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Mousebird
Mousebird
Mousebird
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Mousebirds
Temporal range:
Paleocene - Holocene, 62.5–0 Ma[1]
Blue-naped mousebird (Urocolius macrourus)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Coraciimorphae
Order: Coliiformes
Murie, 1872
Family: Coliidae
Swainson, 1837
Genera

Colius
Urocolius
For fossil taxa, see text.

The mousebirds are birds in the order Coliiformes. They are the sister group to the clade Cavitaves, which includes the Leptosomiformes (the cuckoo roller), Trogoniformes (trogons), Bucerotiformes (hornbills and hoopoes), Piciformes (woodpeckers, toucans, and barbets) and Coraciiformes (kingfishers, bee-eaters, rollers, motmots, and todies).[2] This group is now confined to sub-Saharan Africa, and it is the only bird order confined entirely to that continent, with the possible exception of turacos which are considered by some as the distinct order Musophagiformes, and the cuckoo roller, which is the only member of the order Leptosomiformes, and which is found in Madagascar but not mainland Africa. Mousebirds had a wider range in the Paleogene, with a widespread distribution in Europe and North America during the Paleocene.[3][4]

Description

[edit]

Mousebirds are slender greyish or brown birds with soft, hairlike body feathers. They are typically about 10 cm (3.9 in) in body length, with a long, thin tail a further 20–24 cm (7.9–9.4 in) in length, and weigh 45–55 g (1.6–1.9 oz).[5] They are arboreal and scurry through the leaves like rodents, in search of berries, fruit and buds. This habit, and their legs, gives rise to the group's English name. They are acrobatic, and can feed upside down. All species have strong claws and reversible outer toes (pamprodactyl feet). They also have crests and stubby bills.

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]

Mousebirds are gregarious, again reinforcing the analogy with mice, and are found in bands of about 20 in lightly wooded country. These birds build cup-shaped twig nests in trees, which are lined with grasses. Clutches of two to three eggs are typically laid.[6]

Systematics and evolution

[edit]

The mousebirds could be considered "living fossils" as the six species extant today are merely the survivors of a lineage that was massively more diverse in the early Paleogene and Miocene. There are comparatively abundant fossils of Coliiformes, but it has not been easy to assemble a robust phylogeny. The family is documented to exist from the Early Paleocene onwards; by at least the Late Eocene, two families are known to have existed, the extant Coliidae and the longer-billed prehistorically extinct Sandcoleidae.[3]

The latter were previously a separate order,[7] but eventually it was realized that they had come to group ancestral Coraciiformes, the actual sandcoleids and forms like Neanis together in a paraphyletic assemblage. Even though the sandcoleids are now assumed to be monophyletic following the removal of these taxa, many forms cannot be conclusively assigned to one family or the other.[8] The genus Selmes, for example, is probably a coliid, but only distantly related to the modern genera.[9]

Extinct Coliiformes occupied a wide range of ecologies. Sandcoleids in particular often preserve uncrushed seeds on their stomachs, while bearing talons similar to those of modern birds of prey.[10]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Order COLIIFORMES[11][12]

  • Genus †Botauroides Shufeldt 1915 (Eocene of Wyoming, US)
    • †B. parvus Shufeldt 1915
  • Genus †Eobucco Feduccia & Martin 1976 - sandcoleid?
    • †E. brodkorbi Feduccia & Martin 1976
  • Genus †Eocolius Dyke & Waterhouse 2001 (London Clay Early Eocene of Walton-on-the-Naze, England) - sandcoleid or coliid
    • †E. walkeri Dyke & Waterhouse 2001
  • Genus †Limnatornis Milne-Edwards 1871 [Palaeopicus Lambrecht 1933 ex Brodkorb 1952] (Early Miocene of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy, France) - coliid? (Urocolius?)
    • †L. consobrinus (Milne-Edwards 1871) [Picus consobrinus Milne-Edwards 1871; Palaeopicus consobrinus (Milne-Edwards 1871) Lambrecht 1933 nomen nudum; Urocolius consobrinus (Milne-Edwards 1871)]
    • †L. paludicola Milne-Edwards 1871 [Colius paludicola (Milne-Edwards 1871) Ballmann 1969a; Urocolius paludicola (Milne-Edwards 1871)]
    • †L. archiaci (Milne-Edwards 1871) [Picus archiaci Milne-Edwards 1871; Colius archiaci (Milne-Edwards 1871) Ballmann 1969a; Urocolius archiaci (Milne-Edwards 1871) Mlíkovský 2002] (Early Miocene of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy, France)
  • Coliiformes gen. et sp. indet. (Late Miocene of Kohfidisch, Austria)[13]
  • Genus †Uintornis Marsh 1872 - sandcoleid?
  • Family †Chascacocoliidae Zelenkov & Dyke 2008
  • Family †Selmeidae Zelenkov & Dyke 2008
    • Genus †Selmes Mayr 1998 ex Peters 1999 (Middle Eocene ?-Late Oligocene of C Europe) - coliid? (synonym of Primocolius?)
      • †S. absurdipes Mayr 1998 ex Peters 1999
  • Family †Sandcoleidae Houde & Olson 1992 sensu Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré 2004
    • Genus †Sandcoleus Houde & Olson 1992 (Paleocene)
      • †S. copiosus Houde & Olson 1992
    • Genus †Anneavis Houde & Olson 1992
      • †A. anneae Houde & Olson 1992
    • Genus †Eoglaucidium Fischer 1987
      • †E. pallas Fischer 1987
    • Genus †Tsidiiyazhi Ksepka, Stidham & Williamson 2017 (Paleocene of New Mexico)
      • †T. abini Ksepka, Stidham & Williamson 2017
  • Family Coliidae Swainson 1837 sensu Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré 2004
    • Genus †Celericolius Ksepka & Clarke 2010
      • †C. acriala Ksepka & Clarke 2010
    • Genus †Masillacolius Mayr & Peters 1998 (middle Eocene of Messel, Germany)
      • †M. brevidactylus Mayr & Peters 1998
    • Genus †Oligocolius Mayr 2000 (Early Oligocene of Frauenweiler, Germany)
      • †O. brevitarsus Mayr 2000
      • †O. psittacocephalon Mayr 2013
    • Genus †Palaeospiza Allen 1878
      • †Palaeospiza bella Allen 1878
    • Genus †Primocolius Mourer-Chauviré 1988 (Late Eocene/Oligocene of Quercy, France)
    • Subfamily Coliinae

Footnotes

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References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mousebird

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Mousebirds are small to medium-sized, arboreal birds in the Coliidae and the sole family within the order Coliiformes, characterized by their slender bodies, soft hair-like feathers, long graduated tails comprising more than half their length, and often a prominent crest on the head. Endemic to , they inhabit a range of open habitats including savannas, woodlands, shrublands, forest edges, and even suburban gardens, but avoid dense rainforests. The comprises six divided into two genera—Colius (four ) and Urocolius (two )—all of which are currently assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN due to their widespread distribution and adaptability. Highly social and non-migratory, mousebirds are typically observed in noisy flocks of 5–20 individuals (sometimes larger), acrobatically in vegetation by , hanging upside down, and moving with a mouselike scurry that inspires their . Their diet is predominantly herbivorous, consisting of fruits, berries, , leaves, buds, and , supplemented occasionally by , which they consume while clambering through bushes and trees. These ancient birds, with no close living relatives outside their order, exhibit unique morphological traits such as reversible outer toes for enhanced ability and a zygodactyl foot arrangement that aids in perching.

Physical characteristics

Morphology and size

Mousebirds (family Coliidae) exhibit a slender, arboreal adapted for life in trees and shrubs, characterized by a compact , elongated , and specialized appendages that facilitate gripping and maneuvering among branches. Their overall build is lightweight and agile, enabling the mouse-like creeping movements observed as they scurry along limbs. In terms of dimensions, mousebirds typically measure 10–15 cm in body length (excluding the tail), with the tail adding 20–24 cm, resulting in a total length of up to 35 cm; weights typically range from 40–60 g across species, with larger individuals of species like the (Colius striatus) reaching up to 80 g, and the white-backed mousebird (Colius colius) weighing 38–64 g. Key anatomical features include rounded wings supported by 10 primary feathers, which aid in short bursts of flight between perches; short legs ending in pamprodactyl feet with reversible outer toes (digits I and IV mobile), allowing all four toes to be positioned flexibly for enhanced branch gripping in various configurations; and a stubby, slightly hooked (decurved) bill suited for consuming fruits, buds, and leaves. The is soft and fluffy, providing insulation against temperature fluctuations in their woodland habitats. Some species, such as the blue-naped mousebird (Urocolius macrourus), feature a prominent crest on the head, potentially serving roles in display or during or social interactions.

Plumage and adaptations

Mousebirds possess predominantly greyish-brown plumage that contributes to their inconspicuous appearance among foliage. This coloration varies subtly across species, often featuring a soft, ragged texture resembling , which enhances insulation against temperature fluctuations in their African habitats. In the (Colius striatus), the is drab and ranges from warm brown to ashy brown on the upperparts, becoming buffier on the underparts, with faint speckled patterns providing additional . The blue-naped mousebird (Urocolius macrourus) displays pale gray overall accented by a glossy blue patch on the and a striking red bill, distinguishing it from more uniformly toned congeners. These characteristics, including downy underfeathers beneath the outer layer, support by trapping air for heat retention, as evidenced by increased vulnerability to when becomes wet. Adaptations in feather structure extend to the tail, which consists of long, graduated feathers comprising a significant portion of the bird's length and aiding balance during their characteristic creeping and climbing locomotion along branches. Mousebirds also feature pamprodactyl feet with reversible outer toes (digits I and IV mobile), a configuration unique among perching birds that allows flexible grasping and enhances agility in arboreal navigation. Sexual dimorphism in plumage is minimal across the family, with no significant differences in coloration or feather patterns between males and females. Juveniles exhibit slightly duller tones compared to adults, likely aiding camouflage during vulnerable early stages.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Mousebirds (family Coliidae) are endemic to , with their current distribution spanning from western regions such as and eastward to and southward through eastern, central, and to . They are absent from and . The six extant species are divided into two genera: four in Colius—speckled mousebird (C. striatus), white-backed mousebird (C. colius), red-backed mousebird (C. castanotus), and white-headed mousebird (C. leucocephalus)—and two in Urocolius—blue-naped mousebird (U. macrourus) and red-faced mousebird (U. indicus). The has the broadest range, occurring across much of in open woodlands and savannas from to . In contrast, the blue-naped mousebird is primarily distributed in drier eastern and northeastern African regions, from and through and to . Across species, mousebirds occupy altitudinal ranges from to approximately 3,000 m in highland areas. Historically, the geographic range of mousebirds was far more extensive during the period (66–23 million years ago), with fossil records indicating presence in , such as at Messel Pit in (Eocene) and the London Clay in the (early Eocene), and in , including Wyoming's Green River Formation (Eocene). Mousebirds became restricted to following the extinction of lineages outside the continent by the . The oldest known African fossils date to the early (~5 million years ago) from South Africa's Langebaanweg site.

Habitat preferences

Mousebirds (family Coliidae) primarily inhabit woodland and savanna edges across , where they favor environments such as thickets, riverine forests, and gardens featuring fruiting trees that provide ample opportunities. These habitats offer a mix of open areas interspersed with vegetation, allowing the birds to exploit scattered resources while maintaining proximity to cover. Their arboreal is centered in the mid-to-upper canopy layers of these ecosystems, where they clamber adeptly among branches using specialized feet and tails for support, though they rarely venture into the dense of true rainforests or the exposed expanses of open grasslands. This preference for semi-open, vegetated structures underscores their as edge-dwelling frugivores and folivores, avoiding habitats lacking sufficient arboreal connectivity. Mousebirds demonstrate notable tolerance for human-modified landscapes, thriving in orchards, urban parks, and agricultural edges where availability persists, often coexisting with human activity despite occasional conflicts as pests. However, they remain sensitive to , which fragments their preferred habitats and reduces canopy cover essential for movement and nesting, leading to localized declines in suitable areas. Within their ranges, mousebirds undertake seasonal movements driven by the availability of ripening fruits and foliage, shifting locally between patches rather than engaging in long-distance true migration. These nomadic patterns, typically over short distances of tens to hundreds of kilometers, enable them to track ephemeral resources while remaining resident in core habitats.

Behavior and ecology

Social structure and foraging

Mousebirds exhibit a highly gregarious , typically forming cohesive flocks ranging from 5 to 20 individuals, though groups can expand to 30 or more in resource-abundant environments such as fruit-rich woodlands. These flocks engage in frequent mutual and allopreening, behaviors that reinforce social bonds and maintain group cohesion through physical contact and grooming. Social interactions extend to at night, where birds closely to conserve energy via , a particularly vital in their often arid habitats. Their foraging behavior is characteristically active and synchronized within groups, with birds moving noisily through , emitting constant chatter to coordinate activities and deter predators. Mousebirds employ a distinctive locomotion, hopping and creeping along branches and twigs in a manner reminiscent of , using their strong, reversible outer toes and stiffened tails for balance and propulsion. is predominantly diurnal, with heightened activity during morning and late afternoon crepuscular periods to capitalize on optimal light and temperature conditions. The diet of mousebirds is omnivorous and opportunistic, comprising 40-60% fruits such as figs, berries from various native plants, supplemented by leaves (up to 50% in some seasons), buds, flowers, , and small quantities of for protein. This composition varies by and availability; for instance, the (Colius striatus) shows a near-equal split between fruits and foliage, while the White-backed Mousebird (Colius colius) leans more toward leaves during lean periods. By consuming fruits and passing through their digestive tract, mousebirds play a key role in , promoting plant regeneration across their range without territorial defense of food patches outside the breeding season. during include vigilance, where subordinate individuals assist in monitoring for threats, enabling efficient exploitation of patchy resources without established territories.

Reproduction and breeding

Mousebirds typically form monogamous pairs for breeding, often supplemented by systems where non-breeding helpers, usually retained offspring from previous broods, assist the in incubation, nest guarding, and feeding the young. This group sociality, which aids , involves 2–6 helpers per nest in some , with contributions including regurgitating food to nestlings. Breeding occurs year-round in tropical and subtropical regions where food is consistently available, though it is more seasonal in temperate or arid zones, peaking during wet seasons from to . Pairs generally produce 1–2 clutches annually, depending on environmental conditions and predation pressures. behaviors are relatively simple and social, featuring mutual , synchronized movements, aerial chases, and food exchanges between mates, without elaborate displays. Nests are constructed as shallow cup structures from twigs, grass stems, and herbs, lined with softer materials like or vegetable fibers, and placed 1–7 m above ground in bushes or trees. Females lay clutches of 2–3 white or whitish eggs, occasionally marked with or brown spots, though numbers can range up to 5 in favorable conditions. Incubation lasts 12–15 days and is primarily performed by the female, though both sexes may participate, with shifts marked by ritual displays. Nestlings are fed a regurgitated mixture of plant material and by both parents and helpers, hatching altricial and remaining in the nest for 14–21 days before fledging; young achieve independence shortly thereafter but may remain with the family group. Open cup nests face high predation risk from snakes, mammals, and birds, contributing to variable breeding success.

Taxonomy and systematics

Classification and species

The mousebirds comprise the order Coliiformes, a small avian group represented solely by the family Coliidae. This family includes two extant genera: Colius, which encompasses four , and Urocolius, which contains two . The in Colius are the white-backed mousebird (C. colius), (C. striatus), white-headed mousebird (C. leucocephalus), and red-backed mousebird (C. castanotus). In Urocolius, the are the blue-naped mousebird (U. macrourus) and red-faced mousebird (U. indicus). These are primarily distinguished by variations in coloration and patterning, subtle differences in body size (ranging from approximately 30–36 cm in total length), and their specific geographic ranges within . Recent taxonomic assessments indicate no significant ongoing debates regarding within these . The record of Coliiformes reveals a more diverse past, with several extinct families documented from the period. These include the Sandcoleidae, known from deposits in and , and the Selmeidae, restricted to the Eocene. Additionally, the Chascacocoliidae represents another extinct lineage from this era. Over 20 genera have been identified across these families, including Chascacocolius, Sandcoleus, and Selmes, primarily from Eocene and sites in and . Phylogenetically, Coliiformes hold a basal position within the clade of core landbirds, serving as the to the Cavitaves, which encompasses rollers, trogons, and related lineages.

Evolutionary history

Mousebirds (Coliiformes) are thought to have originated around the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, with the earliest known evidence coming from the early of . The specimen Tsidiiyazhi abini, a stem-group mousebird from the sandcoleid clade, was discovered in the Nacimiento Formation of and dated to approximately 62 million years ago (Ma). This find supports a rapid radiation of neoavian birds shortly after the K-Pg mass at 66 Ma, indicating that mousebirds were among the early landbirds to diversify in post-dinosaur ecosystems. The group's diversity peaked during the Eocene epoch (56–33.9 Ma), when mousebirds were widespread across the , including and . Key fossils from this period include Eocolius walkeri from the Lower Eocene London Clay Formation in the (approximately 55 Ma), representing one of the most basal known members of the order. In , the early Eocene deposits of yielded several taxa, such as Sandcoleus copiosus and Chascacocolius oscitans, showcasing a variety of morphologies adapted to Eocene forests. These fossils, along with others like Selmes absurdipes from the Middle Eocene of , highlight the order's former ecological prominence. Sandcoleids, an extinct stem-group clade, are closely related to crown-group mousebirds (Coliidae) and demonstrate early phylogenetic branching within Coliiformes. Following the Eocene, mousebird diversity declined sharply, with sparse records from the and , after which the group became restricted to . This contraction is attributed to global climate shifts, including cooling and drying trends that fragmented suitable forested habitats across and during the late . Surviving extant exhibit remarkably conservative morphology, often described as "living fossils" due to their retention of Eocene-like traits such as semizygodactyl feet and soft, hair-like . Fossils from the Green River Formation in , such as a new unnamed dated to about 52 Ma with preserved feathers, further illustrate the order's adaptation to lacustrine environments before this decline. analyses suggest that the divergence of Coliiformes from other avian lineages occurred around 80 Ma in the , aligning with the fossil timeline when calibrated against records.

Conservation

Population status

All six species of mousebirds in the family Coliidae are classified as Least Concern under the criteria in their most recent assessments as of 2024. The speckled mousebird (Colius striatus) is the most abundant species, described as widespread and common throughout much of , with its population suspected to be increasing owing to the expansion of agricultural lands, orchards, and suburban gardens that provide suitable foraging opportunities. Similarly, the white-backed mousebird (Colius colius) is usually common or fairly common in its range across and is also experiencing population increases in areas modified by irrigation and . In contrast, the white-headed mousebird (Colius leucocephalus) is more local and relatively uncommon, though its population appears stable with no evidence of substantial declines. Global population sizes for all mousebird species remain unquantified due to a lack of comprehensive surveys, but trends indicate overall stability or modest growth for most, driven by their adaptability to human-altered environments such as farmlands and gardens. The red-backed mousebird (Colius castanotus) shows a suspected decrease of 1-19% over three generations in some regions, primarily linked to local , while the blue-naped mousebird (Urocolius macrourus) exhibits local population decreases. The red-faced mousebird (Urocolius indicus) has an unknown trend but remains widespread and common. None of the species are considered endangered, and no significant global declines have been documented. Population monitoring relies heavily on platforms, such as eBird, which have compiled observations up to 2025 to track relative abundance and distribution patterns across , supplementing the absence of formal IUCN-monitored schemes. These data highlight the benefits of agricultural adaptation for species like the speckled and white-backed mousebirds, which thrive in mosaic landscapes, while underscoring localized declines in more fragmented or arid habitats for others.

Threats and protection

Mousebirds, belonging to the family Coliidae, face several human-induced threats that impact their populations across , though most species are currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to their adaptability and wide ranges. Primary threats include resulting from and , which disrupts the woodland and habitats essential for their and nesting. For instance, ongoing degradation through agricultural activities has been noted for the (Colius striatus), although suburban gardens have mitigated some losses by providing alternative resources. exposure poses another significant risk, particularly through the reduction of insect prey and direct toxicity; the Blue-naped Mousebird (Urocolius macrourus) is vulnerable to fenthion spraying used in (Quelea quelea) control programs in regions like , contributing to local population declines. Minor use in the pet trade affects species such as the Blue-naped Mousebird, which is reported in trade datasets at low prevalence, though trade levels remain low overall. Climate change exacerbates these pressures by altering fruiting seasons of key food plants, potentially disrupting the foraging patterns of fruit-dependent mousebirds and leading to phenological mismatches similar to those observed in other African avian species. Projections for sub-Saharan birds indicate southward range shifts in response to warming, with some models suggesting contractions or relocations by mid-century as suitable climates move toward higher latitudes in the . Conservation efforts for mousebirds are integrated into broader African bird protection strategies rather than species-specific plans, with populations benefiting from inclusion in key protected areas such as in , which safeguards diverse avifauna including multiple Coliidae species and supports overall biodiversity conservation. Initiatives by , including habitat protection and monitoring across the continent, indirectly aid mousebirds by addressing shared threats like agricultural encroachment in Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs). No dedicated recovery programs exist, but general measures like quelea control alternatives could reduce risks. Research gaps persist in quantifying impacts on birds in , with ongoing calls for further studies to assess effects on non-target amid agricultural intensification. in rural African areas is also needed to curb incidental and promote habitat-friendly farming practices that sustain bird populations.

References

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  3. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/white-backed-mousebird-colius-colius
  4. https://fatbirder.com/ornithology/coliidae-mousebirds/
  5. https://app.birda.org/species-guide?region=East%2BAfrica&category=Mousebirds
  6. https://app.birda.org/species-guide/9753/White-backed_Mousebird
  7. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/coliiformes-mousebirds
  8. https://veteriankey.com/apodiformes-and-coliiformes/
  9. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=20794&context=auk
  10. https://www.theguardian.com/science/punctuated-equilibrium/2011/nov/07/3
  11. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/condor/vol72/iss2/3/
  12. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/spemou2/cur/introduction
  13. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00814.x
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269092974_Primary_wing-moult_and_site_fidelity_in_South_African_mousebirds_Coliidae
  15. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/speckled-mousebird-colius-striatus
  16. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/blue-naped-mousebird-urocolius-macrourus
  17. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.coliid1.01
  18. https://lazoo.org/explore-your-zoo/our-animals/birds/speckled-mousebird/
  19. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=23627&context=auk
  20. https://earthlife.net/mousebirds-coliiformes/
  21. https://app.mybirdbuddy.com/birds/mousebird/0b14b906-4b90-4561-80b1-a5b88edf1cb7
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316199089_Diet_and_time-activity_budget_of_White-backed_Mousebirds_Colius_colius_in_south-western_South_Africa_Ostrich_2017_PAGE_PROOFS
  23. https://animals.jrank.org/pages/865/Mousebirds-Coliiformes-BEHAVIOR-REPRODUCTION.html
  24. https://www.biodiversityexplorer.info/birds/coliidae/colius_striatus.htm
  25. https://ebird.org/species/whbmou1
  26. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/whbmou1/cur/introduction
  27. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/blnmou1/cur/introduction
  28. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=178091
  29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00814.x
  30. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1700188114
  31. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9324441/
  32. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5544281/
  33. https://www.americanscientist.org/article/flights-of-fancy-in-avian-evolution
  34. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00626.x
  35. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/white-headed-mousebird-colius-leucocephalus
  36. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/red-backed-mousebird-colius-castanotus
  37. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/red-faced-mousebird-urocolius-indicus
  38. https://science.uct.ac.za/media/200404
  39. https://www.nisc.co.za/products/abstracts/16247//avian-range-changes-and-climate-change-a-cautionary-tale-from-the-cape-peninsula
  40. https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/greater-kruger-national-park
  41. https://www.birdlife.org/projects/tackling-illegal-trade-inc-songbirds/
  42. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394485890_Impacts_of_pesticide_application_on_the_population_of_birds_and_other_wildlife_species_in_Africa_Focus_on_Red-billed_quelea_control_in_Hadejia-Nguru_wetlands_Nigeria
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