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A Moorish mullioned window in the Alhambra in Granada, Spain

A mullion is a vertical element that forms a division between units of a window or screen, or is used decoratively.[1] When dividing adjacent window units its primary purpose is a rigid support to the glazing of the window. Its secondary purpose is to provide structural support to an arch or lintel above the window opening. Horizontal elements separating the head of a door from a window above are called transoms.

History

[edit]
A mullioned window in the church of San Francesco of Lodi, Lombardy

Stone mullions were used in Armenian, Saxon and Islamic architecture prior to the 10th century. They became a common and fashionable architectural feature across Europe in Romanesque architecture, with paired windows divided by a mullion, set beneath a single arch. The same structural form was used for open arcades as well as windows, and is found in galleries and cloisters.

In Gothic architecture, windows became larger and arrangements of multiple mullions and openings were used, both for structure and ornament. This is particularly the case in Gothic cathedrals and churches where stained glass was set in lead and ferramenta between the stone mullions. Mullioned windows of a simpler form continued to be used into the Renaissance and various Revival styles. Italian windows with a single mullion, dividing the window into two equal elements are said to be biforate, or to parallel the Italian bifore windows.[2]

Design

[edit]
Parts of a casement cross-window, viewed from the outside

Mullions may be made of any material, but wood and aluminium are most common, although glass is also used between windows.[3] I. M. Pei used all-glass mullions in his design of JFK Airport's Terminal 6 (National Airlines Sundrome), unprecedented at the time.[4]

Mullions are vertical elements and are often confused with transoms, which lie horizontally. In US parlance, the word is also confused with the "muntin" ("glazing bar" in the UK) which is the precise word for the very small strips of wood or metal that divide a sash into smaller glass "panes" or "lights".

A mullion acts as a structural member, in most applications the mullion transfers wind loads and weight of the glazing and upper levels into the structure below. In a curtain wall screen, however, the mullions only support the weight of the transoms, glass and any opening vents. Also in the case of a curtain wall screen the weight of glazing can be supported from above (providing the structure can take the required loads) this puts the mullions under tension rather than compression.

When a very large glazed area was desired before the middle of the nineteenth century, such as in the large windows seen in Gothic churches or Elizabethan palaces, the openings necessarily required division into a framework of mullions and transoms, often of stone. It was further necessary for each glazed panel, sash or casement to be further subdivided by muntins or lead cames because large panes of glass were reserved primarily for use as mirrors, being far too costly to use for glazing windows or doors.

In traditional designs today, mullions and transoms are normally used in combination with divided-light windows and doors when glazing porches or other large areas.

See also

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References

[edit]

Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mullion

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A mullion is a vertical structural member in that divides and supports adjacent units of a , , screen, or glass curtain wall. Primarily functional for providing stability to large openings, it also enhances aesthetic appeal by creating subdivided patterns in fenestration. The use of mullions dates back to before the , with early examples in stone appearing in Armenian, Saxon, and . They became widespread in during the Romanesque period and reached prominence in , where intricate integrated mullions to support expansive stained-glass windows in cathedrals and churches. In the and subsequent styles, mullions evolved from purely supportive roles to include decorative profiles, such as beveled or shapes, often crafted from wood, stone, or metal. Distinct from muntins, which are thinner bars dividing individual panes within a single window sash, mullions form the heavier framework separating entire window units or panels. In modern construction, mullions are commonly made from aluminum, , or composite materials in curtain wall systems, enabling large-scale glazing in commercial buildings while meeting energy efficiency standards. Their design influences light distribution, thermal performance, and visual rhythm, making them essential in both and contemporary design.

Introduction and Terminology

Definition

A mullion is a vertical structural or decorative element in that divides a single opening into multiple panels or separates adjacent units, providing both support and aesthetic division. Typically constructed from materials like stone, wood, or metal, it forms a robust division between the lights (individual glazed sections) of a , enabling larger overall openings while maintaining integrity. This element is essential in fenestration design, where it integrates with the surrounding frame to create cohesive assemblies. The primary functions of a mullion include supporting glazing bars that hold the panes and transferring structural loads down to sills, lintels, or the primary . In traditional load-bearing contexts, this encompasses pressures on the glazing and gravity loads such as the weight from upper building levels. In curtain wall systems, mullions primarily distribute loads and self-weight, ensuring the stability of non-load-bearing facades under environmental stresses. This role distinguishes mullions as integral to the building's , beyond mere ornamentation. Mullions differ from related elements like muntins and transoms in orientation and scale: they are specifically vertical and thicker, separating entire window units or major subdivisions, whereas muntins are slender bars that divide individual panes within a single , and transoms are horizontal bars that separate window sections vertically. Note that in modern usage, particularly in , the terms "mullion" and "muntin" are frequently confused or used interchangeably, though they refer to distinct elements. A classic example is the biforate window, where a single mullion centrally divides the opening into two equal lights, common in Romanesque and Gothic designs. In contrast, multi-light windows employ several mullions to create grids of three or more panels, enhancing light diffusion and visual rhythm.

Etymology

The term "mullion" derives from the "moignon," meaning a stump or remnant, which evoked the idea of a central or dividing in architectural contexts. This entered as variants like "munial" or "moyniel," before evolving in the 16th century to specifically denote vertical elements dividing windows or screens. The first documented use of "mullion" in English architectural texts dates to around 1563, building on medieval terminology for supportive piers or stumps in building descriptions. The term is sometimes confused with "," another term for smaller dividing bars in window sashes, which derives from "montant" and emphasizes mounting or upright elements, in contrast to the stumping connotation of mullion. Care should be taken to distinguish it from the archaic spelling "munnion," an earlier variant of "mullion" itself, used interchangeably in 16th-century sources before standardization.

Historical Development

Origins and Early Use

The origins of mullions trace back to pre-medieval , where vertical dividers emerged as essential structural elements in window openings across diverse cultures. In , stone mullions appeared as early as the in churches, functioning as vertical supports for arches and dividing narrow spaces to enhance stability in basilica-style buildings. These early examples, often carved from local stone, allowed for the distribution of loads in domed structures while permitting controlled light entry. In Saxon England before the of , mullion-like vertical elements divided the narrow windows characteristic of early monasteries and churches, typically taking the form of thin columns or shafts made of stone. These features provided structural reinforcement for small, round-headed openings in thick-walled buildings. The use of such dividers reflected the period's emphasis on simplicity and durability, with rounded shafts often featuring bulbous centers for added ornamentation. Early Islamic architecture also employed stone mullions prior to the , particularly in religious and palatial structures, to separate window units and support overarching elements. Wooden lattice screens resembling appeared later, flourishing from the 9th to 12th centuries during the Tulunid and Abbasid periods, where turned-wood vertical mullions diffused light, ensured privacy, and facilitated ventilation in domestic and public buildings in regions like , the , and . These wooden assemblies, constructed from , marked an adaptation for climatic needs. Early Byzantine architecture featured similar vertical colonnettes or mullions dividing window openings, as seen in the 6th-century in , where they supported large arched windows and contributed to the luminous interior. Around the 8th and 9th centuries, mullions underwent a functional , transitioning from broad structural piers—used primarily for load-bearing in walls—to narrower window-specific dividers that enabled larger glazed openings without compromising integrity. This shift, evident in the aforementioned traditions, prioritized both support and aesthetic division, laying the groundwork for more elaborate window treatments in subsequent eras.

Medieval and Gothic Periods

During the Romanesque period spanning the 11th and 12th centuries, mullions served a primarily functional role in dividing paired windows beneath round arches, characteristic of Norman in . These simple, single mullions separated two-light windows, contributing to the robust, solid aesthetic of the era while providing minimal structural support for relatively small openings. Examples include the paired windows in the aisles of , exemplifying the restrained decorative approach of early medieval design. The advent of in the 12th to 15th centuries transformed mullions into key elements of innovative window systems, enabling the creation of vast tracery-filled openings that maximized and interior illumination. This evolution from solid walls to lighter, more transparent structures allowed for symbolic representations of divine light, as mullions supported increasingly complex geometric patterns. At , begun in 1194, elaborate bar tracery incorporating multiple mullions frames expansive lancet and rose windows, showcasing the era's emphasis on intricate, fractal-like designs that integrated structural necessity with aesthetic splendor. Technically, mullions were seamlessly integrated with cusped arches and fan vaults, advancements that permitted taller walls and reduced mass without compromising stability. Cusped arches, featuring pointed, leaf-like projections at window heads, added ornamental depth while distributing loads more evenly, a development prominent in 13th-century Gothic. Fan vaults, emerging in the late , further lightened upper structures through radiating, conical that complemented slender mullions, allowing for broader glazed areas and enhanced vertical emphasis in cathedrals. Regional variations highlighted stylistic diversity within Gothic mullion use; English Perpendicular Gothic (late 14th to 15th centuries) favored slender, continuously vertical mullions that extended unbroken to the arch apex, often crossed by transoms for a grid-like, ornate effect that accentuated height. In contrast, the French Rayonnant style of the 13th century employed plate tracery with mullions forming radiating, wheel-like patterns, prioritizing luminous harmony and expansive glass surfaces over intricate subdivision, as evident in early facades.

Post-Medieval Evolution

In the period of the , mullions evolved toward simpler forms that aligned with classical ideals of and proportion, departing from the intricate of medieval designs. Italian palazzos exemplified this shift, often featuring biforate windows with a single central mullion dividing two rectangular lights. This simplification reflected the revival of Roman architectural principles, prioritizing structural clarity and aesthetic harmony over decorative complexity. During the and Georgian eras (17th to 18th centuries), mullions became more ornate, particularly in wooden windows that dominated English country houses. These designs incorporated elaborate glazing bars functioning as mullions to divide multiple small panes, enhancing both functionality and visual appeal in buildings like , where counterweighted allowed for ventilation while maintaining decorative profiles. The use of molded wooden mullions added richness to the symmetrical elevations typical of , blending practicality with stylistic flourish. The 19th-century revivals marked a resurgence of mullions in historicist styles, notably Gothic Revival, where they supported larger glass areas in iron forms. In the Houses of Parliament, completed in the 1850s under and Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, iron mullions framed expansive windows, enabling bigger panes while evoking medieval grandeur amid industrial advancements. Victorian windows further standardized multi-mullion configurations, often with thinner vertical divisions in homes and public buildings, balancing tradition with emerging manufacturing efficiencies. Advancements in industrial glass production during the late 19th century diminished the functional need for extensive mullions, as cheaper, larger sheets reduced subdivision requirements for cost and structural reasons. By the mid-1800s, innovations like cylinder-blown and pressed glass allowed for fewer glazing bars, transitioning windows toward plainer designs in everyday architecture.

Design Principles

Materials and Construction

Mullions in traditional architecture were primarily constructed from stone and wood, chosen for their structural integrity and versatility in detailing. Stone mullions, often carved from limestone, were extensively used in Gothic cathedrals due to the material's exceptional durability against weathering and its suitability for fine sculptural work. Limestone's compressive strength and availability in quarries near construction sites made it ideal for load-bearing vertical divisions in large window openings. Wood mullions, typically fashioned from oak, prevailed in Elizabethan-era buildings for their ease of carving into decorative profiles and natural resistance to decay when properly seasoned. Oak's density allowed for precise joinery while supporting slender, ornate frames in residential and ecclesiastical settings. Early metal mullions emerged in , where provided robust support for frames, often paired with lead cames to secure panels. 's malleability enabled blacksmiths to custom shapes, while its tensile strength reinforced delicate leaded lights against wind loads. By the , revolutionized mullion design, allowing for thinner, more slender profiles that maximized light penetration in industrial and commercial buildings. The material's ability to be molded into complex ornamental patterns, combined with its high , facilitated expansive arrays in structures like early skyscrapers and factories. In , aluminum has become a dominant material for mullions, prized for its lightweight properties and resistance, which suit extensive wall systems in high-rise facades. Aluminum's low reduces overall building weight, enabling easier installation and seismic resilience, while anodized finishes protect against . mullions, valued for their superior high-strength-to-weight ratio, are employed in to achieve narrow sightlines and support vast expanses without excessive thickness. variants further enhance durability in harsh climates through resistance to rust and fatigue. Structural mullions represent an innovative evolution, as seen in I.M. Pei's designs like the glass-enclosed spaces at the JFK Airport Terminal 6, where mullions served as self-supporting dividers, minimizing visible framing for a seamless aesthetic. Construction techniques for mullions vary by material, emphasizing secure assembly to withstand and structural demands. Wooden mullions traditionally rely on mortise-and-tenon , where a protruding tenon from one piece interlocks into a slotted mortise of another, often secured with pegs for longevity in frame construction. This method ensures tight fits without adhesives, accommodating wood's natural movement. Metal mullions, particularly in steel and aluminum, are fabricated using welding techniques such as TIG or MIG processes to create seamless, high-integrity joints that distribute loads evenly. Post-1950s advancements include extruded aluminum profiles, produced by forcing heated aluminum through dies to form precise, uniform mullion shapes ideal for modular curtain walls. Emerging sustainable options incorporate composite materials, offering reduced carbon footprints and recyclability for eco-conscious fenestration systems in contemporary builds. Recent innovations include aluminum-timber composite mullions, which offer enhanced energy efficiency and sustainability while maintaining structural integrity.

Structural Roles

Vertical mullions primarily function to transfer dead loads from upper building elements, such as wall weights or self-weight of the fenestration system, downward to the foundations or floor slabs. In load-bearing applications, these mullions act in compression, where the stress is calculated using the basic σ=FA\sigma = \frac{F}{A}, with σ\sigma representing , FF the applied force (e.g., gravitational load), and AA the cross-sectional area of the mullion. This load path ensures stability by distributing forces evenly, preventing localized failure in the supporting . In curtain wall systems, mullions play a critical role in resisting lateral loads through resistance, treating the mullion as a vertical beam fixed or pinned at connections. Wind pressures induce uniform distributed loads along the height, leading to a maximum approximated by M=wL28M = \frac{w L^2}{8} for simply supported conditions, where MM is the moment, ww the uniform load per unit length, and LL the span between anchors. This flexural capacity allows mullions to transfer forces to the building frame without excessive deflection, maintaining facade integrity under dynamic environmental pressures. Aluminum extrusions, common in these systems, are designed to handle such moments while accounting for unsymmetric sections and breaks that affect shear center locations. Modern point-supported glass facades introduce tension and shear forces in mullions, particularly in cantilevered or tension-rod configurations, where mullions or supporting elements resist uplift and lateral shear from wind or seismic actions. These systems require mullions to prevent in tall spans, achieved through optimized cross-sections that enhance torsional rigidity and lateral stability, mitigating risks of lateral-torsional under eccentric loads. Shear stresses arise from glass-to-mullion connections, ensuring force equilibrium without localized yielding. Mullions integrate with transoms and muntins to form a rigid fenestration grid, anchoring horizontal elements to distribute combined loads and enhance overall stiffness against or distortion. Rigid connections, often via mechanical fasteners or welds, allow mullions to transfer shear between components, preventing independent movement and ensuring the assembly acts as a unified structural plane. This integration is essential for maintaining alignment and load-sharing in multi-story facades.

Types and Variations

Mullions can be categorized into simple and profiled types based on their shape and aesthetic profile. Simple mullions are typically rectangular bars, often employed in modern minimalist architecture to create clean lines and emphasize large expanses of glass without ornate detailing. In contrast, profiled mullions feature molded or curved edges, such as the curves integrated into , where they enhance decorative patterns while dividing window lights. Complex variations of mullions extend beyond basic divisions to incorporate branching or integrated elements for ornamental effect. Y-tracery represents a prominent example in Decorated , where vertical mullions branch into a Y-shaped form near the head, creating intricate geometric motifs in two-light windows around 1300. In , decorative central mullions within transomed windows divide large rectangular openings into multiple lights, often with diamond-shaped profiles to support casement glazing and add visual rhythm to facades. Mullions serve both structural and decorative purposes, with their design reflecting functional demands. Load-bearing stone mullions, common in historic Gothic and buildings, provide essential support for expansive glazed areas by distributing weight from arches or walls above. Conversely, non-structural aluminum mullions in modern curtain wall systems support units (IGUs), which incorporate spacers between panes to enhance without contributing to overall building load transfer. Variations in scale distinguish mullions by their vertical extent relative to building proportions. Full-height mullions extend across multiple stories in high-rise facades, unifying the and accommodating large curtain wall modules for a seamless appearance. Intermediate mullions, however, are confined to single openings, subdividing individual panes or lights to balance and localized support within a frame.

Applications in Architecture

Traditional Contexts

In Gothic cathedrals, mullions played a crucial role in the design of multi-lancet windows, which consisted of slender, pointed arches separated by vertical stone mullions to maximize light penetration while symbolizing spiritual elevation. These arrangements allowed for expansive glazed surfaces that filled interiors with colored light, as seen in the 13th-century in , where tall lancet windows and intricate —formed by intersecting mullions and ornamental bars—created a luminous, jewel-like effect housing royal relics. The structural integration of mullions supported larger openings without compromising the building's load-bearing capacity, enhancing both aesthetic harmony and the theological emphasis on divine illumination characteristic of Rayonnant Gothic style. During the Elizabethan period, mullions were commonly employed in manor houses to frame lead-glazed casement windows featuring diamond-patterned muntins, a design necessitated by the scarcity and high cost of , which was produced in small, irregular sheets that required division into modest panes. Wooden mullions divided these windows into multiple lights, often forming prominent or oriel projections that signified wealth and status, as exemplified in rural English estates where such fenestration balanced practicality with ornamental display. This configuration not only optimized the use of limited but also contributed to the rhythmic verticality of facades, aligning with the era's shift toward more open, light-filled domestic spaces. In , wooden lattice mullions, known as ajimez in Hispano-Moorish contexts, appeared in and palace windows to facilitate ventilation and , with paired arches separated by a central mullion allowing filtered breezes in warm climates. At the in , such ajimez windows overlooked courtyards, promoting airflow while diffusing light through intricate geometric lattices that evoked paradise gardens. Similarly, in Palladian villas, symmetric mullions defined tripartite windows, where vertical divisions flanked a central arched light to achieve classical proportion and balance, as in designs emphasizing harmonious facades integrated with the . These examples from the onward highlighted mullions' role in creating ordered, aesthetically unified elevations inspired by antiquity. Across pre-industrial eras, mullions enabled architects to create larger openings for improved illumination and views while preserving strength, as their vertical elements distributed structural loads from lintels and arches to the surrounding framework. In stone constructions like Gothic cathedrals, robust mullions acted as essential supports against the weight of expansive glazing, preventing sagging and maintaining overall stability without advanced engineering. This practical function was vital in eras reliant on load-bearing s, allowing innovative fenestration that enhanced functionality without risking structural integrity.

Contemporary Uses

In modern high-rise architecture, aluminum mullions form the backbone of curtain wall systems, enabling large-scale glazing with enhanced efficiency through unitized panel prefabrication. The in , completed in 2010, exemplifies this approach with its 1.2 million square feet of double-layer panels supported by extruded aluminum mullions, which facilitate rapid installation and wind resistance in extreme conditions. These systems reduce on-site labor and improve performance, making them standard for supertall structures. All-glass facades represent a shift toward transparent structural elements, where glass mullions or fins replace traditional metal supports to maximize visual openness. I.M. Pei's National Airlines Sundrome at JFK Airport's Terminal 6, built in the 1970s and later demolished, pioneered this technique in the United States with an all-glass enclosure using structural mullions for support. More recently, the store in features a 10-meter-high glass cube entrance, reengineered in 2011 and renovated in 2019, structured entirely with multi-laminate glass panels, fins, and beams that act as transparent mullions, eliminating visible metal framing. This design achieves seamless aesthetics while distributing loads through the glass itself. Sustainable innovations in mullion post-2017 emphasize low-carbon materials and integration with energy-efficient technologies to support net-zero . Recycled aluminum mullions, requiring only 5% of the for primary production, have been incorporated into facades like that of the Johanniskarree complex in , completed around 2025, where over 90% recycled content reduces embodied carbon without compromising durability. Timber mullions from sustainably sourced wood enable multi-story curtain walls in eco-focused projects, promoting renewability and lower emissions compared to metal alternatives. For instance, office building in , operational since 2014 but emblematic of ongoing smart upgrades, employs aluminum mullions in a curtain wall system paired with dynamic glazing that adjusts tinting via sensors, contributing to its 98.36% sustainability score and near-net-zero use. Digital fabrication techniques, including CNC machining and , allow for custom parametric mullions that adapt to complex geometries in contemporary . These methods enable precise, waste-minimizing production of non-standard profiles, as demonstrated in architectural where full-scale mullions are fabricated using robotic milling for intricate facades. advancing computational for adaptive structures.

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