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"Simple Net Art Diagram", a 1997 work by Michael Sarff and Tim Whidden

Internet art (also known as net art or web art) is a form of new media art distributed via the Internet. This form of art circumvents the traditional dominance of the physical gallery and museum system. In many cases, the viewer is drawn into some kind of interaction with the work of art. Artists working in this manner are sometimes referred to as net artists.

Net artists may use specific social or cultural internet traditions to produce their art outside of the technical structure of the internet. Internet art is often – but not always – interactive, participatory, and multimedia-based. Internet art can be used to spread a message, either political or social, using human interactions. Typically, artists find ways to produce art through the use of the internet and the tools that it provides us with.

The term Internet art typically does not refer to art that has been simply digitized and uploaded to be viewable over the Internet, such as in an online gallery.[1] Rather, this genre relies intrinsically on the Internet to exist as a whole, taking advantage of such aspects as an interactive interface and connectivity to multiple social and economic cultures and micro-cultures, not only web-based works.

New media theorist and curator Jon Ippolito defined "Ten Myths of Internet Art" in 2002.[1] He cites the above stipulations, as well as defining it as distinct from commercial web design, and touching on issues of permanence, archivability, and collecting in a fluid medium.

History and context

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Internet art is rooted in disparate artistic traditions and movements, ranging from Dada to Situationism, conceptual art, Fluxus, video art, kinetic art, performance art, telematic art and happenings.[2] The common theme within these movements being the focus on the experimentalism, performance, and interactivity of art.

In 1974, Canadian artist Vera Frenkel worked with the Bell Canada Teleconferencing Studios to produce the work String Games: Improvisations for Inter-City Video, the first artwork in Canada to use telecommunications technologies.[3]

An early telematic artwork was Roy Ascott's work, La Plissure du Texte,[4] performed in collaboration created for an exhibition at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris in 1983.

In 1985, Eduardo Kac created the animated videotex poem Reabracadabra for the Minitel system.[5]

Media art institutions such as Ars Electronica Festival in Linz, or the Paris-based IRCAM (a research center for electronic music), would also support or present early networked art. In 1996, Helen Thorington founded Turbulence.org, an online platform for commissioning and exhibiting net art, and hosting multi location networked performances. In 1991 Wolfgang Staehle founded important experimental platforms such as The Thing.[6] In 1994 entrepreneur John Borthwick and curator Benjamin Weil produced artworks online by Doug Aitken, Jenny Holzer and others on Adaweb and in 1997 MIT's List Visual Arts Center hosted "PORT: Navigating Digital Culture", which included internet art in a gallery space and "time-based Internet projects."[7] Artists in the show included Cary Peppermint, Prema Murthy, Ricardo Dominguez, Helen Thorington, and Adrianne Wortzel.

Also in 1997 internet art was exhibited at documenta X (directed by Catherine David), with curator Simon Lamunière. The 10 projects presented simultaneously in Kassel and online were those of Matt Mullican, Antoni Muntadas, Holger Friese, Heath Bunting, Felix Stefan Huber & Philip Pocock, Herve Graumann, Jodi, Martin Kippenberger and Carsten Höller among others.

In 2000 the Whitney Museum of American Art included net art in their Biennial exhibit.[8] It was the first time that internet art had been included as a special category in the Biennial, and it marked one of the earliest examples of the inclusion of internet art in a museum setting. Internet artists included Mark Amerika, Fakeshop, Ken Goldberg, etoy and ®™ark.

In 2001, the 49th Venice Biennale featured its first-ever work of internet art: Biennale.py, a computer virus created specifically for the event by the artist duo Eva & Franco Mattes. Written in the Python programming language, the virus was released on opening night and quickly spread worldwide.[9] The exhibition included two interconnected computers that perpetually infected and disinfected each other in an endless loop.[10]

With the rise of search engines as a gateway to accessing the web in the late 1990s, many net artists turned their attention to related themes. The 2001 'Data Dynamics' exhibit at the Whitney Museum featured 'Netomat' (Maciej Wisniewski) and 'Apartment' – a Turbulence.org commission – (Marek Walczak and Martin Wattenberg), which used search queries as raw material. Mary Flanagan's ' The Perpetual Bed' received attention for its use of 3D nonlinear narrative space, or what she called "navigable narratives."[11] [12] Her 2001 piece titled 'Collection' shown in the Whitney Biennial displayed items amassed from hard drives around the world in a computational collective unconscious.'[13] Golan Levin's 'The Secret Lives of Numbers' (2000) – also a Turbulence.org commission – visualized the "popularity" of the numbers 1 to 1,000,000 as measured by Alta Vista search results. Such works pointed to alternative interfaces and questioned the dominant role of search engines in controlling access to the net.

Nevertheless, the Internet is not reducible to the web, nor to search engines. Besides these unicast (point to point) applications, suggesting the existence of reference points, there is also a multicast (multipoint and uncentered) internet that has been explored by very few artistic experiences, such as the Poietic Generator. Internet art has, according to Juliff and Cox, suffered under the privileging of the user interface inherent within computer art. They argue that Internet is not synonymous with a specific user and specific interface, but rather a dynamic structure that encompasses coding and the artist's intention.[14]

At the same period, original attempts to establish a physical relation between what happened on the web and what would be exhibited in museums were developed by MUDAM Musée d’Art Contemporain du Luxembourg and most of all by MIXM. At the time, and before platforms like Second Life where Cao Fei developed her RMB City, contemporary artists like Peter Kogler, Heimo Zobernig, Nedko Solakov or Robin Rimbaud aka Scanner realized works online that could be seen in art museums specifically as installations and not just on a computer screen showing internet art. In Solakov's work for example, one could interact online with objects that were in the exhibition space of the Centre d'Art Contemporain Genève. In Heimo Zobernig's work, one could physically move a wall to reveal a space in the MAMCO containing a 3D online rendering of the same space.

The emergence of social networking platforms in the mid-2000s facilitated a transformative shift in the distribution of internet art. Early online communities were organized around specific "topical hierarchies",[15] whereas social networking platforms consist of egocentric networks, with the "individual at the center of their own community".[15] Artistic communities on the Internet underwent a similar transition in the mid-2000s, shifting from Surf Clubs, "15 to 30 person groups whose members contributed to an ongoing visual-conceptual conversation through the use of digital media"[16] and whose membership was restricted to a select group of individuals, to image-based social networking platforms, like Flickr, which permit access to any individual with an e-mail address. Internet artists make extensive use of the networked capabilities of social networking platforms, and are rhizomatic in their organization, in that "production of meaning is externally contingent on a network of other artists' content".[16]

Post-Internet

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Main article: Post-Internet

Post-Internet is a loose descriptor[17] for works of art that are derived from the Internet as well as the internet's effects on aesthetics, culture and society.[18] It is a broad term with many associations and has been heavily criticized.[17]

The term emerged during the mid-2000s and was coined by Internet artist Marisa Olson in 2008.[19] Discussions about Internet art by Marisa Olson, Gene McHugh, and Artie Vierkant (the latter notable for his Image Objects, a series of deep blue monochrome prints) brought the term to a mainstream consciousness.[20] Between the 2000s and 2010s, post-Internet artists were largely the domain of millennials operating on web platforms such as Tumblr and MySpace or working in social media video and post-narrative formats such as YouTube, Vevo, or memes.

According to a 2015 article in The New Yorker, the term describes "the practices of artists who ... unlike those of previous generations, [employ] the Web [as] just another medium, like painting or sculpture. Their artworks move fluidly between spaces, appearing sometimes on a screen, other times in a gallery."[21] In the early 2010s, post-Internet was popularly associated with the musician Grimes, visual artists like Cory Arcangel, Artie Vierkant, Petra Cortrght, Ryan Trecartin and Lizzie Fitch, and Kalup Linzy, and social practice dissensus collectives like DIS and K-HOLE.[22] The movement catapulted a number of hybrid microgenres and subcultures such as bloghouse, bro dubstep, seapunk, electroclash, and vaporwave.[17]

Tools

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Art historian Rachel Greene identified six forms of internet art that existed from 1993 to 1996: email, audio, video, graphics, animation and websites.[23] These mailing lists allowed for organization which was carried over to face-to-face meetings that facilitated more nuanced conversations, less burdened from miscommunication.

Since the mid-2000s, many artists have used Google's search engine and other services for inspiration and materials. New Google services breed new artistic possibilities.[24] Beginning in 2008, Jon Rafman collected images from Google Street View for his project called The Nine Eyes of Google Street View.[25][24] Another ongoing net art project is I'm Google by Dina Kelberman which organizes pictures and videos from Google and YouTube around a theme in a grid form that expands as you scroll.[24]

Another method of creating web art that has been employed commonly is altering the internal code of files. Through this method, web artists destroy a section or sections of code within the metadata of files, creating a version of the file that fails to be displayed correctly.

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Internet art

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from Grokipedia
Internet art, also known as , is a genre of that employs the not only as a tool for production and distribution but also as its primary medium and thematic source material, often exploiting or critiquing the social, cultural, and technological implications of online connectivity. Emerging from earlier telematic experiments in the and , it gained prominence in the mid-1990s following the public release of the in 1994, when artists began leveraging global networks for real-time collaboration, interactive interfaces, and participatory experiences that challenged traditional notions of authorship, materiality, and the . The movement's foundational period, often termed "," spanned the late 1990s, marked by the formation of online artist communities and events like the 1996 Net.Art Per Se conference in , , which emphasized the Internet's potential for equitable, immediate artistic expression through hacking, , and tactical media. Key characteristics include immateriality, open-ended remixing of , and a focus on process over product, as seen in works that manipulate code, interfaces, or data flows to explore themes of , identity, and virtual space. Pioneering artists such as Olia Lialina, with her 1996 interactive narrative My Boyfriend Came Back from the War, and the duo JODI, known for glitchy web interventions like their 1995 site jodi.org, exemplified these approaches by blending traditions with emerging digital tools. Other notables include Heath Bunting's 1994 Kings Cross Phone-In, an early locative media project, and Vuk Ćosić's 1997 Done, which humorously subverted institutional exhibitions. By the early 2000s, Internet art evolved with platforms, incorporating for critical engagements with on sites like and , while institutions such as the Walker Art Center's Gallery 9 (1997–2003) and Rhizome.org provided platforms for preservation and exhibition. This led to art in the , where artists like blurred realms through locative media and algorithmic works, reflecting broader societal shifts toward data-driven cultures and digital ubiquity. Despite challenges like technological obsolescence and institutional integration, the genre continues to influence contemporary practices, including blockchain-based art and AI-generated interventions, underscoring the Internet's enduring role in redefining artistic boundaries.

Definition and Scope

Core Characteristics

Internet art, also known as , is defined as artistic practices created for, on, or about the , leveraging network technologies as both medium and distribution channel. This encompasses web-based installations that operate within browser environments, networked performances that unfold in real-time across distributed servers, and digital interventions that disrupt or online spaces. Unlike traditional art forms, internet art inherently depends on the 's infrastructure, including protocols like HTTP and TCP/IP, to exist and be experienced, often blurring the lines between creator, viewer, and content through participatory elements. Core characteristics of internet art include its accessibility directly via web browsers, eliminating the need for physical venues or proprietary hardware, which democratizes exposure to global audiences. It features non-physical materiality, where works exist as , streams, or ephemeral digital traces rather than tangible objects, allowing for infinite and mutation over time. Real-time interaction is fundamental, enabling dynamic responses to user inputs, network conditions, or algorithmic processes, while hybridization integrates with visual, auditory, and textual elements to create immersive, mutable experiences. These traits emphasize the internet's connective and transient nature, fostering art that evolves with technological shifts and user engagement. Medium-specific forms highlight these characteristics, such as art that manipulates to generate abstract or glitchy visuals directly in browsers, ASCII graphics employing text characters to form images in early text-based interfaces, and integrations with browser plugins like Shockwave for enhanced in the pre-Flash era. The term "" emerged in the mid-, originating from a software malfunction that inadvertently labeled an thread, which artists then adopted to describe their internet-centric practices. This nomenclature captured the era's experimental spirit, evolving from the origins in parallel with the web's public expansion.

Relation to Digital and New Media Art

Internet art distinguishes itself from broader digital art through its inherent reliance on networked connectivity and online infrastructure, which enables real-time interaction, distribution, and ephemerality that standalone digital works—such as offline software art or computer-generated animations—do not require. While digital art encompasses any creative practice using computational tools for creation or presentation, often operable in isolated environments like personal computers or installations, internet art demands access to the web's protocols, servers, and user participation via browsers or networks to fully instantiate and experience the work. This networked dependency positions internet art as a performative, process-oriented medium where the viewer's online engagement shapes the artwork's realization, contrasting with the more self-contained reproducibility of general digital imagery. Internet art overlaps significantly with in their mutual emphasis on , multimodality, and the integration of technology into artistic processes, yet it carves a unique niche by foregrounding the 's specific affordances like hyperlinks, data flows, and communal online spaces. broadly includes digital, kinetic, and participatory forms that challenge traditional boundaries, but internet art's dependence on evolving web architectures—such as from static in the to dynamic social platforms—highlights a critique of digital infrastructure itself, extending beyond 's general focus on technological novelty. For instance, while both fields explore user-driven narratives, internet art often leverages the web's global, decentralized nature to foster collaborative or subversive exchanges unavailable in non-networked . The form evolved from the isolated experiments of 1980s cyberart and , which utilized early personal computing for algorithmic generation and screen-based output, toward a more democratized practice following the 's commercialization and the World Wide Web's launch in the mid-1990s. Prior works, like those involving pen plotters or basic programming, were often confined to institutional or personal settings, but the transformed these into accessible, borderless platforms that empowered independent artists to bypass traditional gatekeepers, fostering communities through mailing lists and early websites. This shift democratized production and dissemination, turning the network into both medium and subject, and marked a pivotal expansion from cyberart's speculative futures to internet art's embedded critique of digital everyday life. Terminological debates underscore internet art's contested positioning, with "net art" (or "net.art") often denoting the experimental, community-driven works of the 1990s European scene—exemplified by artists like Vuk Ćosić and JODI—while "web art" emphasizes browser-specific aesthetics and "internet-based art" broadens to encompass any online instantiation. Critics like Olia Lialina have rejected the dotted "net.art" for its narrow historicism, advocating looser terms to reflect ongoing evolutions, whereas others, including Heath Bunting, warned against institutional co-optation that commodifies these practices into museum objects, diluting their anti-hierarchical ethos. Such discussions reveal ongoing tensions over whether the field should remain tied to its origins in hacker cultures and open-source ideals or adapt to broader digital commodification.

Historical Development

Origins in the 1990s

Internet art, also known as , emerged in the early alongside the development and public accessibility of the . British scientist proposed the concept of the Web in March 1989 while working at , with a refined proposal in May 1990 and the first website launching in August 1991; it became publicly available in 1993, enabling widespread experimentation with hypertext and networked media. This technological foundation allowed artists to explore the as a medium for creation, distribution, and interaction, distinct from traditional gallery spaces. Key events in the mid-1990s marked the initial institutional and communal recognition of internet art. , founded by artist in 1996 as an email discussion list in , quickly became a central platform for sharing and archiving works, fostering early online exhibitions and discourse among global practitioners. In 1997, the I/O/D collective released The Web Stalker, a custom browser that reimagined web as a dynamic, map-like visualization, challenging conventional interfaces and exemplifying experimental projects presented at events like the gallery's digital festivals. Communities formed rapidly through digital networks, solidifying the movement's collaborative ethos. The Nettime mailing list, launched in June 1995 by Geert Lovink and Pit Schultz during the , served as a vital forum for media theorists, artists, and activists to debate the cultural implications of the , influencing net art's critical edge. Early collectives like JODI (Joan Heemskerk and Dirk Paesmans), established in 1994, produced subversive works such as glitchy websites that disrupted browser expectations, embodying the era's playful yet interrogative approach to digital forms. These origins drew from diverse influences, including hacker culture's emphasis on code manipulation and , conceptual art movements like —which promoted anti-institutional, event-based works in the 1960s and 1970s—and pre-internet experiments such as Bulletin Board Systems (BBS). BBS art, like Wolfgang Staehle's The Thing launched in 1991 as a dial-up for New York artists, prefigured by treating networked spaces as sculptural and social mediums. Artists faced significant technical challenges, including dial-up connections limited to 28.8–56 kbps speeds and low bandwidth that restricted content, often resulting in text-based or minimalist works optimized for slow loading times. Despite these constraints, many viewed the early as a utopian realm of free expression and democratic access, untainted by commercial forces, which inspired bold experiments in and collectivity.

Expansion and Maturation (2000s–2010s)

The dot-com bust of 2000–2002 curtailed the rapid expansion of internet art that had begun in the late 1990s, leading to reduced funding for digital projects and a reevaluation of the medium's viability amid widespread skepticism toward online ventures. Despite this economic setback, the proliferation of broadband internet in the mid-2000s enabled artists to incorporate richer media forms, such as video streaming, which expanded the technical possibilities for dynamic, time-based works beyond static web pages. This technological shift facilitated more immersive experiences, allowing internet art to mature as a platform for real-time interaction and experimentation. The advent of around 2004 marked a pivotal influence on internet art, emphasizing , blogs, and social platforms like that encouraged participatory practices. Artists leveraged these features to create collaborative and interactive pieces, where viewers co-authored content, blurring the lines between creator and audience in ways that echoed earlier foundations but scaled them through widespread accessibility. This era's emphasis on connectivity fostered works that critiqued or extended the participatory ethos of , transforming internet art into a more democratized form. Institutional recognition grew during this period, with major museums integrating net art into their collections and programs. For instance, in 2000–2001, the commissioned and acquired two internet art works by artists Mark Napier and John F. Simon Jr., establishing preservation protocols for digital media. Similarly, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art launched its e.space initiative in 2001, commissioning net art projects to explore online curation. Festivals like further amplified this maturation, awarding Prix categories such as ".net" in 2000 for innovative web-based works, highlighting internet art's role in electronic and interactive media. The global spread of internet art accelerated in the 2000s, with non-Western contributions addressing issues like digital divides through collective efforts. In Asia, groups such as Singapore-based artists explored early internet practices to highlight disparities in access and representation, creating works that interrogated the uneven distribution of digital resources across regions. These initiatives, often emerging from local tech hubs, emphasized cross-cultural dialogues on connectivity, contrasting with Western-centric narratives and promoting inclusive online aesthetics. By the late 2000s, internet art transitioned toward mobile and platforms, with early experiments in automated interventions around 2008–2010. bots, such as those generating poetic or conceptual outputs, exemplified this shift by automating artistic expression within streams. On , artists initiated collaborative projects that repurposed the site's walls for performative interventions, using status updates and groups to foster real-time audience engagement and critique social networking dynamics.

Post-Internet Era (2010s–Present)

The term "post-internet art" was coined by artist and curator Marisa Olson in 2008 to describe artistic practices that engage with the internet's pervasive influence on culture, often extending beyond online platforms into physical or conceptual realms, reflecting an awareness of the medium's ubiquity in everyday life. This shift marked a departure from earlier net art, emphasizing how the internet's saturation shapes artistic production offline, such as through installations that mimic digital interfaces or critique online behaviors in gallery settings. By the early 2010s, the term gained prominence amid the proliferation of social media and mobile technologies, influencing artists to explore the internet's role in identity, commodification, and global connectivity. In response to the rise of smartphones and constant connectivity, post-internet artists began addressing themes of digital addiction and data privacy, particularly following Edward Snowden's 2013 revelations about widespread government surveillance. Works like Suzanne Treister's Hexen 2.0 (2009–2011) prefigured and responded to these concerns by visualizing drone surveillance and , using simulations to critique the erosion of personal privacy in an always-on world. Similarly, Eric Pickersgill's Removed project (2015) captured the isolation of dependency through staged photographs of people interacting with invisible devices, highlighting the social fragmentation caused by perpetual connectivity. These pieces underscore a broader artistic interrogation of how mobile technologies foster addiction while enabling unprecedented data extraction, often without user consent. The emergence of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and blockchain-based art from onward introduced new dimensions to practices, merging digital ownership with pointed critiques of financial speculation. Projects like Harm van den Dorpel's Event Listeners (2015) utilized to automate art generation and sales, satirizing the of digital creativity amid the crypto boom. Artists such as further blended these technologies with commentary, as in her There Is No There There (), which repurposed images to question virtual land ownership and speculative value in digital spaces. While NFTs promised verifiable for intangible artworks, they also sparked debates over environmental costs and market volatility, with sales peaking at over $25 billion in before a sharp decline. The from 2020 to 2022 accelerated virtual formats in art, leading to a surge in online exhibitions and Zoom-mediated performances that blurred physical and digital boundaries. Institutions like the hosted virtual shows during this period, allowing remote viewers to interact with digital works, while artists like Aria Dean experimented with Zoom for glitchy, fragmented performances that mirrored isolation. Such adaptations highlighted internet art's resilience, transforming enforced remoteness into innovative communal experiences. Contemporary trends in post-internet art increasingly incorporate AI-generated works and explorations, fueling debates over authenticity amid digital oversaturation. Artists like use AI to create immersive data sculptures, such as Machine Hallucinations (2020–present), which process vast datasets into fluid visuals, challenging notions of authorship in algorithm-driven creation. These developments reflect ongoing tensions in an era where digital abundance risks diluting artistic originality, with critics arguing that AI tools democratize creation while potentially homogenizing aesthetics. By 2025, post-internet art has further integrated generative AI models, such as evolutions of , to explore ethical issues like in works critiquing data-driven .

Key Concepts and Themes

Interactivity and User Participation

in internet art refers to the dynamic engagement of users through real-time responses enabled by digital mechanisms such as hyperlinks, forms, and algorithms, which transform passive viewers into co-creators of the artwork. This approach shifts the traditional artist-audience dynamic, allowing participants to influence the work's evolution in non-linear ways, often blurring the boundaries between consumption and production. Unlike , these interactions leverage the internet's networked structure to foster emergent outcomes based on collective input. The roots of this interactivity emerged in the 1990s, coinciding with the web's public accessibility, through experimental forms like chatroom-based art that enabled synchronous multi-user dialogues and choose-your-own-adventure websites that permitted branching narratives driven by user choices. These early practices capitalized on tools like IRC (Internet Relay Chat) and basic HTML to simulate conversational and navigational agency, laying the groundwork for more complex participatory systems. By the mid-1990s, such innovations highlighted the internet's potential for democratizing artistic creation beyond elite institutions. Theoretically, interactivity in internet art is informed by , which conceptualizes as a of feedback loops between humans, machines, and networks, promoting adaptive and self-organizing processes, as explored in telematic art traditions. It also draws from participatory democracy models in theory, which posit the audience not as spectators but as essential collaborators, empowering collective authorship to challenge hierarchical power structures in cultural production. These frameworks underscore how user engagement can enact broader social experiments in agency and shared decision-making. Key forms of this manifest in collaborative wikis, where users iteratively build and revise artistic databases or conceptual maps; crowdsourced narratives, which aggregate diverse contributions to form evolving stories or archives; and gamified installations, employing rules, scores, and challenges to motivate online participation in simulated environments. These structures emphasize open-ended contribution over authorial control, enabling scalable community involvement. In interactive contexts, such user-generated elements often intersect with , as transient inputs can alter or erase content over time. Despite these potentials, interactivity faces significant challenges, including unequal access exacerbated by the , which restricts participation to those with stable connectivity, devices, and , thereby marginalizing underrepresented groups in global art networks. Additionally, troll interference poses a threat to collaborative integrity, as anonymous actors can inject disruptive, off-topic, or harmful content, undermining the intended democratic dialogue and requiring ongoing moderation strategies. These issues highlight the tension between openness and sustainability in participatory internet art.

Ephemerality and Digital Decay

Ephemerality in internet art refers to the inherent transience of digital works, which are frequently lost due to server shutdowns, link rot, and technological format changes. Server shutdowns, often driven by economic or infrastructural shifts, can abruptly erase entire projects, as seen with the 2020 discontinuation of , which rendered numerous interactive net artworks non-functional without alternative hosting. Link rot exacerbates this vulnerability, with a study finding that 38% of webpages existing in 2013 were no longer accessible by 2023, implying an average annual decay rate of approximately 3.8% for online content, a risk particularly acute for art reliant on external links. Format obsolescence further compounds these issues, as evolving standards like the shift from Shockwave to modern web technologies leave legacy works incompatible with current systems. Preservation efforts have emerged to counter these threats, with organizations like playing a pivotal role through its ArtBase, established in 1999 to collect, preserve, and contextualize internet-based creative practices. Rhizome's initiatives include updating obsolete code and conserving digital artworks to maintain accessibility, often in collaboration with institutions like . However, challenges persist in emulating historical browsing environments; for instance, modern browsers block original features like pop-up windows essential to works such as Alexei Shulgin's Homework (1997), while emulation tools like oldweb.today struggle with authentic replication of dial-up-era loading speeds and fragmented archival captures, resulting in incomplete or altered experiences. Artists have intentionally embraced as a , incorporating decay into their practice to reflect the internet's instability. Self-destructing webpages, where content programmatically erases itself over time, underscore themes of impermanence, while aesthetics transform technological errors into deliberate expressions of breakdown, as in Oval's 94diskont (1995), which repurposes CD scratches to create audio from digital detritus. This approach highlights the fragility of mediated experiences, using glitches to the illusion of digital permanence. Philosophically, internet art's contrasts sharply with the enduring materiality of traditional art forms, which prioritize physical permanence, and aligns with post-structuralist notions of and , evoking Jacques Derrida's concept of where digital "ghosts" blur presence and absence in unstable networks. This transience challenges notions of authorship and fixity, positioning the work within a perpetual state of becoming rather than static being, and underscores the medium's resistance to canonical preservation. To enhance longevity, artists and archivists employ strategies such as standardizing code in open formats like to reduce dependency on proprietary technologies, as advocated in preservation frameworks that emphasize migration to interoperable standards for sustained . Case studies, including Rhizome's conservation of net artworks through , demonstrate how adhering to web standards like can mitigate obsolescence while preserving artistic intent, though such efforts require ongoing technical intervention. Interactivity in these works can accelerate decay by introducing user-dependent variables, further complicating preservation.

Critique of Internet Culture and Surveillance

Internet art has frequently engaged with themes of , particularly in response to the 2013 revelations by about the National Security Agency's (NSA) global data collection programs, which exposed the extent of state-sponsored monitoring through internet infrastructure. Artists responded by creating data visualizations and mock tracking tools to highlight the invisibility and ubiquity of digital oversight. For instance, Trevor Paglen's photographic and video works, such as those mapping undersea fiber-optic cables used for , visualize the hidden networks enabling mass data interception, drawing attention to the geopolitical dimensions of NSA operations. Similarly, Laura Poitras's 2016 exhibition Astro Noise incorporated interactive elements like metadata visualizations derived from her own intercepted communications, critiquing the post-9/11 expansion of that intensified after Snowden's disclosures. These projects underscore how internet art transforms abstract data flows into tangible critiques, emphasizing the erosion of in networked societies. Critiques of in internet art often target platforms, algorithmic governance, and the through satirical interventions like hacked advertisements and viral memes that expose exploitative digital labor. A seminal example is Amazon Noir (2006–2007) by Ubermorgen, Paolo Cirio, and Alessandro Ludovico, which used the "Search Inside the Book" feature on Amazon to generate and sell invisible, copyrighted book excerpts, satirizing the platform's commodification of knowledge and intellectual property under neoliberal . More recent works address algorithmic control in the ; for example, Mimi Onuoha's projects, such as The Library of Missing Datasets (2016–ongoing), highlight absent data on precarious labor, critiquing how platforms like algorithmically extract value from workers while obscuring inequalities. Viral memes and hacked ads, as seen in WAAMBAT's interventions like Body Paint (2022), which critiques facial recognition biases in advertising by training AI tools with explicit images to reveal algorithmic inconsistencies, further parody the , revealing how algorithms perpetuate capitalist surveillance by prioritizing profit over equity. Internet art also interrogates and identity, particularly through works confronting online , doxxing, and the dynamics of digital feminism. Artists have repurposed abusive online comments into visual and performative pieces to expose the gendered nature of internet toxicity. Sarah Maple's Comment is Free (2016) project displays troll messages received on in an interactive exhibition, reclaiming misogynistic rhetoric as a feminist of how digital platforms amplify against women. Similarly, Hollaback!'s collaborative projects, including digital mapping tools for reporting street and online , embody digital feminism by data to visualize and resist gender-based violence in virtual spaces. These efforts highlight the intersection of and technology, where doxxing— the malicious release of personal information—serves as a tool of control, prompting artists to foster and algorithmic accountability. From global perspectives, internet art originating in the Global South challenges Western tech dominance and colonial data flows by reimagining digital infrastructures as extensions of historical . Tabita Rezaire's video installations, such as Deep Down Tidal (2017), trace undersea cables along former slave trade routes to critique "electronic ," where data extraction mirrors resource plunder, perpetuating inequalities between the Global North and South. Likewise, Morehshin Allahyari's 3D-printed sculptures in Material Speculation: ISIS (2015–2016) and her writings on AI bias address how Western algorithms encode colonial biases, advocating for decolonial tech practices rooted in Persian and Middle Eastern contexts to disrupt data monopolies. These works emphasize non-Western epistemologies, countering the Eurocentric narratives embedded in global architecture. Theoretically, internet art's critiques draw from Michel Foucault's concept of the —a of constant visibility inducing self-discipline—and Marshall McLuhan's media , which posits that technologies extend human senses while reshaping social structures. Foucault's informs surveillance-themed by illustrating how digital networks create asymmetric visibility, as in Suzanne Treister's HEXEN2.0 (2011–2012), which maps cybernetic histories to reveal panoptic control in online environments. McLuhan's idea of media as environments influencing perception underpins critiques of capitalist platforms, where algorithms act as extensions that "numb" users to exploitation, as explored in reflexivity. Together, these frameworks enable artists to dissect power in digital networks, linking historical to contemporary ideological resistance.

Notable Artists and Works

Pioneering Figures

Vuk Ćosić, a Slovenian artist born in 1966, emerged as a central figure in the nascent movement during the mid-1990s, coining the term "" through an accidental software in an email exchange that inadvertently capitalized the phrase in 1995. He played a pivotal role in reviving as a low-tech aesthetic within digital contexts, conducting extensive research from 1996 to 2001 that transformed early computing symbols into a medium for exploring media conversions, such as ASCII audio and moving images. Ćosić's contributions extended to foundational discussions of net.art's identity, including his organization of the 1996 "Net.art per se" conference in , which helped solidify the movement's parameters through collaborative manifestos and statements circulated online. Joan Heemskerk and Dirk Paesmans, collectively known as JODI since 1994, were among the earliest adopters of the web as an artistic platform, beginning their collaborative experiments in 1995 with a focus on glitch aesthetics and direct manipulation of source code to disrupt conventional digital interfaces. Based in the Netherlands, they pioneered techniques that exposed the underlying structures of web browsers and software, treating errors and data corruption as deliberate artistic strategies to challenge user expectations and reveal the internet's fragility. Their work from this period laid groundwork for subsequent explorations in software subversion, influencing how artists engaged with the web's code as both material and metaphor. Olia Lialina, a Russian media artist born in 1971, contributed significantly to internet art through her early experiments with narrative structures inherent to web browsers starting in the mid-1990s, creating hyperlinked "netfilms" that leveraged the medium's non-linear storytelling potential. Lialina's approach emphasized the elements of the early web, such as personal interfaces and user agency, while developing critiques of digital nostalgia that highlighted the tension between technological progress and lost online intimacies. Her persistent engagement with these themes positioned her as a bridge between net.art's origins and ongoing reflections on web history. Alexei Shulgin, a Moscow-based artist born in 1963 and founder of the WWWArt Centre in 1995, advanced browser-based performances that interrogated the performative aspects of online interactions and software interfaces during the late . Shulgin developed an anti-software aesthetic through projects like Form Art, which repurposed standard web forms into abstract, modernist patterns, critiquing the functionalism of digital tools and emphasizing their aesthetic disruptions. His curatorial efforts, including statements on desktop interfaces as personal psychoanalysts, further shaped net.art's discourse on everyday computing. The influence of women and non-binary artists in internet art's formative years is exemplified by figures like Annie Abrahams, a Dutch-born, France-based performer born in 1954, who pioneered networked from the mid-1990s onward by integrating live video, text chat, and remote collaboration to explore interpersonal dynamics in digital spaces. Abrahams's experiments emphasized collective authorship and the of online connectivity, broadening net.art's scope to include feminist perspectives on and embodiment. Her work highlighted the contributions of underrepresented genders in shaping the field's emphasis on participation and vulnerability.

Landmark Projects and Exhibitions

One of the earliest landmark projects in internet art was the "Very Cyberfeminist International" conference organized by the Old Boys Network in Hamburg, Germany, from December 13 to 16, 2001. This event, the third in a series of cyberfeminist gatherings, brought together over 60 participants from diverse global backgrounds to explore the intersections of feminism, technology, and digital networks through workshops, performances, and discussions. It emphasized collaborative, non-hierarchical structures, challenging traditional power dynamics in online spaces and producing a reader that documented contributions, influencing subsequent cyberfeminist discourse. The project's impact extended through its viral dissemination via online archives and networks, garnering hundreds of scholarly citations in media studies and art theory texts by the mid-2010s, and inspiring museum acquisitions of related cyberfeminist ephemera, such as OBN publications, by institutions like the ZKM Center for Art and Media. A pivotal exhibition, "net_condition" at the ZKM Center for Art and Media in , , ran from September 1999 to February 2000, marking one of the first major museum presentations of internet art with over 50 works addressing global media networks, , and societal transformations. Curated by and Walter van der Cruijsen, it featured projects like Jeffrey Shaw's Net.Art Browser and showcased the medium's potential beyond screens, integrating physical installations with online components. The exhibition's catalog, published by , sold over 10,000 copies and received extensive scholarly citations, solidifying net art's institutional legitimacy, while several works were acquired by ZKM's permanent collection, demonstrating early curatorial investment in . The 2011 "Talk to Me" exhibition at the (MoMA) in New York expanded internet art's scope by including net-based interactive designs within a broader dialogue on human-object communication, running from July 24 to November 7 and attracting over 100,000 visitors. Curated by Paola Antonelli, it highlighted net art elements such as David McCandless's "Hierarchy of Digital Distractions" visualization and Kate Hartman's Twitter-linked Muttering Hat, blending online participation with gallery experiences to critique digital mediation. Its hybrid format—physical displays augmented by web access—fostered viral online engagement, with related projects shared millions of times on social platforms, and led to MoMA acquisitions of several digital works, underscoring curatorial shifts toward accessible, participatory formats. Later projects like Hito Steyerl's 2013 video installation "How Not to Be Seen: A Fucking Didactic Educational .MOV File" satirically instructed viewers on evading digital surveillance through pixelation and camouflage, addressing themes of invisibility in data-driven worlds via a 14-minute single-channel work. Exhibited widely, including at the 2013 Art Basel and Tate Modern, it achieved viral spread with over a million online views by 2015 and hundreds of scholarly citations in surveillance studies, while being acquired by MoMA's collection in 2014, highlighting internet art's critique of algorithmic visibility. Legacy Russell's "Glitch Feminism" manifesto, initially published online in 2012, theorized as emancipatory tools for and racialized identities in digital spaces, inspiring related internet art projects like performances and virtual avatars that disrupt binary norms. Its influence manifested in viral online dissemination, with the essay cited over 500 times in academic works by 2020, and informed curatorial projects such as the 2018 "Glitch Feminisms" series at Pioneer Works, where hybrid digital-physical installations explored embodiment, leading to acquisitions of by institutions like the . Curatorial trends in internet art have evolved from purely online-only shows in the , such as browser-based exhibitions on platforms like , to hybrid physical-digital formats by the 2010s, integrating VR tours, overlays, and live-streamed interactions to bridge virtual ephemerality with tangible experiences. This shift, evident in events like the 2020 Serpentine Galleries' digital pavilion during the pandemic, has enhanced accessibility, with hybrid exhibitions reaching global audiences 10-fold over traditional ones, while prompting museums to develop preservation strategies for volatile net works.

Tools and Technologies

Essential Software and Platforms

In the formative years of internet art during the , basic and CSS editors played a crucial role in enabling artists to craft handmade web pages without advanced programming skills. , released in its first version in by Bare Bones Software for the Macintosh platform, emerged as a popular freeware tool for editing and text, allowing creators to build simple, static websites that formed the backbone of early experiments. These editors facilitated the amateur aesthetic characteristic of the era, where artists manually coded pages to explore digital expression. Pre-2000s technologies like Java applets and further expanded the possibilities for interactivity in internet art. Java applets, small Java-based programs embeddable in web pages, were widely used in the mid-1990s to create dynamic, interactive elements, as seen in pioneering works like Mark Napier's net.flag (2002), commissioned by the Guggenheim Museum, which relied on applets for real-time flag-waving simulations across global servers. Similarly, , originally FutureSplash Animator launched in 1996 and acquired by Macromedia (later ) in 1997, became a staple for animated and net art from the late 1990s onward, enabling rich, vector-based interactions that defined projects like those archived in the Net Art Anthology. These tools democratized access to motion and user engagement but introduced ephemerality risks as browser support waned. Early hosting platforms were essential for distributing internet art to wide audiences. GeoCities, launched in 1994 and operational until 2009, provided free web hosting organized into thematic "neighborhoods," fostering a vibrant culture where artists created personal and experimental sites as a form of folk . By 2003, emerged as a pivotal platform for dynamic websites, initially forked from b2/cafelog as an open-source that simplified blogging and site updates, allowing artists to produce evolving, database-driven without deep coding expertise. Open-source software staples from the early 2000s supported specialized aspects of internet art creation. , initiated in 2001 by and Ben Fry at the , is a programming language and environment tailored for visual artists, enabling the generation of graphics, animations, and data visualizations through accessible Java-based sketches. Complementing this, Pure Data (Pd), developed by Miller Puckette in the as a free alternative to Max/MSP, offers a visual programming interface for real-time audio and multimedia processing, widely adopted in for networked sound installations and interactive performances. Hosting options evolved in the 2010s to prioritize low-cost, accessible deployment for artists. , introduced in 2008 as a free static site hosting service integrated with repositories, has become a go-to platform for internet artists to publish /CSS/JavaScript-based projects directly from version-controlled code, supporting collaborative and iterative web art development. Similarly, (AWS) free tier, offering always-free usage limits on services like S3 storage and EC2 compute instances since its launch in 2010, enables low-cost or no-cost deployment of dynamic internet art sites, particularly for hobbyists and independent creators managing bandwidth-intensive works. To enhance accessibility for non-programmers, tools like have lowered barriers in interactive internet art. Launched in 2009 by Chris Klimas as an open-source platform, allows users to build nonlinear, text-based stories and games through a simple drag-and-drop interface that exports to , empowering artists without coding backgrounds to create branching narratives central to digital fiction and participatory .

Integration with Emerging Tech

Internet art practitioners have embraced to push the boundaries of digital expression, fostering novel interactions between virtual and physical realms while interrogating the infrastructures that underpin them. , artificial intelligence, virtual and augmented reality, and the (IoT) serve as extensions of net-based practices, enabling artists to track ownership, generate content collaboratively, create immersive web experiences, and link online networks to tangible environments. These integrations not only enhance artistic experimentation but also highlight the ethical dimensions of technological proliferation, such as data biases and ecological footprints. Blockchain technology and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) have revolutionized tracking in internet art by providing immutable records of ownership and authenticity on decentralized ledgers. Introduced as a standard for unique digital items, NFTs allow artists to embed metadata that verifies the origin and transfer history of artworks, mitigating issues of inherent in web-based media. A seminal example is the 2017 project by Dapper Labs, where blockchain-minted virtual collectibles inspired artistic derivatives, such as generative visuals and interactive breeding simulations treated as , demonstrating how scarcity and traceability can redefine value in digital creations. Artificial intelligence and machine learning have empowered generative tools in internet art, enabling real-time collaborative creations that blend human input with algorithmic output. Platforms like Runway ML democratize access to machine learning models, allowing artists to train custom systems for video synthesis, style transfer, and without extensive coding expertise. This facilitates web-embedded projects where users co-author evolving artworks, such as browser-based animations that adapt to collective inputs, extending the participatory of early into AI-driven ecosystems. The WebXR standard, first published in 2018 by the W3C and advanced to Candidate Recommendation in 2022, has facilitated web-based virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) experiences in internet art, seamlessly integrating immersive elements into browsers without dedicated apps. This API supports device-agnostic rendering of 3D scenes, enabling artists to overlay virtual objects on physical spaces or craft fully navigable online worlds accessible via standard web links. Projects leveraging WebXR, such as metaverse exhibitions, blend viewer movements with real-time data streams to create hybrid environments that critique the seamlessness of digital-physical divides, allowing global audiences to engage in shared, location-independent installations. IoT and sensor technologies have enabled networked installations in internet art that bridge online interfaces with real-world devices, capturing environmental data to inform dynamic web visuals. Artists deploy distributed sensors to monitor urban phenomena like or traffic, streaming live feeds into browser-based dashboards that visualize . For instance, Stanza's city-scale works use IoT arrays to sonify and map sensor data in real time, transforming physical inputs into interactive that reveals hidden patterns in everyday infrastructure. Ethical considerations in these integrations have prompted internet artists to confront biases embedded in AI datasets and the environmental costs of computational technologies. Works addressing AI biases expose how training data perpetuates racial, , and cultural stereotypes in generative outputs, using web platforms to remix flawed algorithms into critical interfaces that invite user reflection. Similarly, projects quantify the carbon emissions from AI model training and blockchain mining, employing data visualizations to advocate for sustainable practices, such as low-energy alternatives in production.

Cultural Impact and Legacy

Influence on Broader Art Practices

Internet art has significantly hybridized with traditional art practices by adapting ephemeral digital works for physical gallery contexts, often through screenshots, performances, and sculptural translations. For instance, the Artbase 101 exhibition at the in 2005 displayed 40 selections from online archives as printed screenshots to make internet-based pieces accessible in a conventional space. Similarly, the Art Center's "Let’s Entertain" in 2000 incorporated physical representations, such as a revolving door embedded with screens for the Art Entertainment Network, bridging online interactivity with tangible installation. sculpture exemplifies this fusion, as in Carlo Zanni's "Altarboy – Oriana" (2004), a portable server-sculpture that materializes web data into a sellable object critiquing digital . These adaptations, seen in institutions like the Whitney Museum's Programmed exhibition (2018–2019), reflect how digital processes now inform material artworks, such as John F. Simon Jr.'s software-based Color Panel v1.0 (1999) displayed on modified hardware. In art education, internet art has reshaped curricula since the by integrating coding and net ethics, fostering critical engagement with . Secondary programs now use web authoring tools like to teach students to create and analyze , demystifying its aesthetics and encouraging purposeful exploration beyond superficial internet use. This includes examining works like Olia Lialina's My Boyfriend Came Back from the War (1996) to address ethical issues such as and online commerce, challenging pre-internet teaching models reliant on . Despite barriers like training costs, these elements promote and ethical reflection, evolving art pedagogy toward networked, participatory practices. The participatory and subversive strategies of internet art have crossed into commercial realms, influencing , meme culture, and by emphasizing virality and audience interaction. projects like 0100101110101101.org's "Nike Ground" (2003) parodied corporate campaigns, mimicking tactics to critique branding while demonstrating how digital interventions can spread rapidly online. This blurring extends to contemporary practices, where digital platforms like merge art imagery with ads, leading advertisers to adopt aesthetics for emotional engagement in consumer campaigns. culture, rooted in internet art's remixing ethos, now drives viral strategies, as brands leverage to replicate the organic sharing seen in early collectives. Internet art's low-barrier online publishing has democratized access, amplifying marginalized voices globally by bypassing traditional gatekeepers. Platforms like and enable artists from underrepresented groups, such as Indigenous creators James Jones and Shina Nova, to share cultural dances and songs directly with international audiences without institutional approval. Similarly, LGBTQ+ creators like and Natalie Wynn use these spaces to explore identity and philosophy, fostering inclusive narratives that challenge dominant art markets. This shift promotes diversity, as acts as a virtual gallery allowing previously sidelined artists to build followings and secure commissions through accessible digital tools. Metrics underscore internet art's institutional and economic influence, with biennales like the featuring dedicated spaces such as the Internet Pavilion since 2009, including the 2011 "BYOB" projection event that highlighted participatory net works. Further recognition came in 2022 with "Assange Is Internet Internet Is Assange," using NFTs to address digital permanence and free speech. In the art market, digital art sales reflect this impact, with the sector valued at USD 5.8 billion in 2025 and projected to reach USD 11.81 billion by 2030 at a 15.28% CAGR, driven by and online marketplaces that comprise 78% of 2024 revenue. These figures illustrate how internet art has scaled from niche to a significant portion of global art commerce.

Societal and Ethical Considerations

Internet art raises significant equity concerns, as the often excludes artists from non-Western regions and low-income communities who lack reliable , high-speed connectivity, or the hardware necessary for creation and distribution. This disparity limits participation in global networks, where Western-dominated platforms and exhibitions prioritize those with technological resources, perpetuating cultural imbalances in the . To counter these barriers, initiatives like open-access archives have emerged, providing free, decentralized repositories for digital artworks that enable broader discovery and preservation without financial or geographic restrictions, thus fostering inclusivity for underrepresented creators. Ethical dilemmas in internet art frequently revolve around consent in participatory projects, where users interact with works that collect personal inputs—such as text, images, or behaviors—often without explicit, informed agreement on how that will be used or stored. Ownership of in these interactive pieces further complicates matters, as artists and platforms may claim rights over contributions, blurring lines between collaboration and exploitation under varying laws. Additionally, the environmental impact of internet art's reliance on servers contributes to substantial and carbon emissions, with hosting digital exhibitions or NFTs requiring constant computational power that exacerbates challenges. Efforts to mitigate these include adopting energy-efficient hosting and advocating for transparent practices, though implementation remains inconsistent across the field. Internet art has driven cultural shifts by serving as a medium for , particularly in challenging and on digital platforms. Projects under the banner have mobilized against algorithms that suppress artistic expression, using decentralized networks to bypass restrictions and amplify marginalized voices in regions facing authoritarian controls. These works not only critique but also shape public discourse on technology's societal role, encouraging broader awareness of how online spaces influence free expression and cultural production. For instance, the "Don't Delete Art" initiative documents and redistributes censored artworks removed from , highlighting algorithmic biases and advocating for artist rights in virtual environments. In response to events like the 2018 Cambridge Analytica scandal, which exposed the misuse of millions of user profiles for political manipulation, internet artists produced critical works examining data privacy and corporate overreach, such as interactive installations that simulate harvesting to provoke reflection on and . These responses underscore internet art's capacity to engage with real-world ethical breaches, transforming scandals into platforms for discourse on digital accountability. Looking ahead, the sustainability of internet art faces debates amid AI's growing dominance, which automates creation processes and raises questions about authorship, job displacement for human artists, and the of AI training on vast server farms. Potential regulations, including reforms to protect human contributions in AI-assisted works and mandates for energy-efficient digital practices, are under discussion to ensure equitable , though global inconsistencies in policy could widen existing divides; for example, the U.S. Copyright Office's January 2025 addressed the ability of AI outputs, while the EU AI Act's prohibitions on high-risk AI took effect in February 2025.

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