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Cover of Negro World, July 31, 1920

Negro World was[when?] the newspaper of the Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA). Founded by Garvey and Amy Ashwood Garvey, the newspaper was published weekly in Harlem, and distributed internationally to the UNIA's chapters in more than forty countries.[1] Distributed weekly, at its peak, the Negro World reached a circulation of 200,000.[2]

Notable editors included Marcus Garvey, T. Thomas Fortune,[3] William H. Ferris,[4] W.A. Domingo and Amy Jacques Garvey.[5]

Background

[edit]

Garvey founded the UNIA in July 1914, and within the organization's first few years had started publishing Negro World.[6]

Monthly, Negro World distributed more copies than The Messenger, The Crisis and Opportunity (other important African-American publications). Colonial rulers banned its sales and even possession in their territories, including both British Empire and French colonial empire possessions.[6][7] Distribution in foreign countries was conducted through black seamen who would smuggle the paper into such areas.

Negro World ceased publication in 1933.

Content

[edit]

For a nickel, readers received a front-page editorial by Garvey, along with poetry and articles of international interest to people of African ancestry. Under the editorship of Amy Jacques Garvey the paper featured a full page called "Our Women and What They Think".

Negro World also played an important part in the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. The paper was a focal point for publication on the arts and African-American culture, including poetry,[8] commentary on theatre and music, and regular book reviews. Romeo Lionel Dougherty, a prominent figure of the Jazz Age, began writing for Negro World in 1922.[9]

Contributors

[edit]

Notable editors and contributors to Negro World included:

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Negro World

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Negro World was a weekly newspaper founded on August 17, 1918, by Marcus Garvey as the official organ of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and African Communities League (ACL), advocating black nationalism, racial pride, and Pan-African unity.
The publication emphasized the exploits of black heroes, the historical splendors of African civilizations, and the need for economic self-sufficiency and repatriation to Africa, reaching an estimated circulation of 50,000 to 200,000 copies worldwide by 1920 and contributing to the UNIA's growth into the largest mass movement in African-American history.
Garvey, who served as managing editor, used the paper to propagate his vision of black redemption and sovereignty, inspiring millions across the Americas, Africa, and Europe despite opposition from established black leaders who viewed his separatist ideology as divisive.
Its influence led to bans by British and French colonial authorities in territories including Africa, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Guyana, where it was deemed seditious for fomenting independence and unrest, prompting smuggling networks to evade prohibitions.
In the United States, federal scrutiny intensified, with the FBI monitoring and ultimately aiding in Garvey's 1923 mail fraud conviction, which precipitated the paper's decline and cessation by 1933, though it briefly revived that year.

Founding and Development

Establishment and Initial Launch

Negro World was founded on August 17, 1918, in , , by as the weekly official organ of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (), which Garvey had established in 1914 to advance black . Garvey personally oversaw its launch on his 31st birthday, serving as unpaid managing editor to ensure alignment with UNIA objectives of promoting through economic independence and opposition to dependency on white-led institutions. The newspaper's initial purpose centered on disseminating Pan-Africanist advocacy for and , countering accommodationist approaches that emphasized integration into existing American societal structures. Early issues, printed locally in New York, included Garvey's front-page editorials urging collective action among people of African descent worldwide, alongside features highlighting achievements and critiques of colonial exploitation in . Funding for the publication stemmed directly from UNIA membership dues, reflecting the organization's grassroots financial model as it expanded from its New York base, with Garvey maintaining tight control over operations to sustain its role as a unifying voice for black nationalism.

Expansion During the Early 1920s

By 1920, Negro World experienced significant operational growth alongside the expanding Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), which had established over 1,100 divisions worldwide by the early 1920s, facilitating broader distribution through chapter networks. This period coincided with major UNIA events, including the First International Convention of the Negro Peoples of the World held in August 1920 in New York City, which drew 2,000 delegates from 22 countries and amplified the newspaper's role in promoting organizational initiatives such as the Black Star Line shipping venture launched in 1919. The paper's weekly circulation reached estimates between 50,000 and 200,000 copies during this time, reflecting heightened demand amid UNIA's rising prominence. ![Negro World issue from July 31, 1920][float-right] To extend its reach to communities in , Negro World introduced sections in Spanish starting in 1923, followed by French-language content to engage French-speaking audiences in regions like and . These multilingual additions broadened the paper's appeal beyond English-speaking readers, aligning with UNIA's international ambitions, though exact circulation figures for these editions remain undocumented. The format evolved to include dedicated features such as a women's page addressing issues pertinent to female readers, enhancing inclusivity within the publication's structure. Photographs, as seen in issues from 1920 onward, were incorporated to visually document UNIA activities and Black achievements, contributing to the paper's growing visual and narrative scope before subsequent challenges.

Content and Ideology

Core Themes of Garveyism

, as propagated through the Negro World's front-page editorials penned weekly by , emphasized rooted in racial separation and , positing these as essential for preserving cultural integrity and achieving collective advancement. The newspaper argued that integration into white-dominated societies perpetuated subjugation, advocating instead for separate development among people of African descent to avoid dilution of racial identity and to draw strength from historical precedents of autonomous African polities. Economic empowerment formed a , with features showcasing black-owned businesses and UNIA ventures like the Black Star Line steamship company, established in 1919 to enable trade and reduce reliance on white intermediaries. Editorials critiqued dependency on white or aid programs as fostering passivity, urging instead self-reliant and to build wealth within black communities. Anti-colonial rhetoric permeated the publication, exposing European resource extraction and administrative control in —such as Britain's hold over and the Belgian Congo's forced labor systems—and calling for mass repatriation to reclaim sovereignty on the continent. These appeals rejected alliances with international , framing colonial liberation as a racial imperative achievable through unified black action rather than ideological imports from . Editorials consistently applied to assert that racial stemmed from internal factors like , moral rectitude, and industriousness, rather than external reforms or appeals to white benevolence, which were dismissed as illusory. This framework positioned self-mastery and territorial reclamation as the primary drivers of , evidenced by UNIA's growth to over 1,000 divisions worldwide by 1921.

Sections and Literary Features

![Front page of Negro World from July 31, 1920, illustrating typical layout and content sections][float-right] The Negro World featured a structured format with dedicated sections for news reports, editorials, and specialized columns aimed at engaging its readership on matters of racial progress and cultural expression. News coverage emphasized updates on conventions, parades, and organizational activities, alongside accounts of black labor strikes and anti-colonial movements in , the , and beyond. A prominent specialized column was the women's page, titled "Our Women and What They Think," edited by from February 2, 1924, to April 30, 1927. This section solicited and published contributions from women worldwide, addressing topics such as family responsibilities, educational advancement for black children, and the role of women in fostering racial solidarity and economic independence within their communities. Literary features included serialized and that highlighted African heritage and black achievement, serving as a platform for emerging voices in black expressive culture. These works often depicted narratives of and cultural reclamation, aligning with contemporaneous efforts to elevate black artistic output. Visual documentation enhanced the publication's appeal through photographs by , which captured Harlem's social scenes, UNIA gatherings, and individual portraits symbolizing black prosperity and resilience. These images, reproduced in the newspaper, provided tangible evidence of community vitality and countered prevailing stereotypes with empirical representations of black life.

Critiques of Integration and Assimilation

Negro World editorials frequently invoked the violence of the 1919 , during which at least 25 race riots erupted across the resulting in over 150 documented deaths, predominantly Black victims, alongside a surge in lynchings exceeding 100 incidents in the preceding years, to argue that assimilation into white-dominated society was untenable and provoked retaliatory brutality rather than progress. These events were presented not as aberrations but as empirical proof of inherent racial antagonism, undermining integrationist optimism and bolstering Garvey's advocacy for as a self-reliant alternative to perpetual vulnerability in settings. The publication dismissed strategies of legal advocacy and civil rights litigation as ineffectual and detached from ground realities, portraying them as overly reliant on white judicial goodwill despite repeated setbacks, such as the failure of early anti-lynching bills in and limited gains prior to the 1930s that left segregation entrenched. Garvey's writings in Negro World contended that such approaches ignored the systemic entrenchment of , favoring instead pragmatic over what was derided as mulatto-led illusions of equality through courtroom appeals. To demonstrate the feasibility of , Negro World highlighted UNIA initiatives like the , which by 1920 had amassed $800,000 from member investments to acquire its inaugural vessel, the S.S. Yarmouth, as a step toward transatlantic transport for African returnees, underscoring economic self-sufficiency over dependence on hostile governments. These acquisitions were framed as verifiable advancements in logistics for territorial settlement, contrasting with the abstract promises of integration by providing tangible for mass relocation. Garvey's columns rejected Marxist-inspired class solidarity across racial lines as a that disregarded centuries of documented historical subjugation and purported biological distinctions in and capability between races, insisting that interracial alliances dissolved under and perpetuated Black subordination rather than resolution. This stance critiqued left-leaning interracial labor coalitions as naive to the primacy of racial identity, prioritizing intra-racial unity and African sovereignty as the only realistic path to autonomy amid persistent .

Operations and Reach

Editorial and Production Details

The Negro World was printed in Harlem, New York, the hub of Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) activities, where production leveraged the era's rudimentary printing presses to issue a weekly tabloid-format newspaper. Funding for the newspaper came primarily from reader subscriptions, which exceeded 50,000 during periods of strong editorial management, supplemented by advertisements from Black-owned businesses and promotional content tied to initiatives like stock offerings. Editorial policies emphasized unwavering alignment with Marcus Garvey's vision for the , with Garvey maintaining tight control over content production to prioritize organizational objectives and suppress internal dissent. To broaden its reach, production adapted by incorporating multilingual editions, including Spanish sections from 1923 and French from 1924, reflecting efforts to accommodate international subscribers despite logistical constraints of the time.

Circulation and International Distribution

The Negro World leveraged the global network of over 1,000 divisions spanning more than 40 countries to distribute copies across the , , , , , and . This infrastructure enabled systematic dissemination through chapter-based subscriptions, public readings at UNIA meetings, and postal services targeting diaspora communities. Peak circulation occurred in the early 1920s, with UNIA records indicating weekly print runs approaching 200,000 copies, though organizational claims extended to 500,000 when accounting for unofficial reproductions and shared readings in remote areas. Verification derived from chapter subscription tallies and reports of bundled shipments to international agents, underscoring the paper's role as a primary vehicle for Garveyite . Distribution methods emphasized resilience against logistical hurdles, employing networks of agents stationed at key ports and urban hubs to facilitate hand-to-hand exchanges and bulk mailings evading routine inspections. These efforts extended reach into underserved regions, where anecdotal evidence from locales documents the paper catalyzing grassroots discussions on economic independence and cultural pride within black labor circles.

Key Personnel

Marcus Garvey's Editorial Influence

assumed the role of for Negro World upon its inception on August 17, 1918, maintaining direct oversight until his federal imprisonment in February 1925 and deportation to in November 1927. In this capacity, he authored the front-page editorial for every weekly edition, thereby shaping the publication's ideological stance and policy pronouncements on matters affecting people of African descent. Garvey's editorials explicitly called for preserving racial purity among Negroes, arguing that intermixture diluted group strength and hindered collective advancement, a position rooted in the imperative of racial amid historical subjugation. He advanced the goal of establishing a in , positing it as a necessary counter to diaspora fragmentation and colonial domination, with references to ancient African civilizations and biblical prophecies symbolizing resurgence. These writings framed empire-building as a pragmatic response to immutable racial hierarchies observed globally, urging organized and economic to reclaim ancestral lands. Under Garvey's direction, the newspaper adopted an insistent tone of racial upliftment and personal agency, promoting initiatives and institutional autonomy as antidotes to dependency, rather than dwelling on grievances without resolution. This approach sought to instill causal responsibility in readers, encouraging them to forge economic enterprises and cultural pride independent of external validation or integrationist concessions. Garvey leveraged Negro World to counter accusations against the , particularly during the 1923 mail fraud prosecution, portraying legal actions as targeted suppression of black autonomy and using the platform to mobilize defenses and sustain organizational loyalty. His persistent editorial defenses highlighted the movement's financial transparency efforts and framed opposition as evidence of broader resistance to Negro .

Prominent Contributors and Editors

Amy Jacques Garvey, associate editor from 1924 to 1927, oversaw the "Our Women and What They Think" section, which published essays by women worldwide emphasizing complementary gender roles to advance racial and uplift. Her contributions included editorials urging black women to prioritize family, education, and organizational roles within the framework, drawing on international women's perspectives to reinforce Pan-African solidarity. William H. Ferris, a Yale and Harvard alumnus, served as literary editor for three years starting around 1919, penning articles on African philosophical traditions and critiquing misconceptions hindering Negro artistic and intellectual progress. His writings in Negro World promoted a racial idealism that highlighted ancient African contributions to global civilization, aiming to foster pride and systematic thought among readers. W.A. Domingo, a Jamaican socialist and journalist, edited early issues and authored two lead editorials for the inaugural August 17, 1918, edition, focusing on economic self-reliance and Pan-African unity before departing due to ideological differences. John E. Bruce, known as "Bruce Grit," contributed as an editor until his death on March 7, 1924, supplying historical analyses and advocacy for organized resistance against racial oppression. Negro World featured inputs from affiliates across the , including writers like Domingo and correspondents relaying accounts of colonial exploitation in and the to underscore the need for global black autonomy.

Suppression and Opposition

Governmental and Colonial Bans

The Negro World, as the organ of the , faced suppression from colonial authorities primarily due to its advocacy of and anticolonial resistance, which officials viewed as seditious and likely to incite unrest among black populations. In the , bans began in early 1919, with (now ) prohibiting importation by February, followed by Trinidad and other islands by mid-year, as governors classified the publication as inflammatory. On September 10, 1921, the British Colonial Secretary authorized West Indian governments to enact legislation suppressing Negro World and similar materials deemed to promote racial hatred, leading to formal prohibitions in colonies like Trinidad and via ordinances such as Guyana's 1919 Seditious Publications Bill. experienced de facto restrictions without an ban, as authorities discouraged circulation and denied Garvey entry, though copies entered informally. French colonial administrations similarly banned Negro World across their African and territories in the early , citing its potential to undermine imperial control, with prohibitions extending to West and North Africa where the paper's French-language sections had gained traction. In British East Africa, including , colonial officials outlawed the newspaper by the mid-1920s, fearing it would fuel labor unrest and nationalist sentiments akin to those in Garvey's writings; South African authorities monitored and confiscated issues but did not enact a total ban. These measures reflected broader imperial anxieties, as evidenced by intercepted correspondence and reports linking Negro World to rising strikes and protests in suppressed regions. Despite bans, underground networks sustained partial distribution through smuggling by black seamen on international routes, who concealed copies in shipments from to and African ports, enabling communal readings in and Trinidad until the paper's cessation in 1933. This evasion reduced overt circulation—estimated to drop from peaks of 200,000 weekly copies—but did not eradicate influence, as divisions persisted in banned areas, adapting through oral dissemination and local agents, thereby maintaining ideological momentum amid external pressures. The federal government indicted and three UNIA officials on mail fraud charges in January 1922, alleging misuse of funds from Black Star Line stock sales through the mails, a prosecution that extended into 1923 and directly strained UNIA resources sustaining Negro World. was convicted on August 1, 1923, following a where Negro World functioned as a key outlet for disseminating defense arguments, appeals, and critiques of the proceedings to maintain supporter amid mounting legal pressures. The triggered asset freezes and court-appointed over UNIA properties, curtailing operational funds and disrupting Negro World's printing and distribution logistics by late 1923. Garvey's imprisonment commenced on February 2, 1925, after appeals failed, exacerbating internal disarray and correlating with a sharp circulation decline for Negro World, from an estimated peak exceeding 200,000 copies weekly in the early to levels mirroring UNIA's broader membership erosion under financial and leadership constraints. These proceedings built on I-era precedents, where Espionage Act (1917) and Sedition Act (1918) enforcement suppressed radical ethnic presses via charges of disloyalty, a pattern federal investigators applied to monitor publications for perceived subversive content, though the Garvey case pivoted to as the operative legal mechanism. President commuted Garvey's sentence on November 18, 1927, facilitating deportation to that December, which severed his hands-on editorial control and prompted fragmented exile-driven efforts to sustain Negro World variants, yet accelerated the newspaper's operational contraction due to severed U.S.-based infrastructure and persistent asset restrictions. Overall, these intertwined prosecutions and exile diminished Negro World's financial backing and organizational support, rendering sustained viability untenable without Garvey's unifying presence.

Controversies

Internal Financial and Organizational Criticisms

The Negro World played a central role in promoting the Universal Negro Improvement Association's (UNIA) , a shipping enterprise launched in to facilitate black economic independence and repatriation to . The newspaper featured prominent articles, editorials by , and advertisements exhorting readers to invest in stock shares priced at $5 each, portraying the venture as a triumphant symbol of black self-reliance with promises of dividends, luxury voyages, and rapid profitability. These appeals, disseminated weekly to an international audience, helped raise approximately $750,000 to $1 million from thousands of small investors, many of whom were working-class blacks contributing modest sums. However, the Black Star Line encountered severe operational setbacks, including the purchase of unseaworthy vessels like the Yarmouth (renamed S.S. ) at inflated prices, inexperienced management, and legal disputes, resulting in cumulative losses exceeding $1.5 million by 1922 and the company's suspension of operations. This promotional fervor in Negro World came under legal fire, as federal prosecutors argued that the paper's hyperbolic depictions—such as claims of imminent fleet expansions and African trade dominance—fostered unrealistic expectations that bordered on deception, contributing to mail charges against Garvey. In February 1922, Garvey was indicted for using the U.S. mails to sell based on knowingly false representations, including advertisements for ships like the unacquired S.S. Wheatley; he was convicted in August 1923 following a that highlighted discrepancies between promotional rhetoric and actual capabilities, leading to a five-year prison sentence (served two years before commutation and in 1927). Critics within and outside the , including former associates, alleged that the newspaper's uncritical boosterism masked underlying financial imprudence, such as commingling funds between the paper, UNIA operations, and the without rigorous audits, thereby amplifying investor risks and eroding trust among contributors who viewed the publication as intertwined with the enterprise's fate. Organizationally, Negro World's operations reflected Garvey's centralized , with content tightly curated to advance and suppress dissenting internal perspectives, prioritizing ideological unity over journalistic . Garvey personally oversaw editorials and vetoed material deemed disloyal, fostering an environment where staff loyalty was paramount but innovation or critique was stifled, as evidenced by the paper's formulaic and reliance on Garvey's voice for key pronouncements. This control, while effective in sustaining —evident in the paper's role in swelling membership to claimed peaks of millions—incurred organizational costs, including high staff turnover and internal factionalism, as ambitious contributors chafed under the hierarchical constraints and opaque decision-making that mirrored broader governance flaws. Empirical assessments of the newspaper's finances remain elusive due to absent independent audits, but intertwined streams with failing ventures like the underscored vulnerabilities, where subscription revenues (peaking at reported 200,000 copies weekly by 1920) were diverted without clear delineation, heightening susceptibility to mismanagement claims amid the 's rapid expansion and subsequent contractions.

Ideological Clashes with Other Black Leaders

W.E.B. Du Bois, a leading advocate for racial integration through education and legal challenges via the NAACP, vehemently opposed Marcus Garvey's promotion of Black separatism and economic self-reliance as articulated in Negro World. In the July 1923 issue of The Crisis, the NAACP's official magazine, Du Bois labeled Garvey "the most dangerous propaganda that the Negro Race has to contend with," portraying him as a demagogue whose "hysterical" appeals and anti-intellectual stance undermined efforts to uplift the "Talented Tenth" and foster interracial cooperation. Du Bois argued that Garvey's vision of a separate African empire ignored the feasibility of assimilation and risked alienating white allies needed for civil rights advancements. Garvey countered these attacks in Negro World editorials and UNIA speeches, accusing Du Bois and other integrationists of capitulating to by prioritizing proximity to power over genuine independence. He dismissed the as "the most dangerous enemy we have amongst the Negroes," claiming its leaders, whom he derided as "mulattoes" seeking with whites, overlooked of persistent anti-Black and , such as the over 800 lynchings documented between 1882 and 1920 by the Tuskegee Institute and the widespread race riots of 1919 that displaced tens of thousands of Black families. Garvey contended that integration promised illusory gains, citing unchanged and economic exclusion as proof that through Black-owned enterprises and offered a more realistic path to empowerment. Beyond Du Bois, Garvey faced ideological friction from socialist-leaning Black intellectuals who critiqued his embrace of and as diverting from class struggle. Figures associated with the , such as Cyril Briggs, viewed Garvey's as fostering bourgeois aspirations rather than proletarian solidarity, arguing in their periodical The Crusader that his opposition to interracial labor unions reinforced divisions exploitable by white capitalists. Garvey rebuffed such critiques by emphasizing racial unity over class antagonism, asserting in Negro World that economic exploitation stemmed primarily from racial subjugation, not merely capitalist structures. Despite elite opprobrium from figures like Du Bois and , who warned of Garvey's "dangerous" influence, his ideology resonated with working-class Black communities, evidenced by UNIA's reported peak membership of over 4 million across 40 countries by , dwarfing the NAACP's tens of thousands of subscribers. This appeal highlighted a divide: while integrationist strategies yielded incremental legal victories, such as the 1915 Supreme Court ruling against grandfather clauses, they coincided with negligible reductions in overall segregation and rates, with Black hovering above 20% in urban centers through the per U.S. data, prompting retrospective scrutiny of whether separatist addressed root causes more directly than elite-driven accommodation.

Decline and Legacy

Factors Leading to Cessation

Marcus Garvey's conviction for mail fraud in 1923 resulted in his imprisonment from February 1925 to November 1927, severely disrupting the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)'s operations, including the editorial direction of Negro World. Without Garvey's central leadership, the newspaper's content became fragmented, as interim editors struggled to maintain its prior coherence and ideological focus. The final issue listing Garvey as appeared on June 11, 1927, shortly before his deportation to on November 18, 1927, after President commuted his sentence. Garvey's deportation exacerbated the leadership vacuum, with attempts to direct Negro World from proving ineffective amid logistical barriers and loss of direct control over U.S.-based and distribution. UNIA membership, which had fueled the newspaper's circulation, began a sharp decline post-incarceration, reducing subscriber bases and advertising revenue essential for weekly production. Internal schisms emerged, including rival UNIA factions and reincorporations—such as a 1929 Jamaican branch under Garvey clashing with U.S. remnants—diluting unified financial support and editorial authority for the publication. The onset of the in 1929 intensified funding shortfalls, as economic hardship curtailed donations and sales amid widespread unemployment in communities. Issues became sporadic, with diminished content reflecting constraints and organizational disarray. Negro World ceased formal publication on October 17, 1933, marking the end of its regular runs after a brief revival attempt earlier that year.

Long-Term Influence on Black Self-Reliance Movements

The Negro World's advocacy for economic independence and racial pride, disseminated through its pages promoting black-owned enterprises like the , laid ideological groundwork for later advocates in the era. Its serialization of Garvey's editorials on self-help resonated with figures such as , who in speeches credited Garvey's vision of and autonomy as a model for rejecting dependency on white institutions. The Nation of Islam, emphasizing parallel economic structures and territorial separation, echoed these themes, with citing Garvey's influence on fostering disciplined self-sufficiency among followers. Globally, smuggled copies of Negro World into British colonies heightened awareness of Pan-African unity, contributing to sentiments by portraying African descendants as capable of sovereign enterprise rather than perpetual subjects. Leaders like and absorbed its messages on racial solidarity and , which informed strategies prioritizing local control over resources post-1945. Despite colonial bans starting in 1920, the paper's circulation—peaking at over 200,000 copies weekly in multiple languages—sustained a narrative of that outlasted its 1933 cessation. Critics, including , argued the Negro World's promotion of mass repatriation to proved fantastical, as only about 20,000 black Americans emigrated under auspices by , undermined by failed ventures like the Negro Factories Corporation. The emphasis on Garvey's personal over institutional durability led to organizational collapse post his 1925 imprisonment, fostering skepticism about scalability of its entrepreneurial model amid . Yet proponents highlight enduring effects, such as heightened black consumer loyalty to in-group businesses, evidenced in mid-century rises of firms like Johnson Publishing, attributing roots to the paper's blueprint for . This duality—pride-building versus divisiveness—marks its legacy, with impracticality tempered by causal sparks for autonomy-focused ideologies over reliance on external aid.

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  63. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/garvey-du-bois/
  64. https://colorism.commons.gc.cuny.edu/dubois-vs-garvey/
  65. https://jacobin.com/2023/02/marcus-garvey-unia-racial-uplift-entrepreneurism-pan-africanism-black-capitalism
  66. https://www.workersliberty.org/story/2020-11-24/marcus-garvey-and-socialists
  67. https://pid.emory.edu/ark:/25593/9004v
  68. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/context/jssw/article/2112/viewcontent/JSSW_21.1_9_HARVEY.pdf
  69. https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/foundations-black-power
  70. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/garvey-impact/
  71. https://jpanafrican.org/docs/vol2no3/MarcusGarveyAControversialFigureInTheHistoryOfPanAfricanism.pdf
  72. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1115&context=younghistorians
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