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The inside of a typical smithy in Finland
Wooden smithy built in 1726 in Opole, Upper Silesia, Poland
A smithy built around 1880 in Mērsrags, Courland, Latvia currently located at The Ethnographic Open-Air Museum of Latvia

A forge is a type of hearth used for heating metals, or the workplace (smithy) where such a hearth is located. The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a temperature at which it becomes easier to shape by forging, or to the point at which work hardening no longer occurs. The metal (known as the "workpiece") is transported to and from the forge using tongs, which are also used to hold the workpiece on the smithy's anvil while the smith works it with a hammer. Sometimes, such as when hardening steel or cooling the work so that it may be handled with bare hands, the workpiece is transported to the slack tub, which rapidly cools the workpiece in a large body of water. However, depending on the metal type, it may require an oil quench or a salt brine instead; many metals require more than plain water hardening. The slack tub also provides water to control the fire in the forge.

Types

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Coal/coke/charcoal forge

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Bottom blast coal forge

A forge typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal. The designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same.[1]

A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects (hardening, annealing, and tempering as examples). The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways:[citation needed] amount of air, the volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/fire.

A forge fire for hot working of metal

Over thousands of years of forging, these devices have evolved in one form or another as the essential features of this type of forge:[2]

  • Tuyere—a pipe through which air can be forced into the fire
  • Bellows or blower—a means for forcing air into the tuyere
  • Hearth—a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening. Traditionally hearths have been constructed of mud-brick (adobe), fired brick, stone, or later, constructed of iron.

During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth and ignited. A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire consumes fuel faster and burns hotter (and cleaner - smoke can be thought of as escaped potential fuel).

A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work. Often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire.

In a typical coal forge, a firepot will be centered in a flat hearth.[citation needed] The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire. Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it "cooks" into coke first.

If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart. The smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work.

The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a 'backdraft' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall.

Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire (as with coal), the fire is handled differently.

Individual smiths and specialized applications have fostered the development of a variety of forges of this type, from the coal forge described above to simpler constructions amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it.

Gas forge

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A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket (ex: mineral wool). The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi effect.

Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick.

The primary advantage of a gas forge is the ease of use, particularly for a novice. A gas forge is simple to operate compared to coal forges, and the fire produced is clean and consistent. They are less versatile, as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped pieces. It is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge-welding, but a well-designed gas forge is hot enough for any task.

Finery forge

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Main article: Finery forge

A finery forge is a water-powered mill where pig iron is refined into wrought iron.

Forging equipment

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Anvil

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Main article: Anvil
The structure of an anvil

The anvil serves as a workbench to the blacksmith, where the metal to be forged is worked. Anvils may seem clunky and heavy, but they are a highly refined tool carefully shaped to suit a blacksmith's needs. Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. Some anvils are made of only cast iron and have no tool steel face. These are not real anvils, and will not serve a blacksmith as such because they are too soft. A common term for a cast iron anvil is "ASO" or "Anvil Shaped Object". The purpose of a tool steel face on an anvil is to provide what some call "rebound" as well as being hard and not denting easily from misplaced hammer blows. The term rebound means it projects some of the force of the blacksmith's hammer blows back into the metal thus moving more metal at once than if there were no rebound. A good anvil can project anywhere from 50 to 99% of the energy back into the workpiece. The flat top, called the "face" is highly polished and usually has two holes (but can have more or less depending on the design). The square hole is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy tool fits. There are many different kinds of hardy tools. The smaller hole is called the pritchel hole, used as a bolster when punching holes in hot metal, or to hold tools similar to how the hardy tool does, but for tools that require being able to turn a 360-degree angle such as a hold-down tool for when the blacksmith's tongs cannot hold a workpiece as securely as it needs to be. On the front of the anvil, there is sometimes a "horn" that is used for bending, drawing out steel, and many other tasks. Between the horn and the anvil face, there is often a small area called a "step" or a "cutting table" That is used for cutting hot or cold steel with chisels, and hot cut tools without harming the anvil's face. Marks on the face transfer into imperfections in the blacksmith's work.

Hammer

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Various traditional blacksmith tools
Main article: Hammer

There are many types of hammer used in a blacksmith's workshop but this will name just a few common ones. Hammers can range in shape and weight from half an ounce to nearly 30 pounds depending on the type of work being done with it.

  1. Hand hammer - used by the smith.
  2. Sledge hammer - used by the striker.

Chisel

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Main article: Chisel

Chisels are made of high carbon steel. They are hardened and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two types, hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. Usually, hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with cold chisels. Also, many smiths shape chisels as to have a simple twisted handle as to resemble a hammer, they can be used at a greater distance away from the hot metals. They are very useful and found throughout the world. [3]

Tongs

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Main article: Tongs
Blacksmith using tongs

Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely. The mouths are custom made by the smith in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal. It is not uncommon for a blacksmith to own twenty or more pairs of tongs; traditionally, a smith would start building their collection during the apprenticeship. There are various types of tongs available in the market. (1) flat tong (2) rivet or ring tong (3) straight lip fluted tong (4) gad tong

Fuller

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Main article: Fuller (metalworking)

Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The work is placed on the bottom fuller and the top is placed on the work and struck with a hammer. The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal.

Hardy

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Main article: Hardy (blacksmithing)

The hardy tool is a tool with a square shank that fits in a hardy hole. There are many different kinds of hardy tools such as the hot cut hardy, used for cutting hot metal on the anvil; the fuller tool, used for drawing out metal and making grooves; bending jigs - and too many others to list.

Slack tub

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A slack tub is usually a large container full of water used by a blacksmith to quench hot metal. The slack tub is principally used to cool parts of the work during forging (to protect them, or keep the metal in one area from "spreading" for example, nearby hammer blows); to harden the steel; to tend a coal or charcoal forge; and simply to cool the work quickly for easy inspection. In bladesmithing and tool-making the term will usually be changed to a "quench tank" because oil or brine is used to cool the metal. The term slack is believed to derive from the word "slake", as in slaking the heat.

Types of forging

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Main article: Forging

Drop forging

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Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by dropping a heavy hammer with a die on its face onto the workpiece.[4]

Process

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The workpiece is placed into the forge. Then the impact of a hammer causes the heated material, which is very malleable, to conform to the shape of the die and die cavities. Typically only one die is needed to completely form the part. Extra space between the die faces causes some of the material to be pressed out of the sides, forming flash. This acts as a relief valve for the extreme pressure produced by the closing of the die halves and is later trimmed off of the finished part.

Equipment

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The equipment used in the drop forming process is commonly known as a power or drop hammer. These may be powered by air, hydraulics, or mechanics. Depending on how the machine is powered, the mass of the ram, and the drop height, the striking force can be anywhere from 11,000 to 425,000 pounds. The tools that are used, dies and punches, come in many different shapes and sizes, as well as materials. Examples of these shapes are flat and v-shaped which are used for open-die forging, and single or multiple-impression dies used for closed die forging. The designs for the dies have many aspects to them that must be considered. They all must be properly aligned, they must be designed so the metal and the flash will flow properly and fill all the grooves, and special considerations must be made for supporting webs and ribs and the parting line location. The materials must also be selected carefully. Some factors that go into the material selection are cost, their ability to harden, their ability to withstand high pressures, hot abrasion, heat cracking, and other such things. The most common materials used for the tools are carbon steel and, in some cases, nickel-based alloys.

Workpiece materials

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The materials that are used most commonly in drop forging are aluminium, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless steel, and magnesium. Mild steel is the best choice, and magnesium generally performs poorly as a drop forging material.

Mythology

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Further information: Smithing gods

Various gods and goddesses are associated with the forge in a number of mythologies, such as the Irish Brigid, West African Ogun, Greek Hephaestus and Roman Vulcan.[5][6][7]

See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Forges.

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Forge

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A forge is a specialized or furnace used primarily in to heat metals, especially iron and , to high temperatures that render them malleable for shaping through hammering or pressing. It functions as the core of a blacksmith's workshop, where controlled —often fueled by , , or gas—allows precise temperature management to avoid weakening the metal's structure. Key components of a traditional forge include the firepot, a refractory-lined basin that holds the and metal; or modern blowers to supply oxygen-rich air and intensify the heat; and an adjacent for hammering the heated material into desired forms. Supporting elements often encompass a slack tub filled with water for and cooling the metal, for handling hot pieces, and various hammers, chisels, and punches for detailed work. These elements enable processes like drawing out, upsetting, and welds, producing everything from tools and horseshoes to architectural hardware and weapons. Historically, forges trace their origins to around 1500 BCE with the in , who advanced iron and techniques that spread across ancient civilizations in , , and . By the , blacksmiths using forges became essential societal figures, crafting agricultural implements, weaponry, and infrastructure components that propelled technological and economic progress. In colonial , forges were pivotal for self-sufficiency, enabling the production of nails, wagon parts, and arms during conflicts like the , where they defied import restrictions to support independence. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century marked a peak for forge-based work, with blacksmithing ranking as the fourth most common U.S. manufacturing trade by 1870, as every rural community relied on local shops for repairs and custom goods. Mass production and mechanized alternatives, such as power hammers and electric welding, led to a decline by the mid-20th century, reducing the number of operational forges. Today, forges persist in artisanal, historical preservation, and educational contexts, including national park demonstrations and modern adaptations for custom fabrication.

History and development

Origins in ancient metallurgy

The earliest forges emerged as humanity harnessed fire to manipulate metals, beginning with working in the period around 5000 BCE, where simple hearths served for annealing , making it malleable for hammering into tools and ornaments. In ancient and , metallurgists employed rudimentary pit furnaces—shallow depressions lined with clay and fueled by charcoal—to smelt ores to produce molten metal for , often using blowpipes made of reed or bone to direct air blasts and intensify combustion. These techniques allowed for the production of tools, ornaments, and weapons, with archaeological evidence from Near Eastern sites revealing early fragments and tuyeres (nozzle remnants from blowpipes) dating to circa 3000 BCE. Similarly, in ancient , advanced and piece-mold techniques facilitated early and production by the around 1900 BCE, enabling the casting of ritual vessels and complex alloying with tin. The transition to iron metallurgy marked a significant advancement in forge technology, with the bloomery process—the direct reduction of in a solid-state forge furnace—first appearing in around 2000 BCE, where small-scale produced blooms that required to shape. This innovation spread across the , revolutionizing tool-making due to iron's abundance and strength compared to . By circa 1500 BCE, the Hittite Empire in had refined , using basic stone anvils—large, flat boulders or dolerite blocks—and stone or hammers to hammer the porous iron blooms into usable bars and blades, as evidenced by iron artifacts from and Kaman-Kalehöyük sites. Hittite forges typically consisted of clay-lined pit hearths with natural draft or manual , achieving temperatures up to 1200°C to soften the metal without full melting. Key archaeological evidence underscores these early developments, including massive slag heaps from bloomery forges in Roman-era sites like the vicus of in , where over 50 tons of ferrous indicate intensive iron production using similar pit-based forges from the 1st century CE onward, though rooted in Near Eastern traditions. In the , descriptions in Vedic texts such as the (circa 1200–1000 BCE) reference early iron forges ("ayas" for iron) and processes, with terms like "krishna-ayas" denoting worked in charcoal-fueled hearths, corroborated by and iron artifacts from sites like Atranjikhera dating to 1200 BCE. These ancient practices laid the groundwork for more efficient forge designs in subsequent eras.

Evolution during the Industrial Revolution

The , introduced in 15th-century , particularly in (modern-day ), marked a significant advancement in production by enabling the conversion of from blast furnaces into malleable through a process known as fining. This involved melting in a to oxidize excess carbon and impurities, producing a bloom that was then hammered into bars, replacing earlier direct reduction methods like bloomeries. By the 1700s, finery forges had peaked in prevalence across , with double-hearth configurations (finery for and chafery for reheating) becoming widespread in regions such as Hainault and , supporting expanded iron output for tools, weapons, and construction. In Britain, the heavy reliance on for finery forges exacerbated , driving shortages and escalating costs by the early , which threatened the iron industry's . This scarcity prompted innovations at sites like , where Abraham Darby I successfully adapted coke—a coal derivative—as a substitute in blast furnaces starting in 1709, yielding suitable for finery processing and alleviating woodland depletion. By the mid-, experiments at further integrated coke-smelted into fineries, gradually reducing overall dependency and enabling larger-scale operations amid Britain's industrial expansion. Henry Cort's inventions in the 1780s further transformed forging by diminishing charcoal's role entirely. In 1783, he patented grooved rolling mills for efficiently shaping bars, and in 1784, he introduced the puddling furnace—a reverberatory design that used coal to stir and oxidize molten into without direct fuel-metal contact, bypassing charcoal fineries' limitations. These developments allowed integrated to produce on a massive scale, powering machinery and infrastructure growth while conserving forests. Mechanization peaked with the adoption of steam hammers and hydraulic presses, revolutionizing forging from manual labor to powered precision. patented his in 1839, a steam-driven device capable of delivering controlled, heavy blows to shape large components, such as the massive paddle shaft for Isambard Kingdom Brunel's SS Great Britain. Complementing this, hydraulic presses—pioneered by in 1795 and refined during the era—provided uniform pressure for forging intricate parts, facilitating of railway rails, locomotive components, and heavy machinery essential to Britain's industrial dominance. Together, these tools shifted forges toward factory-scale output, enabling the era's rapid and economic transformation.

Modern advancements in forging technology

The rise of isothermal forging in the 1970s marked a significant advancement in precision metal forming, particularly for high-performance alloys like . This process involves heating both the workpiece and dies to the same temperature, typically in a or to minimize cooling during deformation and prevent oxidation, enabling complex shapes with uniform microstructures. Developed initially for applications, such as components, isothermal forging improved material flow and reduced defects compared to conventional hot forging, with early implementations demonstrating feasibility in production-scale presses. By maintaining deformation temperatures around 900–950°C under inert conditions, it allowed for lower forming forces and better control over grain structure, enhancing mechanical properties in load-bearing parts. Since the 1980s, the integration of computer numerical control (CNC) systems and finite element analysis (FEA) software has revolutionized forging die design and process optimization. CNC-enabled presses provided automated control over ram speed and positioning, reducing variability in forging operations and enabling high-volume production with consistent results. Concurrently, FEA simulations allowed engineers to model material flow, stress distribution, and die stresses virtually, minimizing trial-and-error in design and predicting defects like underfilling or cracking. Industry applications, such as in automotive and sectors, adopted these tools to shorten development cycles by up to 50%, with DEFORM software exemplifying early 3D bulk forming models. This digital integration facilitated the transition from empirical to predictive , improving die longevity and part quality. Precision forging emerged as a key innovation in the late , achieving dimensional tolerances under 0.1 mm for critical components like blades, where near-net-shape forming reduces needs and material waste. This technique employs high-precision dies and controlled deformation rates to produce intricate geometries in superalloys, ensuring aerodynamic profiles and structural integrity under extreme conditions. For instance, isothermal precision forging of blades has enabled tolerances of ±0.05–0.1 mm, supporting lighter, more efficient engine designs in . Such advancements have been pivotal in the industry, where precision minimizes post-forging finishing and enhances resistance. Shifts toward eco-friendly practices in have gained momentum, with replacing traditional fuel-based methods to cut by approximately 50% in automotive applications. Induction systems deliver targeted electromagnetic heating directly to the workpiece, achieving rapid temperature rises (up to 1000°C in seconds) with efficiencies of 70–90%, compared to the heat losses in furnace or flame heating. In automotive of crankshafts and connecting rods, case studies show induction processes reducing overall energy use by 40–62% while lowering emissions and enabling precise for consistent metallurgical outcomes. This focus aligns with industry standards, promoting greener manufacturing without compromising quality. As of 2025, further advancements include the integration of (AI) for and real-time process optimization, digital twins for virtual forging simulations to reduce physical prototyping, and hybrid techniques combining forging with additive manufacturing to produce complex, lightweight components with minimal waste, particularly in and automotive industries.

Types of forges

Solid fuel forges

Solid fuel forges rely on combustible solids such as , coke, or to generate intense heat for , with designs centered around controlled to achieve temperatures suitable for . The core components include a firepot, which serves as the central basin or where the fuel is concentrated and ignited, often constructed from durable materials like or refractory-lined containers to withstand prolonged exposure to high heat. A , typically a steel pipe positioned at the base or side of the firepot, directs into the fire to increase oxygen supply and efficiency, preventing ash buildup and promoting even burning. Air is supplied through manual , hand-cranked blowers, or modern compressors, which adjust the airflow to regulate heat intensity. Additionally, a hood or system extracts and fumes, essential for safe indoor operation by venting byproducts away from the workspace. Coal and coke forges are staples in traditional blacksmithing due to their ability to produce sustained high temperatures, often reaching 1650–2200°C when properly managed, enabling operations like and shaping large pieces. These fuels are cost-effective and widely available, making them ideal for professional and larger-scale work, though they require skill to maintain a stable firepot without excessive clinkers—fused remnants that can disrupt . A key drawback is the potential for sulfur impurities in raw , which can release during and cause surface defects or in the forged metal, particularly when working with high-quality steels; coke mitigates this somewhat by reducing volatiles but still demands careful fuel selection. Charcoal forges offer a cleaner alternative, burning at 1200–1400°C with minimal contaminants, which historically made them the preferred choice for producing high-quality wrought iron and steel, as the absence of sulfur and other impurities preserved material integrity during forging. In pre-industrial eras, charcoal's purity was crucial for avoiding defects in premium alloys, contributing to its use in specialized ironmaking until coal-based methods dominated. Modern hobbyists often construct insulated variants using refractory coatings, such as a mixture of plaster of Paris and sand applied to steel bases, to enhance heat retention and efficiency in compact, portable setups. Fuel preparation is vital for optimal performance, particularly with , where the process involves heating in a low-oxygen environment to drive off volatile compounds like gases and tars, resulting in a denser with high carbon content—typically 80–90%—that burns more evenly and with less smoke. This can be done on-site by building a of in the forge, igniting it, and allowing it to self-coke over time, or through dedicated in a controlled before and drying. , similarly produced by pyrolyzing wood, requires no further processing for basic use but benefits from consistent sizing to maintain airflow. While solid fuels provide intense, traditional heat, many contemporary turn to gas forges for their cleaner operation and precise control.

Gas and liquid fuel forges

Gas and liquid fuel forges utilize controlled combustion of gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons to generate the high temperatures required for metalworking, offering cleaner operation compared to traditional solid fuels. These systems typically employ burners that mix fuel with air to produce a stable flame, enabling temperatures suitable for forging and welding various metals. Unlike solid fuel setups favored by traditionalists for their historical authenticity, gas and liquid variants prioritize efficiency and ease of use in modern applications. Natural gas forges commonly feature Venturi burners, which draw in air through a constricted to mix with , creating an efficient, adjustable that reaches 1300-1400°C for tasks. These burners operate at low pressure, often requiring a blower for optimal performance, and allow precise adjustment to minimize excess heat and scaling on the workpiece. provides a cost-effective option for stationary workshops connected to utility lines, producing consistent heat with lower fuel costs than portable alternatives. Propane forges, widely used in portable setups for knife-making and small-scale blacksmithing, incorporate multiple burners to ensure even heat distribution across the workspace, achieving similar temperatures of 1300-1400°C. Their compact design, often insulated with fiber, supports mobility via standard tanks, making them ideal for field work or hobbyist environments. Safety features such as flashback arrestors prevent propagation back to the tank by interrupting reverse gas flow, while regulators enable fine-tuned control to avoid overheating. Oil-fired forges, though less prevalent today due to stringent environmental regulations, historically served heavy industrial with forced-air atomizers that vaporize liquid fuels like for up to 1600°C. These systems excel in large-scale operations requiring sustained high but have been largely phased out in favor of cleaner gaseous fuels because of elevated emissions of particulates, sulfur oxides, and during burning. Modern adaptations focus on emission controls, yet their use remains limited to specialized or legacy industrial settings. A key advantage of gas and forges is their rapid startup, often reaching operational s in under 10 minutes, allowing immediate without prolonged fire-building. Precise via pressure valves and air adjustments supports consistent results, reducing and enhancing through minimized hot spots. These forges also produce fewer particulates than solid s, aligning with environmental standards in contemporary .

Electric and induction forges

Electric resistance forges utilize heating elements constructed from materials like or , which generate through electrical resistance when current passes through them. These systems can achieve temperatures up to 1200°C, making them suitable for small-scale tasks such as jewelry fabrication and precision metalwork where clean, controlled heating is essential. Typical power draw ranges from 5 to 20 kW, allowing for efficient operation in settings without the need for . Induction forges operate by passing through a surrounding coil, generating an that induces currents directly within the metal workpiece. This non-contact method enables rapid heating to forging temperatures around 1500°C in mere seconds, providing uniform heat distribution and minimizing loss. With efficiencies often reaching 50-100% due to targeted delivery, induction forges excel in large-scale production, outperforming traditional methods in speed and precision. Hybrid systems combine with mechanical presses to streamline the of complex automotive components, such as crankshafts and gears, by preheating billets precisely before deformation. This integration reduces scale formation on the metal surface—often by up to 90% compared to furnace heating—through shorter exposure times at high temperatures, leading to improved surface quality and material yield. Contemporary electric and induction forges incorporate programmable digital controls for automated profiling and real-time adjustments, ensuring consistent results across batches. Water-cooling systems protect the coils and electronics from , enabling continuous operation at high intensities. In , these features support forging for critical parts like turbine blades and , where precise heating to 900-950°C prevents defects and enhances fatigue resistance.

Basic forging process

Heating and preparation

In the initial stage of the forging process, the workpiece is heated to temperatures that enhance its malleability, typically ranging from 900°C to 1200°C for carbon and low-alloy steels, where the metal transitions into the austenitic phase to promote and reduce during subsequent deformation. This heating is achieved using various heat sources such as solid fuels (e.g., or coke), gas burners, or electric induction coils, depending on the forge type, to ensure the material reaches a state where internal stresses are relieved and recrystallization can occur without cracking. Overheating beyond 1200°C must be avoided, as it can lead to excessive , weakening the final structure. Precise temperature control is essential to maintain material integrity, often monitored through optical pyrometers for direct measurement or traditional color observation charts, where appears cherry red at approximately 750–800°C, bright cherry or orange at around 1000°C, and white at 1200°C, indicating the optimal window. These methods help prevent underheating, which would result in brittle behavior, or overheating, which promotes oxidation and scale formation. Prior to heating, the workpiece undergoes preparation to ensure clean surfaces and proper form, including descaling to remove layers from prior processing, typically via immersion in acids such as hydrochloric or solutions that chemically dissolve the scale without etching the excessively. This is followed by rinsing and neutralization to avoid residual , and preforming steps like cutting to length or initial bending to approximate the desired shape, facilitating efficient heating and material flow. The forge itself is configured for uniform heating, with solid fuel setups involving a carefully arranged bed to create distinct zones—a hotter central "weld" or working area flanked by cooler preheating sections—to minimize thermal gradients across the workpiece. For gas or induction forges, burners or coils are positioned to establish even heat distribution, often with adjustable dampers or airflow controls. Once inserted, the workpiece is allowed to soak for 5 to 30 minutes, scaled to its thickness and , ensuring thorough temperature penetration and homogenization before shaping begins.

Shaping techniques

Shaping techniques in forging encompass the mechanical deformations applied to heated metal to achieve desired geometries, primarily through compressive forces that alter the workpiece's dimensions and form. These methods rely on controlled deformation to refine the material's structure while minimizing defects. Manual shaping begins with fundamental operations such as drawing out, which elongates the metal and reduces its cross-sectional area; upsetting, which compresses the workpiece to shorten its length and increase thickness; and , which introduces along the material's axis. These actions are performed using repeated strikes, allowing the to progressively manipulate the hot metal on an surface. Power-assisted techniques enhance efficiency for repetitive or labor-intensive tasks, employing pneumatic hammers to deliver consistent, high-frequency impacts that reduce operator . Such tools are particularly effective in fullering, where grooves are formed to distribute , and swaging, which rounds edges or creates smooth contours by conforming the metal to shaped dies. Strain rate plays a critical role in these techniques, as faster deformation rates—typically 1-10 s⁻¹ in hand —promote dynamic recrystallization and preserve a finer structure, enhancing the forged component's mechanical properties. Progressive shaping sequences ensure uniform deformation, commencing with rough blocking to establish the basic outline, advancing through intermediate forming stages, and culminating in precise trimming to remove flash and achieve final contours, often involving 20-50% reductions in cross-sectional area per operation.

Cooling and finishing

After the shaping stage, the forged workpiece undergoes controlled cooling to achieve desired microstructural properties and prevent defects such as cracking. , often used for normalizing, allows the metal to cool in still air at rates typically ranging from 10 to 100°C per minute, promoting a uniform microstructure suitable for general structural applications. In contrast, provides rapid cooling for hardened edges, achieving rates exceeding 75°C per second, which is essential for high-strength components but requires careful control to avoid stresses and cracks. Annealing follows to relieve internal stresses from deformation, involving heating the forged part to 600–800°C, holding for sufficient time to ensure uniformity, and then slowly cooling in the furnace at approximately 50°C per hour. This process softens the metal, improves , and refines grain structure without introducing . Finishing operations remove surface imperfections and oxidation layers formed during forging. Grinding eliminates excess material and smooths contours, while in acidic solutions dissolves scale, ensuring a clean surface for subsequent use or . Final inspection involves visual and non-destructive testing to detect defects such as laps (folds from incomplete metal flow) or seams (surface cracks), guaranteeing compliance. Post-forging heat treatment often integrates tempering to balance and , reheating the quenched part to 200–600°C and cooling in air, which reduces while retaining strength. This step is critical for applications requiring durability, such as tools and automotive components.

Essential equipment and tools

Anvils and bases

Anvils serve as the primary stationary support in , providing a hard, stable surface for shaping heated metal under repeated impacts. The traditional pattern anvil, a widely adopted design originating in 19th-century , consists of a body for mass and affordability, topped with a face plate approximately 1 inch thick to withstand high stresses without deforming. These anvils typically weigh 80 to 250 pounds (36 to 113 kg), offering sufficient to absorb blows while minimizing deflection and ensuring efficient energy transfer to the workpiece. Key features of design include a tapered horn extending from one end of the face, used for drawing out, bending, and forming cylindrical or curved shapes, and a square hardy hole near the heel for securing swages, fullers, or cutting tools. The pritchel hole, a smaller round opening adjacent to the hardy hole, facilitates punching and drifting operations. This configuration promotes versatility in hand , with the overall —featuring a flat rectangular face, narrower waist, and broad base—enhancing balance and reducing tipping during use. In industrial forging environments, modern anvil variants incorporate hydraulic or viscous-damped bases to mitigate vibrations transmitted to and surrounding structures. These systems, often using fluid-filled dampers in conjunction with springs, significantly reduce and wear while maintaining precision in high-volume production. Anvil bases vary by application, with materials chosen to balance stability, vibration control, and mobility. Wooden blocks, often constructed from dense hardwoods like or stacked to 24-30 inches high, dampen by absorbing minor oscillations, resulting in a quieter forging experience and reduced bounce in the workpiece. Concrete bases provide permanent, high-mass support for heavy industrial setups, offering excellent through their inherent properties when poured as isolated foundations. In contrast, stands—typically welded frames with adjustable legs—prioritize portability for mobile or use, though they may transmit more unless paired with rubber pads. When selecting an anvil and base, a key criterion is the anvil-to-hammer mass ratio, ideally at least 20:1, to limit anvil deflection and workpiece bounce under hammer strikes, ensuring controlled deformation and higher forging efficiency. Hammers are struck atop the anvil face to leverage this stability for precise shaping.

Hammers and striking tools

Hand hammers are fundamental striking tools in forging, typically weighing between 0.5 and 2 kg to allow for controlled, repetitive blows on heated metal workpieces. These tools feature ergonomic handles made from hickory wood, valued for its resilience and ability to absorb shock during impact, ensuring user comfort and reducing fatigue over extended sessions. The hammer head, often forged from high-carbon steel, is designed for durability, with the striking face providing flat, even force while specialized peen ends enable varied shaping techniques. Among hand hammers, the cross-peen hammer is essential for drawing out metal, where the wedge-shaped peen side delivers directional force to lengthen the workpiece along a specific axis, complementing the round face's even spreading. In contrast, the excels in riveting and general shaping tasks, with its hemispherical peen allowing for rounding edges and forming heads without excessive , while the flat face handles upsetting and flattening. These hammers are swung to strike the workpiece positioned on an , transferring to deform the metal precisely. For heavier forging operations, sledge hammers—ranging from 5 to 10 kg—are employed by two persons, one wielding the tool and the other guiding the workpiece, to rough out large pieces through powerful, broad impacts that establish initial form. These double-handed tools feature long shafts for leverage and may have cross-peen or straight-peen designs to combine roughing with . Power hammers enhance efficiency in heavy by automating strikes. Mechanical trip hammers operate via , with falling weights typically ranging from 50 to 500 kg to deliver high-energy blows for deforming substantial billets. Air hammers, powered by , provide rapid succession of impacts—typically 200 to 300 blows per minute—for consistent shaping in industrial settings, reducing manual labor while maintaining precision on larger workpieces. Proper maintenance of hammers and striking tools is critical to and . Regular face dressing, involving grinding the striking surface on a wet to restore flatness, prevents mushrooming—where the head deforms and spreads under repeated impacts—thus avoiding potential chipping or flying fragments. After dressing, the head should be tempered by heating to cherry red and to preserve , with handles inspected and oiled to prevent cracking.

Holding and cutting tools

Holding and cutting tools are essential accessories in for securing workpieces and sectioning metal safely and precisely during the heating and shaping process. , the primary holding tools, come in various designs tailored to specific stock shapes to prevent slippage and damage to the material. Flat-jaw tongs feature broad, smooth jaws ideal for gripping flat stock without marring the surface, while swan-neck or goose-neck tongs, with their curved design, are suited for holding square bars securely by the side. Custom tongs can be forged for odd or irregular shapes, often starting from 1/2-inch square mild stock to ensure durability under repeated heating and . These tools allow the smith to manipulate hot metal with control, sometimes in conjunction with hammers to drive other implements. Chisels and fullers facilitate cutting and groove formation on heated stock. Hot chisels, designed for severing metal at elevated temperatures around 850–900°C, enable clean cuts without excessive force that could deform the workpiece. Fullers, in contrast, are rounded tools used to spread metal and create grooves, distributing force to widen sections evenly without causing splits or cracks in the material. Both are typically struck with hammers to impart the necessary deformation while the metal remains malleable. Hardies and punches are square-shank tools that fit into the anvil's hardy hole for stable support during operations like or slitting. Hardies serve as bases for cutting actions, such as with hot chisels, while punches create holes by driving through the softened metal. These tools ensure precise sectioning, with punches often used for forming slits or openings in flat or . A slack tub, a simple water-filled container, provides rapid cooling for tools like , chisels, and punches after use, preventing overheating and extending their lifespan; it also allows partial of the workpiece to control cooling rates without full immersion.

Advanced forging methods

Open-die forging

Open-die forging involves deforming a heated workpiece between flat or simply shaped dies that do not fully enclose the , permitting lateral flow and unrestricted spreading during compression. The process relies on repeated blows or press applications to gradually shape large ingots, often starting from sizes up to 200 tons, through operations such as upsetting to thicken and shorten the piece or to elongate it. This technique disrupts the original cast structure of the metal, breaking down dendrites, closing internal voids, and aligning grains for improved directional properties, making it essential for initial rough forming of oversized components like shafts and disks. The advantages of open-die center on enhancing material integrity, as the compressive forces promote structural homogeneity by refining the microstructure and significantly reducing , which is particularly beneficial for large-scale parts where defects could compromise . This results in superior mechanical , including higher tensile strength, better resistance, and reduced compared to or wrought alternatives, while offering flexibility for low-volume without specialized tooling. Unlike closed-die , which confines material for net-shape precision, open-die methods excel in consolidating massive ingots into sound, workable forms. Equipment for open-die forging ranges from traditional , with ram weights of 500 to 25,000 kg for manual or semi-automated operations, to massive hydraulic presses delivering 5,000 to 50,000 tons of force (approximately 45 to 445 MN) for industrial-scale work on heavy ingots. Hand forging with simple anvils persists for custom or artistic pieces, often aided by manipulators to rotate and position the workpiece, ensuring even deformation across its volume. These systems require high-temperature heating, typically in furnaces reaching 1,200°C, to maintain during shaping. Despite its benefits, open-die forging necessitates skilled operators to achieve uniform deformation and prevent issues like barrel distortion or uneven flow, as suboptimal bite lengths can induce tensile stresses leading to defects. Material yield is typically 70-90%, resulting in 10-30% losses from ends, surface scaling, and post-process trimming, alongside high energy demands for heating and pressing.

Closed-die forging

Closed-die forging, also known as impression-die forging, is a process in which a heated or preform is deformed within dies that fully or partially enclose the workpiece, allowing for the precise replication of complex shapes with minimal material waste. The dies consist of upper and lower halves containing matching cavities that define the final geometry, and the process typically involves multiple blows or presses to fill the die impressions completely. Excess material, known as flash, is extruded into designated areas during deformation, ensuring uniform filling and structural integrity in the forged part. This method is particularly suited for high-volume production of components requiring consistent dimensions and enhanced mechanical properties due to the refined grain structure achieved through compressive forces. Die impressions in closed-die forging incorporate specific design features to facilitate material flow and part ejection. Draft angles, typically ranging from 3° to 7° on vertical surfaces, are applied to both external and internal features to ease release from the die after forging, reducing friction and preventing defects like . Flash gutters, shallow recesses along the die parting line, are machined to accommodate and contain the excess metal that flows out during the final stages of deformation, allowing it to cool and solidify separately from the main part for subsequent trimming. These elements ensure the workpiece conforms accurately to the die cavity while minimizing die wear and enabling efficient production cycles. Closed-die forging encompasses several types tailored to different stages of part formation. Impression dies, used for final shaping, produce complex geometries such as by compressing the metal to replicate intricate details within the die cavity. Blocker dies, on the other hand, serve as preforming tools to create rough approximations of the final , distributing material evenly before transfer to finishing impression dies and improving fill in subsequent operations. This staged approach enhances overall and part . The primary equipment for closed-die forging includes drop hammers and mechanical presses, each suited to specific production needs. Drop hammers, often rated from 1,000 to 20,000 ft-lb of energy depending on the machine size, deliver rapid, high-impact blows via a falling ram to deform the workpiece, making them ideal for smaller batches and intricate shapes. Mechanical presses, driven by flywheels and cranks, provide controlled, high-volume production through steady compressive forces, enabling consistent results for larger runs. These machines often follow initial roughing via open-die methods to prepare the . One of the key benefits of closed-die forging is its superior dimensional accuracy, typically achieving tolerances within ±0.5 mm for small to medium components, which reduces the need for extensive post-forging . The process also yields a smooth , with roughness values () in the range of 3-6 µm, contributing to better resistance and aesthetic quality without additional finishing in many cases. In automotive applications, closed-die forging is widely used for critical components like connecting rods, where the method imparts high strength and reliability under dynamic loads.

Specialized techniques

Upset involves axial compression of a heated bar or rod to locally increase its while reducing its , commonly applied in the production of bolt heads and fasteners. In this , one end of the workpiece is gripped by jaws or to prevent and axial movement, while a die applies compressive force to the opposite end, upsetting a specific section into the desired . This technique is particularly effective for forming enlarged heads on rods, as it allows precise control over the deformation zone and is one of the most widely used methods due to its efficiency in . Roll forging, also known as rotary forging or hot forge rolling, employs two tapered, grooved rolls that rotate in opposite directions to progressively reduce the cross-section of a heated while elongating it, often producing tapered or stepped components such as axles and driveshafts. The is fed between the rolls, which grip and deform it incrementally in multiple passes, allowing for continuous processing and improved grain flow alignment in the final part. Typical operational speeds range from 50 to 200 , depending on the material and equipment, enabling high throughput for automotive and machinery applications. Radial forging utilizes a multi-hammer , typically two or four opposed hammers mounted on rotating dies, to apply simultaneous radial forces from all sides to a workpiece, such as a tube or bar, resulting in uniform reduction or internal profiling. This open-die is ideal for producing thin-walled tubes and precise geometries, with the workpiece often supported by a to control internal dimensions during deformation. It is commonly employed in the manufacture of barrels, where the radial compression ensures straightness and strength by refining the microstructure without excessive material waste. Precision forging techniques, such as near-net-shape isothermal forging, maintain the workpiece and dies at a uniform elevated temperature to enable slow, controlled deformation of complex shapes, particularly for high-strength alloys in components like blades. This method minimizes die chilling and , allowing for intricate geometries that closely match final dimensions and reduce subsequent requirements by up to 70% compared to conventional processes. By optimizing material utilization and , it enhances efficiency in producing lightweight, high-performance parts for engines.

Materials and applications

Suitable metals and alloys

Low-carbon steels, characterized by a carbon content of 0.05-0.30%, are among the most suitable materials for forging due to their inherent and ability to undergo substantial plastic deformation at elevated temperatures. These steels exhibit optimal forgeability when heated to 1100-1250°C, a range that promotes austenitic transformation and minimizes cracking risks while allowing for efficient shaping. AISI 1018, with approximately 0.18% carbon, exemplifies this category, offering balanced mechanical properties post-forging, including yield strengths around 370 MPa and excellent formability for load-bearing components. Aluminum alloys from the and 7000 series are highly forgeable, prized for their high strength-to-weight ratios that enable lightweight yet robust structures. The series, primarily copper-alloyed for enhanced strength, and the 7000 series, zinc-alloyed for superior tensile properties, are typically forged at 350-500°C to preserve their precipitation-hardening potential and avoid excessive softening. For example, 7075 alloy in the 7000 series achieves ultimate tensile strengths exceeding 570 MPa after forging and , with a density about one-third that of , supporting applications in high-stress environments. Titanium alloys, particularly beta variants like Ti-10V-4.5Fe-1.5Al, and nickel-based superalloys such as 718, excel in forging for demanding thermal and mechanical conditions due to their resistance to creep and oxidation. Beta titanium alloys are forged at 900-950°C, where the beta phase provides sufficient for complex deformations while retaining high . Inconel superalloys, forged around 1100°C, maintain structural integrity at temperatures up to 700°C, with yield strengths over 1000 MPa in aged conditions, ideal for heat-exposed parts. Forgeability of these metals hinges on material properties like sufficient elongation, which ensures adequate to accommodate strains without , and a low work-hardening rate that sustains deformability during multi-pass operations. further refines grain structure, often reducing average and thereby enhancing strength through improved resistance to crack propagation and higher limits.

Industrial and artistic uses

In industrial applications, forging plays a critical role in producing high-strength components for demanding sectors. In the , forged crankshafts are widely used due to their exceptional , often lasting over 200,000 miles in applications under high-stress conditions. Similarly, in the oil and gas sector, drill bits made from forged provide the necessary toughness and wear resistance for penetrating formations during and extraction operations. Aerospace manufacturing relies on forged aluminum for components, which offer superior strength-to-weight ratios compared to cast alternatives, enabling significant weight reductions to improve and performance. These applications highlight forging's ability to produce parts that withstand extreme loads and environmental stresses, such as those encountered in undercarriages. Materials like are also forged for specialized uses, further enhancing lightweight structural integrity. Artistically, hand-forged iron has seen a notable revival through blacksmithing, where artisans create sculptures, ornamental gates, and intricate jewelry that blend traditional techniques with contemporary aesthetics. This resurgence is evident in modern craft fairs and exhibitions, where blacksmiths showcase custom works emphasizing durability and unique textures achieved through manual forging. The craft's popularity has grown, driven by interest in sustainable, handmade art forms that connect to historical practices while appealing to today's markets for bespoke metalwork. Economically, the global forging market was valued at approximately $78 billion in 2023 and $95 billion in 2024, with the automotive sector alone accounting for about 42.5% of the revenue, underscoring its dominance alongside machinery applications.

Safety and cultural aspects

Operational hazards and precautions

Operating forge environments present significant hazards, primarily from handling metal heated to temperatures exceeding 1000°C during processes, which can cause severe burns upon contact. To mitigate these risks, workers must wear protective equipment such as leather aprons to shield the body, face shields to protect against radiant and splashes, and insulated gloves capable of withstanding intermittent contact up to approximately 500°C. Additionally, maintaining a safe distance from the forge and using for handling hot materials further reduces exposure to thermal injuries. Fire and explosion risks arise from fuel vapors in gas or coal forges, as well as steam generated during quenching in slack tubs, potentially leading to ignition or pressure buildup. Effective precautions include installing adequate ventilation systems to disperse fumes and combustible gases, and keeping fire extinguishers rated for metal fires (Class D) readily accessible in the workspace. Regular inspections of fuel lines and exhaust systems are essential to prevent leaks that could escalate these hazards. Physical strains, including repetitive motion injuries to the wrists, shoulders, and back from prolonged hammering, are common in manual forging operations. Mitigation strategies involve using ergonomic hammers with balanced handles to reduce impact force, implementing worker rotation schedules to limit exposure time, and incorporating frequent breaks—such as every 45 minutes—to allow recovery and stretching. Proper posture training, including varying striking heights, also helps prevent musculoskeletal disorders over extended sessions. Forge operations must comply with OSHA standards under 29 CFR 1910, including general requirements for (PPE) under 1910.132 and hand protection under 1910.138, which require hazard assessments to select appropriate gear such as with safety goggles or face shields to guard against flying scale and sparks. Employers must provide emergency facilities, including showers or stations for immediate from hot liquids or chemicals where hazards are present (1910.151), and ensure all equipment is maintained to prevent mechanical failures. Compliance with these regulations, including regular training and hazard assessments, is required to protect workers in both industrial and artisanal settings.

Mythological and symbolic significance

In Greco-Roman mythology, the forge held profound significance as the domain of Hephaestus, the Greek god of fire, metalworking, and craftsmanship, whose volcanic workshop beneath Mount Etna or on the island of Lemnos symbolized the transformative power of fire and metal. Hephaestus was renowned for crafting divine artifacts, including the impenetrable armor for Achilles at the request of the hero's mother, Thetis, as detailed in Homer's Iliad, where the god labors over a shield depicting the cosmos, earth, and human endeavors to represent cosmic order and heroism. His Roman counterpart, Vulcan, embodied similar attributes, with his forge associated with volcanic activity and the creation of thunderbolts for Jupiter, underscoring themes of creation emerging from destruction and the forge as a site of divine ingenuity. In , the forge represented masterful craftsmanship and supernatural artistry, exemplified by Völundr (), a legendary figure captured and lamed by King Níðuðr but who exacted revenge by forging magical items, including swords of unparalleled sharpness, as recounted in the Völundarkviða of the . Dwarven forges further amplified this symbolism, with skilled artisans like and creating enchanted treasures such as Thor's hammer Mjölnir in underground workshops, portraying the forge as a realm where raw materials were imbued with magical potency and where craftsmanship mirrored the gods' own creative forces. Across cultures, the forge emerged as a potent for personal and spiritual transformation, particularly in , where the metallurgical process of refining base metals into gold paralleled the purification of the soul through trials of fire and hammer, as explored in Mircea Eliade's analysis of ancient techniques linking to shamanistic and initiatory rites. In , the symbolized moral refinement, with the operative tools of stonemasons evoking the blacksmith's labor to shape the "rough " of human character into perfected virtue, drawing on Vulcanic imagery for themes of resilience and ethical forging. In contemporary symbolism, tattoos featuring hammers and anvils often denote endurance and inner strength, reflecting the blacksmith's unyielding craft as a of overcoming adversity. Historical festivals reinforced the forge's cultural reverence, with ancient Roman Vulcanalia on involving bonfires and small animal sacrifices at forges to avert destructive fires while honoring Vulcan's creative flame, a tradition that influenced later blacksmith gatherings. In medieval , blacksmith guilds organized fairs and feasts, such as those tied to the patron saint St. Eloi or regional craft celebrations, where processions and competitions echoed the mythical honoring of forge deities through displays of prowess and communal rites.

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  107. https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.157
  108. https://murariengineeringworks.com/7-precautions-need-to-be-taken-during-metal-forging/
  109. https://www.theoi.com/Olympios/HephaistosWorks2.html
  110. https://www.worldhistory.org/Vulcan/
  111. https://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe17.htm
  112. https://www.thevikingherald.com/article/who-were-the-master-craftsmen-in-norse-mythology/823
  113. https://www.academia.edu/231841/Evolution_of_an_Emblem_The_Arm_and_Hammer
  114. https://symbolopedia.com/anvil-symbolism-meaning/
  115. https://www.vindolanda.com/blog/vulcanalia-a-festival-for-fire-fyre-festival
  116. https://itinerant-scribe.com/tag/medieval-europe/
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