1600–1900), there are four different families of time signature in common use:

  • Simple duple: two or four beats to a bar, each divided by two, the top number being "2" or "4" (2
    4    , 2
    8    , 2
    2     ... 4
    4    , 4
    8    , 4
    2     ...). When there are four beats to a bar, it is alternatively referred to as "quadruple" time.
  • Simple triple: three beats to a bar, each divided by two, the top number being "3" (3
    4    , 3
    8    , 3
    2     ...)
  • Compound duple: two beats to a bar, each divided by three, the top number being "6" (6
    8    , 6
    16    , 6
    4     ...) Similarly compound quadruple, four beats to a bar, each divided by three, the top number being "12" (12
    8    , 12
    16    , 12
    4     ...)
  • Compound triple: three beats to a bar, each divided by three, the top number being "9" (9
    8    , 9
    16    , 9
    4    )

If the beat is divided into two the metre is simple, if divided into three it is compound. If each bar is divided into two it is duple and if into three it is triple. Some people also label quadruple, while some consider it as two duples. Any other division is considered additively, as a bar of five beats may be broken into duple+triple (12123) or triple+duple (12312) depending on accent. However, in some music, especially at faster tempos, it may be treated as one unit of five.

Changing metre

[edit]

In 20th-century concert music, it became more common to switch metre—the end of Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (shown below) is an example. This practice is sometimes called mixed metres.

{ \new PianoStaff << \new Staff \relative c'' { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"violin" \clef treble \tempo 8 = 126 \override DynamicLineSpanner.staff-padding = #4 \time 3/16 r16 <d c a fis d>-! r16\fermata | \time 2/16 r <d c a fis d>-! \time 3/16 r <d c a fis d>8-! | r16 <d c a fis d>8-! | \time 2/8 <d c a fis>16-! <e c bes g>->-![ <cis b aes f>-! <c a fis ees>-!] } \new Staff \relative c { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"violin" \clef bass \time 3/16 d,16-! <bes'' ees,>^\f-! r\fermata | \time 2/16 <d,, d,>-! <bes'' ees,>-! | \time 3/16 d16-! <ees cis>8-! | r16 <ees cis>8-! | \time 2/8 d16^\sf-! <ees cis>-!->[ <d c>-! <d c>-!] } >> }

A metric modulation is a modulation from one metric unit or metre to another.

The use of asymmetrical rhythms – sometimes called aksak rhythm (the Turkish word for "limping") – also became more common in the 20th century: such metres include quintuple as well as more complex additive metres along the lines of 2+2+3 time, where each bar has two 2-beat units and a 3-beat unit with a stress at the beginning of each unit. Similar metres are often used in Bulgarian folk dances and Indian classical music.

Hypermetre

[edit]

Hypermetre: four-beat measure, four-bar hypermeasure, and four-hyperbar verses. Hyperbeats in red.
Opening of the third movement of Beethoven's Waldstein sonata. The melodic lines in bars 1–4 and 5–8 are (almost) identical, and both form hypermetric spans. The two hyperbeats are the low Cs, in the first and fifth bars of the example.

Hypermetre is large-scale metre (as opposed to smaller-scale metre). Hypermeasures consist of hyperbeats.[25] "Hypermeter is metre, with all its inherent characteristics, at the level where bars act as beats".[26] For example, the four-bar hypermeasures are the prototypical structure for country music, in and against which country songs work.[26] In some styles, two- and four-bar hypermetres are common.[citation needed]

The term was coined, together with "hypermeasures", by Edward T. Cone (1968), who regarded it as applying to a relatively small scale, conceiving of a still larger kind of gestural "rhythm" imparting a sense of "an extended upbeat followed by its downbeat"[27] London (2012) contends that in terms of multiple and simultaneous levels of metrical "entrainment" (evenly spaced temporal events "that we internalize and come to expect", p. 9), there is no in-principle distinction between metre and hypermetre; instead, they are the same phenomenon occurring at different levels.[28]

Lee (1985)[verification needed] and Middleton have described musical metre in terms of deep structure, using generative concepts to show how different metres (4
4, 3
4, etc.) generate many different surface rhythms.[citation needed] For example, the first phrase of The Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night", excluding the syncopation on "night", may be generated from its metre of 4
4:[29]

4
4 		4
4 		4
4
2
4 		2
4 		2
4 		2
4 		2
4 		2
4
1
4 		1
4
1
8 		1
8 		1
8 		1
8
half rest eighth rest eighth note eighth note eighth note half note half note half note
It's been a hard day's night...

The syncopation may then be added, moving "night" forward one eighth note, and the first phrase is generated.[citation needed]

Polymetre

[edit]

See also: Polyrhythm

With polymetre, the bar sizes differ, but the beat remains constant. Since the beat is the same, the various metres eventually agree. (Four bars of 7
4 = seven bars of 4
4). An example is the second moment, titled "Scherzo polimetrico", of Edmund Rubbra's Second String Quartet (1951), in which a constant triplet texture holds together overlapping bars of 9
8, 12
8, and 21
8, and barlines rarely coincide in all four instruments.[30]

With polyrhythm, the number of beats varies within a fixed bar length. For example, in a 4:3 polyrhythm, one part plays 4
4 while the other plays 3
4, but the 3
4 beats are stretched so that three beats of 3
4 are played in the same time as four beats of 4
4.[citation needed] More generally, sometimes rhythms are combined in a way that is neither tactus nor bar preserving—the beat differs and the bar size also differs. See Polytempi.[citation needed]

Research into the perception of polymetre shows that listeners often either extract a composite pattern that is fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as "noise". This is consistent with the Gestalt psychology tenet that "the figure–ground dichotomy is fundamental to all perception".[31][verification needed][32] In the music, the two metres will meet each other after a specific number of beats. For example, a 3
4 metre and 4
4 metre will meet after 12 beats.

In "Toads of the Short Forest" (from the album Weasels Ripped My Flesh), composer Frank Zappa explains: "At this very moment on stage we have drummer A playing in 7
8, drummer B playing in 3
4, the bass playing in 3
4, the organ playing in 5
8, the tambourine playing in 3
4,[clarification needed] and the alto sax blowing his nose".[33] "Touch And Go", a hit single by The Cars, has polymetric verses, with the drums and bass playing in 5
4, while the guitar, synthesizer, and vocals are in 4
4 (the choruses are entirely in 4
4).[34] Magma uses extensively 7
8 on 2
4 (e.g. Mëkanïk Dëstruktïẁ Kömmandöh) and some other combinations. King Crimson's albums of the eighties have several songs that use polymetre of various combinations.[citation needed]

Polymetres are a defining characteristic of the music of Meshuggah, whose compositions often feature unconventionally timed rhythm figures cycling over a 4
4 base.[35]

Examples

[edit]
Polymetres
Beat-preserving polymetre 5
4 with 4
4
Beat-preserving polymetre 5
4 with 3
4
Measure-preserving polyrhythm 3
4 with 4
4
Beat-preserving polymetre 2
4 with 3
8
Beat-preserving polymetre 4
4 with 5
8
Beat-preserving polymetre 4
4 with 7
8
Measure-preserving polyrhythm 2:3
Measure-preserving polyrhythm 4:3
Measure-preserving polyrhythm 5:4
Various metres
6
8 at tempo of 90 bpm
9
8 at tempo of 90 bpm
12
8 at tempo of 90 bpm
2
4 at a tempo of 60 bpm
3
4 at a tempo of 60 bpm
4
4 at a tempo of 60 bpm

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Metre (music)

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
In music, metre (also spelled meter) is the systematic organization of beats into recurring groups known as measures or bars, creating a hierarchical of strong and weak pulses that establishes the rhythmic foundation of a composition. This structure provides performers with a temporal framework for timing and listeners with an intuitive sense of periodicity and expectation, distinguishing it from , which refers to the specific durations and accents of individual notes within that framework. Metre is essential in most Western classical, popular, and traditions, where it facilitates ensemble coordination and structural coherence, though it varies across global musical cultures, such as in traditions employing additive rather than divisive rhythms. Metre is categorized by the number of beats per measure—duple (two beats), triple (three beats), or quadruple (four beats)—and by how those beats are subdivided: simple metre divides each beat into two equal parts (e.g., 2/4 or 3/4 time signatures), while compound metre divides them into three (e.g., 6/8 or 9/8). Time signatures notationally represent metre, with the numerator indicating the number of beats or subdivisions per measure and the denominator specifying the of each beat (often a in simple metres or a dotted quarter in compound). These classifications became established in Western music theory by the , building on medieval systems that quantified rhythmic proportions, and they remain central to modern analysis for interpreting accents, phrasing, and form. The perceptual and cognitive basis of metre involves internalized hierarchies of pulse levels, from the tactus (felt beat) to faster subdivisions and slower hypermetres, enabling predictions of musical events as supported by psychological studies on attentional entrainment. In performance, metre influences tempo markings (e.g., measured in beats per minute via metronome) and expressive deviations like rubato, which temporarily disrupt but reaffirm the underlying pulse. Complex or irregular metres, such as 5/4 or 7/8, appear in 20th-century works by composers like Stravinsky or Bartók, expanding traditional frameworks to evoke tension or cultural specificity.

Fundamentals of Metre

Definition and Basic Concepts

In music, metre refers to the regular grouping of beats into measures, creating a structured framework for rhythmic organization and temporal flow. This perceptual structure arises from the alternation of strong and weak beats, enabling performers and listeners to anticipate patterns and events within a composition. Metre provides essential stability, distinguishing it from freer rhythmic elements by imposing recurring accents that underpin musical phrasing. The origins of metre trace back to ancient Greek theory, where it emerged from poetic traditions that linked linguistic rhythm to musical time, using verse patterns such as dactylic or iambic to organize sound. Aristotle's Poetics profoundly influenced this development, portraying rhythm—including metrical elements—as a means of imitating human actions and evoking emotional responses, thereby integrating metre into the ethical and aesthetic foundations of music. In medieval European music theory, these Greek ideas evolved through Aristotelian classifications of rhythm, leading to mensural systems that formalized metrical groupings for polyphonic composition. Key elements of metre include the pulse, a steady and recurring beat that serves as the fundamental temporal unit; the measure (or bar), which contains a fixed number of pulses bounded by bar lines; the downbeat, the accented first pulse marking the start of each measure; and the upbeat, the preparatory weaker pulses approaching the downbeat. These components interact to produce hierarchical accents, with the downbeat providing the strongest orientation point. Metre is denoted in scores through time signatures, fractional notations appearing at the piece's outset to specify the organizational pattern. For example, 4/4 indicates four quarter-note beats per measure, while 3/4 signifies three quarter-note beats, guiding performers on division and accent placement. Everyday of metre often mirrors natural pulses, such as the steady of walking, where footsteps align with an underlying beat to create intuitive . Research demonstrates that tempos matching walking rhythms—around 114–133 beats per minute—can accelerate , as faster pulses encourage larger strides and heightened entrainment. This highlights metre's role in bridging musical structure with bodily movement.

Relation to Rhythm and Time Signature

In music theory, metre provides the organizational framework for musical time by grouping pulses into recurring measures with established patterns of strong and weak beats, whereas refers to the specific patterns of note durations and silences that occur within or against this framework. This distinction highlights how metre establishes a predictable pulse hierarchy, while introduces variety and expressiveness through deviations such as or irregular groupings. Time signatures notate in Western through a fraction-like symbol consisting of two numbers: the numerator indicates the number of beats per measure, and the denominator specifies the that receives one beat. For example, a of 4/4 denotes four quarter-note beats per measure, creating a simple quadruple . Certain common metres have abbreviated symbols to simplify notation; the symbol C represents 4/4 (common time), while a vertically slashed C (⨷) indicates 2/2 (cut time or ), which halves the note values for faster tempos. Metre directly influences accent patterns by emphasizing certain beats within the measure, typically placing primary accents on downbeats—the first beat of each measure—and secondary accents on subsequent strong beats, with weaker beats receiving less emphasis. In a 4/4 metre, for instance, the downbeat (beat 1) carries the strongest accent, beat 3 a secondary one, and beats 2 and 4 the weakest, guiding performers in phrasing and dynamics. These accents arise from the metrical structure's inherent hierarchy, reinforcing the pulse's regularity. In conducting, metre dictates specific gestural patterns to visually and audibly cue performers on beat groupings and accents; for duple metre (two beats per measure), the pattern involves a downward motion for the strong beat followed by an upward rebound for the weak beat, often verbalized as "one-two." For quadruple metre like 4/4, the pattern expands to a four-beat cycle—down for beat 1, side for 2, opposite side for 3, and up for 4—commonly counted aloud as "one-two-three-four" to maintain ensemble synchronization. These patterns ensure that the metrical framework remains perceptible even amid complex rhythms.

Classification of Metres

By Number of Beats per Measure

Metres in music are classified by the number of beats per measure, which determines the primary grouping and accent structure. This classification includes divisions such as duple (two beats), triple (three beats), and quadruple (four beats), as well as odd divisions such as quintuple (five beats) and septuple (seven beats). Time signatures, such as 2/4 or 3/4, denote the number of beats (top numeral) and the receiving one beat (bottom numeral). Duple metre features two beats per measure, producing an even, marching feel through an alternating strong-weak accent pattern. A common example is the 2/4 time signature, often used in marches like John Philip Sousa's "The Stars and Stripes Forever," where the steady alternation supports forward propulsion. Quadruple metre extends the duple pattern to four beats per measure, typically accenting as strong-weak-strong-weak, which can feel like two duple groupings and imparts a balanced yet driving quality. This structure is prevalent in 4/4 time, as heard in modern pieces like Beyoncé's "Formation," emphasizing the secondary strong beat on the third position for added emphasis. Triple metre organizes three beats per measure, yielding a lilting, waltz-like feel with a strong-weak-weak accent pattern that creates a flowing, . The 3/4 time signature exemplifies this, as in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's " in ," where the initial strong beat anchors the graceful phrasing. Quintuple metre involves five beats per measure, an odd grouping that introduces asymmetry and is often subdivided into 3+2 or 2+3 for perceptual balance. A notable example is the 5/4 time in Paul Desmond's "," performed by the Quartet, which highlights the metre's propulsive yet unsettled character in contexts. Septuple metre comprises seven beats per measure, another odd configuration frequently subdivided as 2+2+3 or 3+2+2 to mitigate its inherent unevenness. This structure appears in experimental works like Frank Zappa's "Didja Get Any Onya?" in 7/8, accenting the irregular pulses to evoke complexity. From a , metres such as , triple, and quadruple foster a sense of resolution and stability by aligning with listeners' expectations of symmetrical patterns, facilitating entrainment and emotional ease. In contrast, odd metres such as quintuple and septuple generate tension through disrupted predictability, heightening arousal and surprise via mechanisms in the brain, which enhance engagement but can feel unresolved without rhythmic adaptation.

By Subdivision of Beats

In music theory, metres are classified by the subdivision of beats into equal or unequal parts, distinguishing between simple, compound, and more irregular forms such as additive metres. This classification focuses on how the primary beat unit is divided, influencing the rhythmic feel and notation of a piece. Simple metre occurs when each beat is divided into two equal parts, typically represented by binary subdivisions like a quarter note split into two eighth notes. Common examples include 4/4 (simple quadruple, with four beats per measure) and 3/4 (simple triple, with three beats per measure), where the pulse maintains a steady, even progression suitable for marches or waltzes. In these metres, the beat unit is an undotted note, and the subdivisions create a crisp, binary structure that emphasizes clear accents on the downbeat. Compound metre, by contrast, divides each beat into three equal parts, often notated with a as the beat unit, such as a subdivided into three eighth notes. Typical signatures are 6/8 (compound duple, grouping six eighth notes into two beats) and 9/8 (compound triple, grouping nine eighth notes into three beats), which impart a flowing, triplet-based quality often described as or swaying. This ternary subdivision fosters a sense of motion akin to rocking, as heard in pieces like "." A further distinction arises between divisive and additive subdivisions, particularly in irregular metres. Divisive metres subdivide the beat hierarchically into equal units, aligning with the regular pulses of simple and compound forms. Additive metres, however, construct the measure by summing unequal shorter units, as in 7/8 notated as 2+2+3 eighth notes, creating an asymmetrical cycle common in Balkan or non-Western traditions. Notation highlights these differences; for instance, 6/8 groups notes in twos of three eighth notes (two dotted-quarter beats), evoking a compound duple feel, whereas 3/4 presents three equal quarter-note beats in a simple triple arrangement, without the implied . Auditory reinforces this: simple metres convey a binary crispness and stability, while metres introduce a ternary sway that propels the forward.

Metre in Musical Genres

In Songs and Vocal Music

In songs and , metre plays a crucial role in aligning poetic —the rhythmic structure of stressed and unstressed syllables in —with musical phrases, creating a cohesive auditory experience that enhances memorability and emotional resonance. This synchronization often draws from poetic traditions, where patterns like (alternating unstressed-stressed syllables in groups of four feet) are adapted to musical beats, as seen in many folk songs where fit naturally into duple or quadruple metres. Research on poetic speech demonstrates that metrical structure in verse generates recurrent pitch and duration contours similar to those in musical melodies, particularly at the level, facilitating seamless integration in vocal settings. Common metres in pop and rock songs typically favor simple quadruple time, such as 4/4, to support the verse-chorus structure, providing a steady that accommodates repetitive hooks and builds listener familiarity. In contrast, 3/4 metre appears in ballads, evoking a swaying, introspective quality that suits lyrical introspection, though it is less prevalent than 4/4 in mainstream genres. For instance, ' "Yesterday" employs 4/4 metre to underscore its melancholic narrative, with the guitar's quaver subdividing beats to align with the song's poignant phrasing. Blues vocal traditions often utilize compound metre in 12/8, where each of the four primary beats divides into triplets, fostering a groove that emphasizes call-and-response lyrics and improvisational expression. Metre also aids vocal phrasing by guiding breath control and syllable emphasis, allowing singers to place stresses on key words within the metrical grid for dramatic effect. In lyric-setting analysis, this involves aligning syllabic stress with strong beats to heighten emotional delivery, while deviations create tension for interpretive depth. In modern songs, occasional metre shifts—such as from 4/4 to 3/4—serve emotional purposes, introducing surprise or urgency to heighten listener engagement and convey shifts in mood, as unexpected rhythmic changes can evoke alertness and intensified affective responses.

In Dance Music

In dance music, metre serves to synchronize bodily movements with rhythmic patterns, providing a structural framework that facilitates coordinated steps and enhances physical expression. Duple metres, such as 2/4 or 4/4, align with marching steps through even, binary groupings that emphasize forward propulsion in processional dances like military marches. In contrast, triple metres like 3/4 underpin waltzes, where the strong-weak-weak accentuation (beat 1 strongest, followed by two weaker beats) corresponds to the characteristic sway and turn of the dance, as seen in the originating in 18th-century Europe. Traditional dance forms further illustrate metre's adaptability to cultural rhythms. The , rooted in Argentine folk traditions, employs a 4/4 metre with syncopated accents that accentuate off-beat steps, creating tension and release in close partner movements. Similarly, the Irish jig utilizes a compound 6/8 metre, featuring two dotted rhythms per bar that drive light, bouncy footwork in set and step dancing, with the first note of each triplet group providing the primary accent. In electronic and genres, metre fosters groove through repetitive patterns that sustain energy for prolonged movement. The 4/4 "four-on-the-floor" pattern, where the strikes on every , establishes a relentless originating in 1970s and central to , enabling dancers to lock into a hypnotic, improvisational flow. Backbeats—accents on off-beats 2 and 4—amplify this propulsion by generating forward drive and participatory discrepancies, as in rock and funk-derived grooves that encourage rhythmic bodily response. Contemporary adaptations in hip-hop and styles introduce flexible metres that deviate from strict alignment, allowing for dynamic layering over foundational beats. , often sampled from recordings in irregular or swung subdivisions, support freestyle dancing by creating rhythmic vitality and metrical ambiguity, as rappers and dancers navigate polymetric interactions for expressive propulsion.

In Classical Music

In the Baroque and Classical eras, metre established a consistent that underpinned the structural clarity of orchestral and . Duple metres facilitated balanced phrasing and harmonic progression, aligning with the era's emphasis on order and proportion. The , integral to multi-movement forms in Classical symphonies, consistently utilized 3/4 time to evoke its graceful, dance-like character, spanning two measures per step in Haydn's and Mozart's compositions. This contrasted with the prevailing duple signatures, offering rhythmic variety while maintaining formal symmetry in the third movement. During the Romantic period, evolved to accommodate greater expressivity, serving as a flexible scaffold for rubato and nuanced phrasing rather than rigid adherence. Composers like Chopin and late-period Beethoven integrated fluctuations within the bar line, allowing the left hand's to sustain a steady while the expanded emotionally, as in Chopin's nocturnes where metrical rubato enhances lyrical contours. This approach preserved underlying while prioritizing interpretive freedom, distinguishing Romantic works from the stricter pulses of prior eras. A representative example is the opening of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67, which unfolds in 2/4 time, propelling the iconic four-note motif with urgent duple energy that defines its dramatic . This metre choice intensifies the rhythmic drive, aligning thematic motifs across orchestral sections for cohesive development. In , metre ensures the alignment of independent polyphonic lines within shared measures, creating harmonic coherence amid linear independence. Species counterpoint rules dictate rhythmic subdivisions that respect the bar's . Twentieth-century classical music repurposed metre as a dynamic element of form, moving beyond pulse to shape narrative tension. Stravinsky's innovations, particularly in The Rite of Spring, employed irregular metres through phase shifts—displacing motives across out-of-phase 4/4 layers—to generate kinetic polarity and structural propulsion, as in the "Sacrificial Dance" where alternating chord periods disrupt alignment for primal intensity. Schoenberg, meanwhile, incorporated rhythmic complexity via serial techniques, deriving irregular figures from tone rows to fragment traditional metre, evident in works like A Survivor from Warsaw where metre underscores atonal expression. These approaches transformed metre from a supportive role into a primary architect of musical architecture.

Advanced Metric Techniques

Changing and Mixed Metres

Changing metre refers to abrupt shifts in the within a , often notated explicitly to alter the rhythmic structure and . These changes can occur between measures or sections, transitioning from one to another, such as from 4/4 to 7/8, to disrupt the listener's expectations and introduce variety. In and film scores, such shifts are common to heighten dramatic tension or synchronize with narrative elements. Mixed metre involves alternating patterns of different time signatures in close succession, creating a fluid yet irregular rhythmic flow, as seen in combinations like 3/4 followed by 2/4. This technique combines opposing metrical groupings, such as duple and triple subdivisions, to produce a sense of without fixed regularity. frequently employs mixed metres, for instance, in where bars alternate between even and odd subdivisions to mimic natural speech rhythms or regional steps. Additive metre constructs irregular bars by adding smaller rhythmic units, rather than dividing them evenly, such as grouping beats as 3+2+2 to total 7 in a 7/8 . This approach, influenced by non-Western traditions like Indian tala systems, emphasizes hierarchical accents on specific pulses to build complex cycles. Common additive patterns include 2+3 for 5/8 or 3+2+2 for 7/8, transforming standard metres into asymmetrical ones through non-multiplicative groupings. Composers use changing, mixed, and additive metres to create tension by challenging metric stability, evoke cultural fusion through borrowed rhythms, or mimic irregular patterns like speech and natural movement. These techniques heighten emotional impact, as in depictions of chaos where frequent shifts convey , or in fusions of Western and Eastern styles to expand expressive range. For example, additive metres draw from Indian talas to integrate cyclical rhythms into Western compositions, fostering a sense of propulsion and unpredictability. A prominent example is Dave Brubeck's "" (1959), which begins in 9/8 with an additive grouping of 2+2+2+3, evoking Turkish folk influences, before shifting to 4/4 for the improvisational sections, blending with exotic metres for dynamic contrast. Similarly, Gustav Holst's "Mars, the Bringer of War" from (1916) employs a relentless 5/4 metre—often additive as 3+2—to evoke the inexorable march of conflict, using its asymmetry to generate relentless tension and martial drive.

Hypermetre

In music theory, hypermetre refers to the of measures into larger units known as hypermeasures, extending the principles of beyond the notated bar level. Typically, in Western tonal music, measures are grouped in patterns of two or four, with the most common being a four-measure hypermeasure in 4/4 time, where the first measure acts as a strong hyperbeat and the others as weaker ones. This creates a perceived strong-weak alternation at the hypermetric level, analogous to the beat patterns within a single measure. Hypermeter is perceived through subtle accents on hyperdownbeats, often reinforced by changes, cadences, or melodic arrivals, making it felt across longer spans in extended forms rather than immediate levels. Listeners sense these groupings intuitively in music with consistent phrasing, though perception can vary with ; in faster pieces, hypermetric s may align more closely with psychological limits of rhythmic , around a few seconds per cycle. This larger-scale metric structure provides a foundational for phrasing without explicit notation. In musical analysis, hypermetre plays a key role in Schenkerian theory, where it illuminates phrase rhythm and structural hierarchies in classical music by identifying how hypermeasures delineate tonal progressions and formal boundaries. Analysts use it to map motivic development and voice leading across levels, revealing how disruptions or extensions in hypermetric regularity contribute to expressive tension and resolution. For instance, in works by Haydn or Beethoven, hypermetric analysis highlights scaffolded phrase constructions that integrate rhythm with tonality. Representative examples appear across genres, such as pop song choruses structured in eight-bar hypermetres, where repeated loops reinforce the grouping; in Rihanna's "" (2012), a four-measure progression (G–Bm–A–A) clearly delineates each hypermeasure through chord changes on downbeats. In standards, hypermetre often underpins blues forms, as in Charlie Parker's improvisations on "Blues for Alice," where three four-bar hypermeasures outline the phrase, constraining solo variations within periodic repetition. Hypermeter relates to by outlining antecedent-consequent structures, where a strong hypermeasure initiates an idea and subsequent weaker ones provide completion or contrast, fostering periodicity in larger sections like verses or developments. This grouping influences formal balance, as seen in how four-bar units accumulate into eight- or sixteen-bar periods, guiding listener expectations in both classical forms and popular song architecture.

Polymetre

Polymetre refers to the simultaneous layering of two or more independent metres within a musical texture, typically at the same underlying , creating conflicting groupings across different parts. A classic illustration involves a in 3/4 metre superimposed over a bass line in 4/4 metre, where the phrases align periodically at their , such as every 12 beats. Notating polymetre presents significant challenges, as standard time signatures are designed for a single metre per score. Composers often employ explicit polymetre by assigning separate time signatures to individual parts, which can result in cluttered scores and alignment issues during performance; alternatively, they use implied polymetre through irregular accents or phrasing within a unified metre, or proportional notation to indicate durations without bar lines. For instance, advocated gathering disparate rhythms into a single encompassing metre to preserve clarity, as seen in his organ work Le Verbe from La Nativité du Seigneur (1935), where a 9/16 pattern implies polymetre against a 10/16 framework in measures 31–34. In cultural contexts, polymetre draws heavily from African musical traditions, where layered rhythms—often termed polyrhythms but analyzable as polymetric structures—create multidimensional metric matrices through simultaneous binary and ternary subdivisions of the same pulse. West African drumming ensembles, such as those in Ewe or Dagomba styles, exemplify linear polymetre, blending 3:2 relationships within a 4-beat cycle to produce fluid, morphing temporal directions that enhance communal dance and expression. These practices have influenced Western composers; for example, Steve Reich's Drumming (1970–71) incorporates African-inspired polymetric phasing, where patterns in conflicting metres gradually shift to generate rhythmic dissonance. Prominent examples include Messiaen's Quartet for the End of Time (1941), where clashing pulses in movements like "Danse de la fureur, pour les sept trompettes" evoke apocalyptic tension through polymetric superpositions alongside non-retrogradable rhythms. In contemporary , Radiohead's "15 Step" (2007) layers a vocal and guitar pattern over a 4/4 drum groove, resulting in a 15-beat cycle that syncs every phrase and imparts a disorienting, propulsive energy. The effects of polymetre include heightened rhythmic complexity, metric dissonance that challenges listeners' sense of , and enriched textural depth, often evoking unease or trance-like immersion while expanding expressive possibilities beyond simple pulse hierarchies. In gamelan music of Indonesia, interlocking patterns across instruments produce polymetric-like overlaps, contributing to the ensemble's hypnotic, cyclical drive.

References

  1. https://musictheory.pugetsound.edu/mt21c/meter.html
  2. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-musicapp-medieval-modern/chapter/meter-in-music/
  3. https://mtosmt.org/issues/mto.20.26.1/mto.20.26.1.clayton.html
  4. https://www.musictheory.net/lessons/15
  5. https://www.britannica.com/art/metre-music
  6. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6016835/
  7. https://cdn.carleton.edu/uploads/sites/721/2021/12/London-1995-MP-Complex-Meters.pdf
  8. http://music.psych.cornell.edu/articles/timing_meter/Hannon_et_al_2004.pdf
  9. https://musicdynamicslab.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/433/2016/03/LargeKolen1994PubsAHEdits.pdf
  10. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hist-westphilmusic-to-1800/
  11. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-medieval-music/rhythm-and-meter/748D40C5AAC97169164E009DB76E74B7
  12. https://viva.pressbooks.pub/openmusictheory/chapter/simple-meter-and-time-signatures/
  13. https://www.studybass.com/lessons/meter/common-beat-terms/
  14. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01361/full
  15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167945707000589
  16. http://www.clt.astate.edu/tcrist/theory4/rhythmandmeter.pdf
  17. https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/fundamentals-function-form/chapter/1-introduction-to-rhythm-and-meter-2/
  18. https://musictheory.pugetsound.edu/mt21c/TimeSignature.html
  19. https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~music/cmp/archives/cmsip/readings/music-theory.htm
  20. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=3&article=1535&context=facbook&type=additional
  21. https://www.potsdam.edu/academics/crane-school-music/departments-programs/music-theory-history-composition/musical-terms
  22. https://pressbooks.nebraska.edu/openmusictheory/chapter/compound-meters-and-time-signatures/
  23. https://pressbooks.uiowa.edu/twentieth-and-twenty-first-century-music/chapter/meter/
  24. https://jazz.fm/dave-brubeck-quartet-take-five-proved-you-could-play-jazz-in-5-4-time/
  25. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01111/full
  26. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297889/
  27. https://digitalcollections.lipscomb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1388&context=jmtp
  28. https://ccrma.stanford.edu/~matt/diss/Matthew-Wright-Dissertation.pdf
  29. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6221279/
  30. https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1181&context=gamut
  31. https://blogs.uca.edu/cpokorny/2024/08/24/understanding-rhythm-in-music/
  32. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/maize/mpub9470277/1:10/--coming-of-age-teaching-and-learning-popular-music?rgn=div1%3Bview=fulltext
  33. https://www.musicradar.com/artists/mccartney-masterfully-works-his-way-around-this-theoretical-dead-end-the-lesser-heard-theory-tricks-that-lay-behind-the-magic-of-the-beatles-yesterday
  34. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2153&context=faculty_publications
  35. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01709/full
  36. https://www.emorywheel.com/article/2025/06/how-tempo-and-rhythm-impact-our-emotional-response-to-music
  37. https://www.libertyparkmusic.com/musical-time-signatures/
  38. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00064/full
  39. https://www.fender.com/articles/techniques/3-4-time-a-simple-guide
  40. https://una.ie/sound/tune-types/
  41. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/four-on-the-floor-rhythm-explained
  42. https://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.06.12.4/mto.06.12.4.butterfield.pdf
  43. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-the-drum-kit/towards-a-cultural-history-of-the-backbeat/64CCF16718A0D7F882F056E649337C7F
  44. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328873851_On_the_Metrical_Techniques_of_Flow_in_Rap_Music
  45. https://academic.oup.com/book/7516/chapter/152466071
  46. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZRcBMwHyykw
  47. https://mtosmt.org/issues/mto.06.12.1/mto.06.12.1.woodruff.html
  48. https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=6&article=1000&context=arts-textbooks&type=additional
  49. https://viva.pressbooks.pub/openmusictheory/chapter/twentieth-century-rhythmic-techniques/
  50. https://kb.osu.edu/bitstreams/040dfe36-659e-486d-87f0-d37bf0d8d0ea/download
  51. https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1004&context=arts-textbooks&type=additional
  52. https://scholarship.miami.edu/view/pdfCoverPage?instCode=01UOML_INST&filePid=13402857420002976&download=true
  53. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/892246/summary
  54. https://viva.pressbooks.pub/openmusictheory/chapter/hypermeter/
  55. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293102784_Advanced_Schenkerian_Analysis_Perspectives_on_Phrase_Rhythm_Motive_and_Form
  56. https://www.hooktheory.com/theorytab/view/rihanna/diamonds
  57. https://viva.pressbooks.pub/openmusictheory/chapter/hypermeter2/
  58. https://mtosmt.org/issues/mto.12.18.3/mto.12.18.3.love.html
  59. https://www.bloomsburymusicandsound.com/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9781501324871&tocid=b-9781501324871-chapter8
  60. https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/umi-uncg-1566.pdf
  61. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283055076_Linear_Polymeter_the_Notion_of_Compound_Metrical_Directionality_in_African_and_Neo-African_Musical_Traditions
  62. https://escholarship.org/content/qt8m46811d/qt8m46811d_noSplash_5ec7a12d1de32a645a095a03e6bdfd0b.pdf
  63. https://musicteachers.co.uk/media/key-stage-3-music-projects-polyrhythms-2-gamelan.pdf
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.