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three young men in medieval costume climb over a wall
"Gently, gently": Hilarion, Cyril, and Florian break into Castle Adamant: cover of 1884 souvenir programme by Alice Havers

Princess Ida; or, Castle Adamant is a comic opera with music by Arthur Sullivan and a libretto by W. S. Gilbert. It was their eighth operatic collaboration of fourteen; the next was The Mikado. Princess Ida opened at the Savoy Theatre on 5 January 1884 and ran for 246 performances. The piece concerns a princess who founds a women's university and teaches that women are superior to men and should rule in their stead. Prince Hilarion, to whom she was betrothed in infancy, sneaks into the university, together with two friends, with the aim of collecting his bride. They disguise themselves as female students but are discovered, and all soon face a literal war between the sexes.

The opera satirizes feminism, women's education and Darwinian evolution, which were controversial topics in conservative Victorian England. Princess Ida is based on a narrative poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson called The Princess (1847), and Gilbert had written a farcical musical play, based on the poem, in 1870. He lifted much of the dialogue of Princess Ida directly from his 1870 farce. It is the only Gilbert and Sullivan opera in three acts and the only one with dialogue in blank verse.

Though its original run was modestly profitable, by Savoy opera standards Princess Ida was not considered a success, partly because of a particularly hot summer in London in 1884, and it was not revived in London until 1919. Nevertheless, the piece is performed regularly today by both professional and amateur companies, although not as frequently as the most popular of the Savoy operas.

Background

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Genesis

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Scene from Gilbert's 1870 play, The Princess: Hilarion and his companions, disguised as women (but played by women impersonating men) meet Princess Ida and her students.

Princess Ida is based on Tennyson's serio-comic narrative poem of 1847, The Princess: A Medley. Gilbert had written a blank verse musical farce burlesquing the same material in 1870 called The Princess. He reused a good deal of the dialogue from this earlier play in the libretto of Princess Ida. He also retained Tennyson's blank verse style and the basic story line about a heroic princess who runs a women's college and the prince who loves her. He and his two friends infiltrate the college disguised as female students.[1] Gilbert wrote entirely new lyrics for Princess Ida, since the lyrics to his 1870 farce were written to previously existing music by Offenbach, Rossini and others.[2]

Tennyson's poem was written, in part, in response to the founding of Queen's College, London, the first college of women's higher education in the United Kingdom, in 1847.[1] When Gilbert wrote The Princess in 1870, women's higher education was still an innovative, even radical concept. Girton College, one of the constituent colleges of the University of Cambridge, was established in 1869. However, by the time Gilbert and Sullivan collaborated on Princess Ida in 1883, a women's college was a more established concept. Westfield College, the first college to open with the aim of educating women for University of London degrees, had opened in Hampstead in 1882.[3] Thus, women's higher education was in the news in London, and Westfield is cited as a model for Gilbert's Castle Adamant.[4]

Increasingly viewing his work with Gilbert as unimportant, beneath his skills and repetitious, Sullivan had intended to resign from the partnership with Gilbert and Richard D'Oyly Carte after Iolanthe, but after a recent financial loss, he concluded that his financial needs required him to continue writing Savoy operas.[2] Therefore, in February 1883, with Iolanthe still playing strongly at the Savoy Theatre, Gilbert and Sullivan signed a new five-year partnership agreement to create new operas for Carte upon six months' notice.[5] He also gave his consent to Gilbert to continue with the adaptation of The Princess as the basis for their next opera.[2] Later that spring, Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria and the honour was announced in May at the opening of the Royal College of Music. Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame, the honour was conferred for his services to serious music.[6] The musical establishment, and many critics, believed that Sullivan's knighthood should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera – that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera.[7] Having just signed the five-year agreement, Sullivan suddenly felt trapped.[8]

By the end of July 1883, Gilbert and Sullivan were revising drafts of the libretto for Ida.[9] Sullivan finished some of the composition by early September when he had to begin preparations for his conducting duties at the triennial Leeds Festival, held in October. In late October, Sullivan turned his attentions back to Ida, and rehearsals began in November.[10] Gilbert was also producing a one-act drama, Comedy and Tragedy, and keeping an eye on a revival of his Pygmalion and Galatea at the Lyceum Theatre by Mary Anderson's company.[11] In mid-December, Sullivan bade farewell to his sister-in-law Charlotte, the widow of his brother Fred, who departed with her young family to America, never to return. Sullivan's oldest nephew, Herbert, stayed behind in England as his uncle's ward, and Sullivan threw himself into the task of orchestrating the score of Princess Ida.[10] As he had done with Iolanthe, Sullivan wrote the overture himself, rather than assigning it to an assistant as he did in the case of most of his operas.[12]

Production

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Brandram as Blanche

Princess Ida is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and the only one of their works in three acts (and the longest opera to that date). The piece calls for a larger cast, and the soprano title role requires a more dramatic voice than the earlier works. The American star Lillian Russell was engaged to create the title role of Princess Ida, but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough, and when she missed a rehearsal, she was dismissed.[13] The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company's usual female lead, Leonora Braham, a light lyric soprano, nevertheless moved up from the part of Lady Psyche to assume the title role. Rosina Brandram got her big break when Alice Barnett became ill and left the company for a time, taking the role of Lady Blanche and becoming the company's principal contralto.[10]

The previous Savoy opera, Iolanthe, closed after 398 performances on 1 January 1884, the same day that Sullivan composed the last of the musical numbers for Ida. Despite gruelling rehearsals over the next few days, and suffering from exhaustion, Sullivan conducted the opening performance on 5 January 1884 and collapsed from exhaustion immediately afterwards.[14] The reviewer for the Sunday Times wrote that the score of Ida was "the best in every way that Sir Arthur Sullivan has produced, apart from his serious works.... Humour is almost as strong a point with Sir Arthur... as with his clever collaborator...."[15] The humour of the piece also drew the comment that Gilbert and Sullivan's work "has the great merit of putting everyone in a good temper."[16] The praise for Sullivan's effort was unanimous, though Gilbert's work received some mixed notices.[17]

Aftermath

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Sullivan's close friend, composer Frederic Clay, had suffered a serious stroke in early December 1883 that ended his career. Sullivan, reflecting on this, his own precarious health and his desire to devote himself to more serious music, informed Richard D'Oyly Carte on 29 January 1884 that he had determined "not to write any more 'Savoy' pieces."[18] Sullivan fled the London winter to convalesce in Monte Carlo as seven provincial tours (one with a 17-year-old Henry Lytton in the chorus) and the U.S. production of Ida set out.[19]

Bab illustration for Princess Ida

As Princess Ida began to show signs of flagging early on, Carte sent notice, on 22 March 1884, to both Gilbert and Sullivan under the five-year contract, that a new opera would be required in six months' time.[20] Sullivan replied that "it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself."[21] Gilbert was surprised to hear of Sullivan's hesitation and had started work on a new opera involving a plot in which people fell in love against their wills after taking a magic lozenge – a plot that Sullivan had previously rejected. Gilbert wrote to Sullivan asking him to reconsider, but the composer replied on 2 April that he had "come to the end of my tether" with the operas:

...I have been continually keeping down the music in order that not one [syllable] should be lost.... I should like to set a story of human interest & probability where the humorous words would come in a humorous (not serious) situation, & where, if the situation were a tender or dramatic one the words would be of similar character."[22]

Gilbert was much hurt, but Sullivan insisted that he could not set the "lozenge plot". In addition to the "improbability" of it, it was too similar to the plot of their 1877 opera, The Sorcerer, and was too complex a plot. Sullivan returned to London, and, as April wore on, Gilbert tried to rewrite his plot, but he could not satisfy Sullivan. The parties were at a stalemate, and Gilbert wrote, "And so ends a musical & literary association of seven years' standing – an association of exceptional reputation – an association unequalled in its monetary results, and hitherto undisturbed by a single jarring or discordant element."[23] However, by 8 May 1884, Gilbert was ready to back down, writing, "...am I to understand that if I construct another plot in which no supernatural element occurs, you will undertake to set it? ... a consistent plot, free from anachronisms, constructed in perfect good faith & to the best of my ability."[24] The stalemate was broken, and on 20 May, Gilbert sent Sullivan a sketch of the plot to The Mikado.[24]

A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales for Princess Ida and forced Carte to close the theatre during the heat of August. The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances, and for the first time since 1877, the opera closed before the next Savoy opera was ready to open.[25] Princess Ida was not revived in London until 1919.[26] Some of these events are dramatised in the 1999 film Topsy-Turvy.[27]

Caricature of Charles Darwin contemplating a bustle, in Fun, 1872

Musical and textual analysis

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The opera satirizes feminism, women's education and Darwinian evolution, all of which were controversial topics in conservative Victorian England. In the 15 years between the time that Gilbert wrote The Princess and the premiere of Princess Ida, the movement for women's education had gained momentum in Britain, with the founding of Girton College (1869) and Newnham College (1871) at the University of Cambridge; and Somerville (1878) and Lady Margaret Hall (1878) at the University of Oxford. Westfield College, a women's college in Hampstead, London, opened in 1882.

As in Patience and Iolanthe, the two previous Gilbert and Sullivan operas, Princess Ida concerns the war between the sexes. In Patience, the aesthetic-crazed women are contrasted with vain military men; in Iolanthe, the vague and flighty fairies (women) are pitted against the ineffective, dim-witted peers (men); and in Ida, overly serious students and professors at a women's university (women) defy a marriage-by-force ultimatum by a militaristic king and his testosterone-laden court (men). Princess Ida is one of several Gilbert plays, including The Wicked World, Broken Hearts, Fallen Fairies and Iolanthe, where the introduction of males into a tranquil world of women brings "mortal love" that wreaks havoc with the status quo.[28] Stedman calls this a "Gilbertian invasion plot".[29]

Sullivan's score is majestic, and a sequence of songs in Act II, sometimes known as the "string of pearls",[30] is particularly well loved. Sullivan used chromatic and scalar passages and key modulations throughout the score, and commenters have called the Act II quartet "The World Is But a Broken Toy" one of Sullivan's "most beautiful, plaintive melodies."[18] It has also been called "Gounodesque".[31] Although Gilbert's libretto contains many funny lines,[30] the iambic pentameter and three-act structure tend to make Ida more difficult to stage effectively than some of the other Savoy Operas. In addition, modern audiences sometimes find the libretto's dated portrayal of sex roles, and the awkward resolution of the opera, unsatisfying. It is also curious, after the string of successes that the partnership had experienced with George Grossmith and Rutland Barrington in starring roles, to choose a theme that relegated them to comparatively minor roles.[17]

Roles

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In armour: Costume design for Arac, Guron and Scynthius by Wilhelm, 1884
Out of armour: Guron (Warwick Gray), Arac (Richard Temple) and Scynthius (William Lugg), 1884
  • King Hildebrand (bass-baritone)
  • Hilarion, King Hildebrand's Son (tenor)
  • Cyril, Hilarion's Friend (tenor)
  • Florian, Hilarion's Friend (lyric baritone)
  • King Gama (comic baritone)
  • Arac, King Gama's Son (bass-baritone)
  • Guron, King Gama's Son (bass-baritone)
  • Scynthius, King Gama's Son (bass)
  • Princess Ida, King Gama's Daughter (soprano)
  • Lady Blanche, Professor of Abstract Science (contralto)
  • Lady Psyche, Professor of Humanities (soprano)
  • Melissa, Lady Blanche's Daughter (mezzo-soprano)
  • Sacharissa, Girl Graduate (soprano)
  • Chloe, Girl Graduate (speaking role/chorus)
  • Ada, Girl Graduate (speaking role/chorus)
  • Chorus of Soldiers, Courtiers, "Girl Graduates", "Daughters of the Plough", etc.
Lytton as Gama, 1921

Synopsis

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Act I

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In a pavilion at King Hildebrand's palace, courtiers wait expectantly for the arrival of King Gama and his daughter Princess Ida, who was betrothed in infancy to Hildebrand's son, Prince Hilarion ("Search throughout the panorama"). Hildebrand promises to wage war against Gama if the Princess should fail to appear ("Now hearken to my strict command"), while Hilarion, who is in love with Ida, although he has not seen her since he was two years old, wonders how she may have changed over the ensuing twenty years ("Ida was a twelvemonth-old").

Ida's war-like (and dull) brothers Arac, Guron and Scynthius, arrive at Hildebrand's palace ("We are warriors three"), preceding their father. King Gama enters, explains his misanthropy ("If you give me your attention I will tell you what I am"), and promptly displays it by insulting Hildebrand and his son. He then announces that Princess Ida has forsworn men and founded a women's university at Castle Adamant, one of his many country houses. The two Kings advise Hilarion to go to Castle Adamant to claim Ida; if she refuses him, Hildebrand will storm the castle ("P'raps if you address the lady"). But Hilarion plans to use romantic means, rather than force, to gain the princess's love. He explains that nature has "armed" him and his friends, the courtiers Cyril and Florian, to win this "war" ("Expressive glances will be our lances"). The three set off to Castle Adamant, while King Gama and his sons are to remain at Hildebrand's palace as hostages ("For a month to dwell in a dungeon cell").

Act II

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Gilbert's illustration for the "Darwinian Man" song; compare with Darwin image above.

At Castle Adamant, Princess Ida's pupils learn that "man is nature's sole mistake" ("Towards the Empyrean heights"). One of the professors, Lady Blanche, doles out the punishments for the day, for "offences" that include bringing chessmen to the university – "men with whom you give each other mate" – and for sketching a double-perambulator. Princess Ida arrives ("Minerva! Oh hear me") and delivers a stern lecture, stating that women's brains are larger than men's, and predicting that woman shall conquer man, but that once having conquered, woman will treat man better than he has treated her. Lady Blanche resents the princess's authority and predicts that one day she will replace her as head of the university ("Come mighty must", a song often cut from the D'Oyly Carte productions).

Hilarion, Cyril and Florian sneak into Castle Adamant ("Gently, gently"). They scoff at the idea of a woman's college. Finding some discarded academic robes, the three men disguise themselves as young maidens wishing to join the university ("I am a maiden cold and stately"), and are welcomed by Princess Ida ("The world is but a broken toy"). Florian realises that their disguises won't fool his sister, Lady Psyche (one of the professors), and they take her into their confidence. Lady Psyche warns them that they will face death if the princess discovers who they are and informs them of the princess's theories on man, using a parable about an ape who falls in love with a high-born lady to illustrate her point that Darwinian "Man, sprung from an Ape, is Ape at heart" ("A lady fair of lineage high").

Melissa, Lady Blanche's daughter, has overheard them, but, fascinated by the first men she has ever seen, swears herself to secrecy. She falls in love with Florian at first sight, and the company celebrate joyously the discovery that men are not the monsters that Princess Ida had claimed ("The woman of the wisest wit"). Lady Blanche, who has not fallen for the men's disguises, confronts Melissa. Though indignant at first, she is persuaded to keep the men's secret when her daughter points out that if Hilarion is able to woo Princess Ida, Blanche will become head of the university ("Now, wouldn't you like to rule the roast?"). During lunch ("Merrily rings the luncheon bell"), Cyril gets tipsy and inadvertently gives away his friends' identity by singing a bawdy song ("Would you know the kind of maid"). In the ensuing confusion, Princess Ida falls into a stream, and Hilarion rescues her ("Oh joy, our chief is saved"). Despite her rescue, Ida condemns Hilarion and his friends to death. Hilarion counters that without her love to live for, he welcomes death ("Whom thou hast chained"). King Hildebrand and his soldiers arrive, with Ida's brothers in chains. He reminds her that she is bound by contract to marry Hilarion and gives her until the following afternoon to comply ("Some years ago") or incur the guilt of fratricide. The defiant Ida replies that, although Hilarion saved her life and is fair, strong and tall, she would rather die than be his bride ("To yield at once to such a foe").

Elaborate illustration showing the character Hilarion, disguised as a woman, speaking to Princess Ida during an outdoor picnic. Ida wears a crown and is seated on a chair; in the middle of the image, Hilarion crouches beside her to her left, with two of his friends to his left, also disguised as women. Several other women are seated around a picnic blanket on grassy ground with a brick wall in the background, all wearing academic robes; two women, dressed as medieval peasants, are serving the diners from above and behind.
Illustration by W. Russell Flint, 1909: luncheon scene Act II: Hilarion (disguised as a woman) speaks with Ida.

Act III

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Princess Ida reviews her student troops' readiness to meet Hildebrand's soldiers in battle, but the terrified girls admit that they are afraid of fighting ("Death to the invader!"). Princess Ida is disgusted by their lack of courage and vows that, if necessary, she will fight Hildebrand's army alone ("I built upon a rock"). Her father, King Gama, arrives with a message that Hildebrand prefers not to go to war against women. He reveals that Hildebrand has been torturing him by keeping him in luxury and giving him nothing to complain about ("Whene'er I spoke sarcastic joke"). He suggests that, instead of subjecting her women to all-out war, she pit her three strong, brave brothers against Hilarion and his friends, with Ida's hand to depend on the outcome. Ida is insulted to be "a stake for fighting men" but realises that she has no alternative.

Hildebrand's forces enter, together with Gama and his three sons ("When anger spreads his wing"). Hilarion, Cyril and Florian are still in their women's robes, and King Gama and his sons ridicule them. In preparation for battle, Gama's sons shed their heavy armour, saying that it is too uncomfortable for combat ("This helmet I suppose"). The fight ensues, with Hilarion, Cyril and Florian defeating Gama's sons ("It is our duty plain").

Her wager lost, Ida yields to Hilarion and bitterly asks Lady Blanche if she can resign her post with dignity. The delighted Blanche, who will succeed her as head of the university, assures her that she can. Ida laments the failure of her "cherished scheme" for which, had it been successful, "Posterity would bow in gratitude!", but King Hildebrand points out the flaw in her logic:

If you enlist all women in your cause,
And make them all abjure tyrannic Man,
The obvious question then arises, "How
Is this Posterity to be provided?"

Princess Ida admits, "I never thought of that!" Hilarion makes an emotional appeal, urging her to give Man one chance, while Cyril observes that if she grows tired of the prince, she can return to Castle Adamant. Lady Psyche says that she, too, will return if Cyril does not behave himself, but Melissa swears that she will not return under any circumstances. Finally, Ida admits that she has been wrong, and declares that indeed she loves Hilarion, ending with a quotation directly from the Tennyson poem. All celebrate, ("With joy abiding").

Musical numbers

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If you give me your attention
Grahame Clifford as King Gama, 1976
Problems playing this file? See media help.
"I can tell a woman's age in half a minute – and I do!" (A line from King Gama's song, "If you give me your attention.")
  • Overture (includes "We are warriors three" and "Minerva! oh, hear me")
Act I
  • 1. "Search throughout the panorama" (Florian and Chorus)
  • 2. "Now hearken to my strict command" (Hildebrand and Chorus)
  • 3. "Today we meet" (Hilarion)
  • 4. "From the distant panorama" (Chorus)
  • 5. "We are warriors three" (Arac, Guron, Scynthius and Chorus)
  • 6. "If you give me your attention" (Gama)
  • 7. Finale Act I (Gama, Hildebrand, Cyril, Hilarion, Florian and Chorus)
Act II
Ida, Blanche and the students: 1884 souvenir programme
  • 8. "Towards the empyrean heights" (Lady Psyche, Melissa, Sacharissa and Chorus of Girls)
  • 9. "Mighty maiden with a mission" (Chorus of Girls)
  • 10. "Minerva! oh, hear me!" ... "Oh, goddess wise" (Princess)
  • 10a."And thus to Empyrean Heights" (Princess and Chorus)
  • 11. "Come, mighty Must" (Lady Blanche)1
  • 12. "Gently, gently" (Cyril, Hilarion and Florian)
  • 13. "I am a maiden, cold and stately" (Cyril, Hilarion and Florian)
  • 14. "The world is but a broken toy" (Princess, Cyril, Hilarion and Florian)
  • 15. "A lady fair, of lineage high" (Psyche with Cyril, Hilarion and Florian)2
  • 16. "The woman of the wisest wit" (Psyche, Melissa, Cyril, Hilarion and Florian)
  • 17. "Now wouldn't you like to rule the roast" (Melissa and Blanche)3
  • 18. "Merrily ring the luncheon bell" (Blanche, Cyril and Chorus of Girls)
  • 19. "Would you know the kind of maid?" (Cyril)
  • 20. Finale Act II (Princess, Hildebrand, Melissa, Psyche, Blanche, Cyril, Hilarion, Florian, Arac, Guron, Scynthius and Chorus)

1 Starting in the 1920s, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company usually deleted this song in its performances.

2 D'Oyly Carte musical director, Harry Norris added prominent horn parts to the accompaniment to "A Lady Fair". They were expunged by Malcolm Sargent but subsequently restored by Royston Nash in the 1970s. These are customarily referred to as the "Norris" horn parts, though they may have been written by Geoffrey Toye.

3 The first line of this song is often erroneously sung as "Now wouldn't you like to rule the roost" instead of "roast" (rhymes with "clear the coast" in the next couplet). This typographical error appeared in early vocal scores and still appears in a current Chappell vocal score edition, although other scores have generally corrected it.

Act III
  • 21. "Death to the invader" (Melissa and Chorus of Girls)
  • 22. "Whene'er I spoke" (King Gama with Chorus of Girls)4
  • 23. "I built upon a rock" (Princess)
  • 24. "When anger spreads his wing" (Chorus of Girls and Soldiers)
  • 25. "This helmet, I suppose" (Arac with Guron, Scynthius and Chorus)
  • 26. Chorus during the fight, "This is our duty plain" (Chorus)
  • 27. "With joy abiding" [Reprise of "Expressive glances"] (Ensemble)

4 In the original production, No. 22 followed No. 23. The present order first appeared in vocal scores published after the first London revival in 1919.

Gilbert claimed that "If you give me your attention" was a satiric self-reference, saying: "I thought it my duty to live up to my reputation".[32] Tom Lehrer performs a parody of the same song called "The Professor's Song".[33] Music from the overture of Ida is heard in Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers.[34]

Versions of the text

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Princess Ida was not revived in London during the authors' lifetimes, and there were no substantive changes to the text after the premiere. The one alteration was purely cosmetic: the first act had originally been called a "Prologue". It was re-designated Act I, with a consequent renumbering of the remaining acts.

At around the time of the first London revival, in 1919, there were changes to the running order of Act III. As written originally, the sequence of Act III is as follows:

"Jump for Joy and Gaily Bound!" (from Act II)
  1. "Death to the invader"
  2. Princess Ida addresses the girls and then dismisses them
  3. "I built upon a rock" (Princess)
  4. The girls re-enter, shortly followed by King Gama
  5. "When e'er I spoke sarcastic joke" (King Gama, Ladies' Chorus)
  6. Dialogue in which the Princess agrees to let her brothers fight for her
  7. "When anger spreads his wing" (Double chorus)
  8. Dialogue preceding the fight
  9. "This helmet, I suppose" (Arac, Guron, Scynthius, Chorus)
  10. "This is our duty plain" (Chorus during the fight)
  11. Dialogue and finale

As re-ordered in the 1920s, the running order is as follows:

  1. "Death to the invader"
  2. Princess Ida addresses the girls and then dismisses them
  3. The girls re-enter, shortly followed by King Gama
  4. "When e'er I spoke sarcastic joke" (King Gama, Ladies' Chorus)
  5. Dialogue in which the Princess agrees to let her brothers fight for her
  6. "I built upon a rock" (Princess)
  7. "When anger spreads his wing" (Double chorus)
  8. "This helmet, I suppose" (Arac, Guron, Scynthius, Chorus)
  9. Dialogue preceding the fight
  10. "This is our duty plain" (Chorus during the fight)
  11. Dialogue and finale
Winifred Lawson as Princess Ida, 1922

The Chappell vocal score was re-issued to conform to this revised order.

The other significant change is that, at some point in the 1920s, it became traditional to delete Lady Blanche's Act II song, "Come, mighty must" (although it continued to be printed in the vocal score). The song is included in the 1924 D'Oyly Carte recording, but on none of the three recordings the company made after that (1932, 1955, 1965).

History of productions

[edit]

Princess Ida was not as successful as the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that had preceded it. In the midst of the unusually hot summer of 1884, Richard D'Oyly Carte closed the Savoy Theatre for a month, starting in mid-August. The opera had been running for seven months, a short period by the partnership's past standards. The opera re-opened for just three weeks, starting in mid-September, before giving way to a revival of The Sorcerer (revised) and Trial by Jury.[35] Gilbert designed the costumes himself. Act I and Act III sets were by the Drury Lane designer Henry Emden, while the Act II set was by Hawes Craven.[36] A New York production ran briefly in 1884, and there was a second American production in 1887.[37] As had happened with their earlier operas in America, Carte, Gilbert and Sullivan could do nothing to stop producers from mounting unauthorised productions, since there was no international copyright treaty at the time.[38][39] The U.S. courts held that the act of publication made the opera freely available for production by anyone.[40] In Australia, Princess Ida's first authorized performance was on 16 July 1887 at the Princess Theatre, Melbourne, produced by J. C. Williamson.

Provincial tours of Princess Ida began in early 1884 and ended by mid-1885. The opera was revived on tour in December 1895, remaining in the touring repertory through 1896. It re-appeared in late 1897 or early 1898, and from then on was never out of the D'Oyly Carte touring repertory through the early years of the twentieth century. The first London revival, however, did not come until 30 December 1919. From then on, it was included in every D'Oyly Carte touring season until the company disbanded at the outbreak of war in 1939.[41] New costumes were designed by Percy Anderson in 1921.[36]

Rutland Barrington as Hildebrand, 1884

During World War II, the Company played a smaller repertory. The scenery and costumes for Princess Ida, which were in storage, were destroyed by enemy action over the winter of 1940–41. A new production was mounted at the Savoy Theatre on 27 September 1954. A guest artist, opera singer Victoria Sladen, was engaged to sing the title role for the London season.[42] For the 1954 revival, the Act II line "And the niggers they'll be bleaching by and by," was changed to "And they'll practice what they're preaching by and by," to accommodate the sensibilities of modern audiences, following similar changes in other Gilbert and Sullivan works. After the 1954 revival, Princess Ida was an irregular presence in the D'Oyly Carte repertory. While it never went unperformed more than two or three seasons at a time, it was usually performed only in London and a few other major cities. The demands of the title role were considered unusual by Gilbert and Sullivan standards, and often the Company brought in guest artists to play it. The company's final performances of the opera were in February–April 1977.[43] The company's reduced repertory in its final five seasons did not accommodate it.

The film director Ken Russell staged Princess Ida for English National Opera in 1992, conducted by Jane Glover. The radical contemporary concept involved an American-Japanese theme park version of Buckingham Palace, with a chorus of Madonna lookalikes (led by Rosemary Joshua as Ida) studying in the Tower of London; Gama (alternating Nickolas Grace and Richard Suart) operated a sushi chain. The production, unanimously reviled by critics, was quickly dropped from ENO's repertoire.[44] Other professional companies have produced Princess Ida, including American Savoyards in the 1950s and 1960s, Light Opera of Manhattan in the 1970s and 1980s, New York Gilbert and Sullivan Players since the 1980s, Ohio Light Opera (which recorded the piece in 2000), the Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Company at the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival in 2003 and 2009, and others.[45]

The following table shows the history of the D'Oyly Carte productions in Gilbert's lifetime:

Theatre Opening Date Closing Date Perfs. Details
Savoy Theatre 5 January 1884 15 August 1884 246 First run
15 September 1884 9 October 1884
Fifth Avenue Theatre, New York 11 February 1884 22 March 1884 48 Authorised American productions
Fifth Avenue Theatre, New York 22 November 1887 3 wks

Historical casting

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The following tables show the casts of the principal original productions and D'Oyly Carte Opera Company touring repertory at various times through to the company's 1982 closure.

Role Savoy Theatre
1884[35]		 Fifth Avenue
1884[37][46]		 Fifth Avenue
1887[37]		 D'Oyly Carte
1910 Tour[47]		 D'Oyly Carte
1920 Tour[48]
King Hildebrand Rutland Barrington Sgr Brocolini Sgr Brocolini Fred Billington Leo Sheffield
Hilarion Henry Bracy Wallace Macreery Courtice Pounds Henry Herbert Arthur Lucas
Cyril Durward Lely W. S. Rising Phil Branson Strafford Moss Derek Oldham
Florian Charles Ryley Charles F. Long Stuart Harold Leicester Tunks Sydney Granville
King Gama George Grossmith J. H. Ryley J. W. Herbert Henry Lytton Henry Lytton
Arac Richard Temple W. Ainsley Scott Joseph Fay Sydney Granville Frederick Hobbs
Guron Warwick Gray James Earley N. S. Burnham Fred Hewett Joe Ruff
Scynthius William Lugg E. J. Conley L. W. Raymond George Sinclair George Sinclair
Princess Ida Leonora Braham Cora S. Tanner Geraldine Ulmar Marjorie Stone Sylvia Cecil
Lady Blanche Rosina Brandram Genevieve Reynolds Alice Carle Bertha Lewis Bertha Lewis
Lady Psyche Kate Chard Florence Bemister Helen Lamont Mabel Graham Gladys Sinclair
Melissa Jessie Bond Hattie Delaro Agnes Stone Beatrice Boarer Nellie Briercliffe
Sacharissa Sybil Grey Eva Barrington Edith Jennesse Myfanwy Newell Nancy Ray
Chloe Miss Heathcote Eily Coghlan Miss Branson Anna Bethell Winifred Downing
Ada Miss Twyman Clara Primrose Miss McCann Ethel Gledhill Nell Raymond
Role D'Oyly Carte
1929 Tour[49]		 D'Oyly Carte
1939 Tour[50]		 Savoy Theatre
1954[42]		 D'Oyly Carte
1965 Tour[51]		 Savoy Theatre
1975[52]
King Hildebrand Joseph Griffin Sydney Granville Fisher Morgan Kenneth Sandford Kenneth Sandford
Hilarion Derek Oldham John Dudley Thomas Round Philip Potter Colin Wright
Cyril Charles Goulding John Dean Leonard Osborn David Palmer Ralph Mason
Florian Leslie Rands Leslie Rands Jeffrey Skitch Alan Styler Thomas Lawlor
King Gama Henry Lytton Martyn Green Peter Pratt John Reed John Reed
Arac Darrell Fancourt Darrell Fancourt Donald Adams Donald Adams John Ayldon
Guron Richard Walker Richard Walker John Banks Anthony Raffell Michael Rayner
Scynthius L. Radley Flynn L. Radley Flynn Trevor Hills George Cook Jon Ellison
Princess Ida Winifred Lawson Helen Roberts Victoria Sladen Ann Hood Valerie Masterson
Lady Blanche Bertha Lewis Evelyn Gardiner Ann Drummond-Grant Christene Palmer Lyndsie Holland
Lady Psyche Sybil Gordon Margery Abbott Muriel Harding Valerie Masterson Julia Goss
Melissa Nellie Briercliffe Marjorie Eyre Beryl Dixon Pauline Wales Pauline Wales
Sacharissa Nancy Ray Maysie Dean Cynthia Morey Anne Sessions Anne Egglestone
Chloe Beatrice Elburn Ivy Sanders Margaret Dobson Jennifer Marks Marjorie Williams
Ada Nancy Hughes Marjorie Flinn Maureen Melvin Elizabeth Mynett Rosalind Griffiths
Left to right: J. M. Gordon, Norris, Lawson, Sheffield, Lytton, Eileen Sharp and Fancourt – publicity shot for the 1924 recording

Recordings

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Princess Ida has received fewer professional recordings than most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas. The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company recorded the piece four times, in 1924, 1932, 1955 and 1965, but the later two recordings have not been as well received as the earlier two. The BBC broadcast the piece in 1966 and 1989, but the recordings are unavailable. Ohio Light Opera recorded the opera in 2000.[53]

The 1982 Brent Walker Productions video is considered to be one of the weakest of the series.[53][54] More recent professional productions have been recorded on video by the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival.[55]

Notes

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References

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Princess Ida

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Princess Ida, or Castle Adamant is the eighth comic opera in the Savoy series, with a libretto by and music by , which premiered at the in on 5 January 1884 and ran for 246 performances. The work adapts Alfred, Lord Tennyson's 1847 narrative poem The Princess, recasting its exploration of medieval and as a set in a fantastical kingdom where rigid gender separation leads to comedic upheaval. The plot centers on Princess Ida, who rejects her betrothal to Prince —arranged in infancy by their fathers, Kings Gama and Hildebrand—to establish Castle Adamant, a women-only that excludes all males and promotes pursuits over matrimony. , aided by friends and Florian, infiltrates the fortress disguised as female students, exposing the impracticalities of Ida's utopian vision amid bungled revelations, romantic entanglements, and a bungled invasion by Ida's brutish brothers. Sullivan's score features demanding for Ida and extended ensembles, while Gilbert's rhymed verse —unique among their operas for being entirely in —heightens the satirical bite. The opera lampoons Victorian debates on female emancipation, higher education for women, and Darwinian notions of , portraying extreme as self-defeating through absurd logic and character foils like the pedantic Lady Blanche and Lady Psyche, who parrot pseudoscientific justifications for matriarchal superiority. Though its initial reception was tempered by the and summer heat, leading to a shorter run than predecessors, revivals from the onward affirmed its place in the repertory, with audiences appreciating the wit's prescience on ideological overreach.

Background and Composition

Genesis and Literary Sources

Princess Ida draws its narrative foundation from Alfred, Lord Tennyson's 1847 narrative poem The Princess: A Medley, which explores themes of women's education and gender separation through a framed story of a establishing a women-only university. first adapted Tennyson's work into a blank-verse farcical play titled The Princess, written in late 1869 and premiered on 8 January 1870 at the Olympic Theatre in , where it ran for approximately 40 performances before closing in April 1870 amid mixed reviews and limited commercial success. Gilbert's play parodies Tennyson's poem by exaggerating its utopian elements into absurdity, incorporating interpolated songs set to tunes by composers such as Rossini and Auber, while retaining core characters like the , her suitor, and scholarly attendants, though with satirical modifications such as amplifying the grotesque traits of King Gama. For the opera, Gilbert repurposed much of his 1870 play's structure and dialogue as the libretto's spoken portions, marking Princess Ida as the only work to employ throughout its recitative-like dialogue, a direct carryover from the play's style to evoke a pseudo-classical tone. Over half of the play's lines were directly adapted or minimally revised for the opera, with new lyrics composed to fit Sullivan's music, while excising some farcical elements and streamlining the plot to three acts centered on Castle Adamant. This adaptation process began in mid-1883, following the success of in 1882, when Gilbert proposed reviving his earlier play for their next ; revisions to the drafts continued through July 1883, allowing Sullivan to commence composition by early September. Sullivan's score integrated seamlessly with the adapted text, incorporating choral ensembles for the all-female scenes—a structural choice inherited from the play's emphasis on segregated —and melodic interpolations that heightened the on intellectual pretensions. The resulting premiered on 5 1884 at the under D'Oyly Carte's management, representing the eighth collaboration between . This genesis reflects Gilbert's preference for drawing from his prior works to expedite production, prioritizing satirical continuity over entirely original plots, while leveraging Tennyson's framework to critique contemporary debates on female emancipation without endorsing the poem's more ambivalent resolution.

Production and Premiere Details

Princess Ida, or Castle Adamant premiered on 5 January 1884 at the in , produced by Richard D'Oyly Carte's company as the eighth collaboration between and . The production featured a structure billed as a and two acts but functioning as three full acts with no front cloth scenes or breaks for solos, resulting in extended waits between acts; on opening night, the Act III curtain rose at 11 p.m. Despite these delays, the premiere elicited rapturous applause from the audience, who reportedly sang "We won’t go home till morning" during intermissions to pass the time. The opera sustained an initial run of 246 performances, concluding on 9 October 1884, following the closure of the prior Savoy production Iolanthe on 1 January.

Immediate Aftermath and Initial Challenges

Princess Ida premiered at the on 5 January 1884, receiving an enthusiastic response from the audience, who expressed delight through sustained applause across all sections of the house. The production featured strong performances, particularly from George Grossmith as King Gama, Leonora Braham as , and Durward Lely as , with the acting uniformly excellent under the influence of Gilbert's direction. Sir conducted the orchestra despite severe pain from a recent illness, having received a hypodermic injection the night before the opening to manage his condition. The opera ran for 246 performances, lasting approximately nine months until October 1884, a duration shorter than preceding Savoy operas such as Iolanthe (398 performances) and marking a relative disappointment for Gilbert, Sullivan, and D'Oyly Carte. This comparatively brief run represented the first instance in their partnership where the successor opera was not immediately ready upon closure, necessitating interim measures before The Mikado in 1885. Initial critical reception highlighted strengths in Sullivan's music for certain sentimental ballads, patter-songs, and ensembles—such as "I built upon a rock" and the brothers' trio—but faulted much of the score for falling below his typical standard. Reviewers in The Times criticized the libretto's adaptation of Tennyson's The Princess as a "respectful perversion" that diluted the original's tragic elements, portraying Ida as insufficiently profound, and noted the first act's excessive length due to prolonged singing and dancing, suggesting the need for cuts to improve pacing. The three-act structure and use of blank verse, unique among Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy collaborations, may have contributed to these pacing issues and the opera's muted commercial impact.

Musical and Literary Elements

Sullivan's Score and Innovations

Sullivan's score for Princess Ida, composed in 1883 and premiered on 5 January 1884 at the , demonstrates a shift toward greater complexity and operatic sophistication within the tradition, blending English comic elements with influences from European masters such as Bizet and Rossini. The music features extended ensembles and lyrical solos that elevate the libretto's satire, employing and rhythmic allusions to add emotional nuance, particularly in portraying female characters' internal conflicts. This approach marks an innovation from earlier collaborations like (1882), where Sullivan's writing was lighter and more number-based, toward more continuous textures and character-driven harmony, foreshadowing his later grand opera (1891). A key example is the Act II quintet ("Come, Cyril"), set in D-flat major with compound time and simple refrain repetition, which echoes the rhythmic structure and momentum of the quintet from Bizet's Carmen (1875), adapting French opéra comique vitality for comic incongruity. The Act II finale incorporates dotted rhythms reminiscent of Rossini's Le comte Ory (1828), driving virtuosic soprano lines amid the chaotic invasion scene and paralleling that opera's farcical plotting. Sullivan innovates harmonically by using chromatic devices to delineate character, such as the flattened supertonic in second inversion to evoke King Gama's repulsiveness, integrating diatonic conventions with targeted dissonance for satirical emphasis. In to Gilbert's derisive portrayal of feminist ideals, Sullivan's settings for female principals impart sympathy and , a stylistic balance that enhances dramatic tension. Princess Ida's entrance , "Oh, goddess wise" (Act I), employs operatic form with complex , augmented sixths, moving bass lines, and rapid harmonic rhythm to convey resolve undercut by vulnerability, transforming Gilbert's into a musically credible figure. Similarly, the ensemble "Death to the Invader!" (Act II) shifts from warlike violent chords and chromatic intensity to a soft, detached , underscoring the women's feigned bravery against underlying fear. Ida's recitative-like "I built upon a rock" (Act III) uses secondary harmonies, brass interjections, and a minor-to-major resolution to highlight her ideological torment, blending with abrupt for ironic effect. These elements reflect Sullivan's broader innovation in : subtle allusions to Wagnerian and Italian styles (e.g., imperfectly "played Wagner" in the ) via leitmotif-like gestures and orchestral color, while maintaining accessibility through tunefulness and , resulting in what some analyses deem his finest theatrical score despite the work's initial mixed reception.

Gilbert's Libretto: Structure and Adaptations

Gilbert's for Princess Ida employs a , distinctive among the Savoy operas, with spoken dialogue composed in rather than the typical of their other collaborations. This format integrates nineteen musical numbers, including choruses, solos, duets, trios, and ensembles, to advance the plot and underscore satirical elements. Act I establishes the backstory of Princess Ida's betrothal to Prince , her father's delivery to King after twenty years' delay, and the kings' plotting; Act II shifts to Castle Adamant, where Ida expounds her separatist ideology amid the disguised infiltration of Hilarion and his friends; Act III resolves the conflict through Gama's brothers' brute force, Ida's capitulation, and reconciliations, emphasizing triumphant choruses. The derives substantially from Gilbert's 1870 blank-verse play The Princess, a adaptation of Alfred, Lord Tennyson's 1847 narrative poem The Princess: A Medley, which explores a utopian disrupted by male intruders. Gilbert reused or adapted over half of the spoken lines from his play, accounting for nearly all dialogue in the , while condensing the poem's episodic structure into a tighter comedic framework that heightens ridicule of intellectual pretensions and gender separatism. This evolution omits much of Tennyson's philosophical interludes and medieval framing, prioritizing ; for instance, Gilbert transforms the poem's reflective prologues into direct satirical songs like "Towards the empyrean heights" mocking evolutionary theory. Early printed versions varied: the first American libretto, issued pre-premiere on 5 January 1884, included uncut dialogue and alternate song texts later revised by Gilbert for production and authorized English edition, reflecting adjustments for pacing and Sullivan's score. Subsequent revivals, such as the 1919 D'Oyly Carte production, incorporated cuts to dialogue and numbers like the Act II trio "When anger spreads a ," shortening runtime from the original 150 minutes to under two hours. Modern productions occasionally adapt the further, excising or softening Ida's militant speeches to align with contemporary sensibilities, though such changes alter Gilbert's intended of Tennysonian idealism and early feminist experiments, as evidenced by the original's unyielding portrayal of ideological collapse under practical realities.

Themes and Satirical Targets

Victorian Critiques of Utopian Feminism

![Elaborate illustration showing the character Hilarion, disguised as a woman, speaking to Princess Ida during an outdoor picnic. Ida wears a crown and is seated on a chair; in the middle of the image, Hilarion crouches beside her to her left, with two of his friends to her left, also disguised as women. Several other women are seated around a picnic blanket on grassy ground with a brick wall in the background, all wearing academic robes; two women, dressed as medieval peasants, are serving the diners from above and behind.](./assets/William_Russell_Flint_-_W._S.Gilbert-Savoy_Operas-Princess_Ida_5FrontispieceFrontispiece Princess Ida (1884) satirized utopian visions of female separatism, portraying an all-women at Castle Adamant where men are strictly forbidden and intellectual pursuits are elevated above domestic and romantic roles. The opera's plot culminates in the academy's collapse when female students and faculty, including Ida herself, yield to innate affections for men, underscoring Victorian beliefs in immutable gender differences that ideological experiments could not override. This narrative echoed conservative critiques of early feminist movements advocating higher education for women as a means to achieve from and obligations. Gilbert's drew from Alfred Tennyson's 1847 poem The Princess, which similarly questioned the viability of a women-only dedicated to equality through isolation from male influence, but amplified the mockery by reducing abstract ideals to comedic failure driven by biological imperatives. Victorian reviewers noted the opera's alignment with prevailing sentiments that women's advanced education risked disrupting natural social harmonies, as evidenced by contemporary debates over institutions like Girton College, founded in 1869, which faced opposition for potentially emasculating female character or leading to celibacy. Characters like Lady Blanche and Lady Psyche embody pretentious scholarship, with Psyche's espousing Darwinian dismissed as absurd pedantry incompatible with observed human behavior. The resolution, where Ida abandons her principles to nurse her wounded brothers and ultimately accepts her betrothed, affirmed for audiences the primacy of maternal instincts and heterosexual pairing over utopian abstractions. This reflected causal understandings in Victorian thought that physiological and psychological differences between sexes—rooted in reproductive roles—rendered sexless or separatist societies unsustainable, a view Gilbert reinforced through exaggerated folly rather than outright prohibition of women's learning. While some later interpreters decry the work as antifeminist, period reception appreciated its lampooning of extremism amid rising calls for suffrage and co-education, without rejecting moderate educational advances.

Gender Dynamics and Biological Realism

Princess Ida portrays gender dynamics as fundamentally shaped by innate biological differences between sexes, which utopian ideologies fail to suppress. The titular princess founds Castle Adamant, a segregated where women reject male "tyranny" and pursue intellectual self-sufficiency, declaring that "man must be my master!" only ironically in defeat. This setup underscores a core tension: women's professed superiority crumbles under natural heterosexual imperatives, as evidenced by characters like Lady , who succumbs to affection for the disguised Prince Florian, leaking secrets to the infiltrators despite oaths of loyalty. Similarly, the female students' curiosity about the male disguises reveals an underlying attraction that cannot eradicate. The contrasts physical and temperamental traits to highlight biological realism. King Gama and his hulking but inept sons—Arac, Guron, and Scynthius—embody male brute force without refinement, while Princes , , and Florian represent chivalric masculinity, infiltrating the fortress and overpowering opposition through strength and wit. Gama himself mocks feminine delicacy in describing his daughters' "mincing" and "modest mien," innate qualities that persist despite rigorous training. Lady Blanche's ambition to usurp Ida via scholarly pretense further satirizes women's overreach into male spheres, deeming the world "too weak" for such burdens. Resolution affirms causal primacy of biology over construct: Ida, wounded and rescued by —her betrothed—yields, stating, "I thought as much! Then to my fate I yield," recognizing matrimonial destiny as decreed by rather than choice. Scholarly analysis interprets this as Gilbert's assertion that education cannot override "natural" sex differences, with the women's "war" against men defeated by inherent drives. The thus posits distinct masculine and feminine realms, where cross-gender harmony emerges from embracing, not denying, evolved complementarities.

Satire on Darwinism and Intellectual Pretensions

In Princess Ida, W. S. Gilbert satirizes the pretentious invocation of Darwinian evolution by the female academics at Castle Adamant to assert women's superiority over men, portraying their arguments as a distortion of scientific principles for ideological ends. Lady Psyche, a professor of humanities, delivers a lecture in Act II via the song "A Lady Fair of Lineage High," recounting a fable of an ape enamored with a noble maiden who, through her civilizing influence, evolves into a "Darwinian Man." The narrative culminates in the ape-man's rejection, with the line "Darwinian Man, tho' well-behav'd, / At best is only a monkey shav'd," emphasizing persistent brutish instincts despite superficial refinement. This mocks the era's feminist appropriations of Charles Darwin's The Descent of Man (1871), which explored human origins and sexual selection but did not endorse claims of female evolutionary supremacy. Paleontologist , in his 1977 collection Ever Since Darwin, highlights Gilbert's 1884 operetta as a timely critique, noting how the women's separatist ideology relies on an exaggerated view of male from primal ancestors, ignoring evolution's continuity in both sexes. Gilbert underscores the intellectual pretensions through the professors' bombastic , such as Psyche's assertion that women's larger cranial capacity relative to body size signifies advanced intellect, a claim blending selective evolutionary facts with unsubstantiated inversion. The exposes causal inconsistencies: while Darwin posited descent from common ancestors, the opera illustrates how intellectual elites deploy half-understood to rationalize utopian isolation, revealing underlying biological affinities that defy ideological constructs. The chorus of students reinforces this ridicule, imbibing the doctrine that "man is Nature's last great blunder," a hyperbolic extension of ary discourse into . Gilbert's verse parodies Alfred Lord Tennyson's The Princess (1847), amplifying its themes with contemporary scientific satire to lampoon academia's tendency toward dogmatic overreach, where empirical origins are twisted to support pretentious claims of transcendence over natural instincts. Premiered on January 5, 1884, at the , the operetta's barbs at such intellectual fashions resonated amid ongoing Victorian debates on and roles.

Roles and Characterization

Principal Roles and Vocal Demands

The principal roles in Princess Ida demand a mix of lyrical and patter singing, with Sullivan's score emphasizing operatic and ensemble interplay over the lighter demands of earlier Savoy operas. The title role of Princess Ida requires a capable of sustaining high and passages, as in her "O Goddess Wise," which reaches A♯5/B♭5 and parodies conventions. This contrasts with the comic baritone and bass roles for the kings, who deliver patter songs with rhythmic precision, such as King Gama's "If you give me your attention," testing diction and stamina in rapid-fire delivery. Tenor leads Hilarion, Cyril, and baritone Florian form the infiltrating princes, requiring agile voices for trio ensembles like "Whene'er I spoke," which blend romantic lyricism with comic disguise elements, often in a higher tessitura for tenors up to A4 or B♭4. The brothers Arac, Guron, and Scynthius, cast as basses, provide basso profundo support in martial choruses and the trio "This is our duty plain," demanding resonant low registers (down to E2 or F2) for satirical heft. Contralto Lady Blanche handles professorial in "Come, girls," with mezzo-soprano Melissa and soprano Lady Psyche adding coloratura filigree in ensembles, though their demands are less soloistic than Ida's.
RoleVoice TypeKey Vocal Features
Princess IdaDramatic range to B♭5; operatic arias requiring and .
Lyrical lines in trios; sustained mid-high for romantic leads.
King /Bass songs with ; robust projection.
King GamaRapid delivery; low comic resonance in solos.
Lady BlancheAuthoritative ; lower register for professorial .
Overall, the vocal score elevates Princess Ida beyond typical G&S fare, with Ida's role cited as among the most technically challenging due to its length, exposure, and operatic scope, often necessitating a singer versed in techniques rather than mere light . This demand contributed to casting hurdles at the 1884 premiere, where Leonora Braham's interpretation balanced vocal prowess with ideological fervor.

Ensemble and Supporting Characters

The supporting characters in Princess Ida include Hilarion's companions, and Florian, who join him in disguising themselves as female students to infiltrate Castle Adamant. , a role, sings the comic "Expressive velvet gown," mocking the discomforts of women's fashion through exaggerated complaints about corsets and petticoats. Florian, a , contributes to the trio "If you give me your attention" with Hilarion, outlining their infiltration plan, and later develops a romance with . Melissa, Lady Blanche's daughter and a mezzo-soprano role, serves as a romantic foil and plot , with Florian and relaying messages between the disguised princes and the university's inhabitants, ultimately undermining the strict anti-male . King Gama's three sons—Arac (the eldest, bass), Guron, and Scynthius (basses)—are portrayed as hulking, dim-witted warriors who reluctantly prepare for battle but express a preference for scholarly pursuits over in their trio "Whither, whither." These characters satirize brute while revealing innate pacific tendencies, contrasting the university's intellectual posturing. The comprises the Chorus of Girl Graduates, representing the university's female students, who perform academic and ideological numbers such as "Towards the empyrean heights" and "Minerva! Oh, hear us," embodying Gilbert's of utopian and pedantic learning. Additional elements include choruses of soldiers, courtiers, and "Daughters of the " (peasant women serving the university), providing martial vigor in Acts I and III and rustic contrast to the elite scholars, with the soldiers' chorus "Warriors, arrayed for the battle" highlighting aggressive .

Synopsis

Act I: The Betrothal and Castle Adamant

The first scene of Princess Ida is set in a attached to the palace of King , where courtiers anticipate the arrival of Princess Ida to fulfill her infant betrothal to Prince . Hilarion, accompanied by his friends and Florian, expresses optimism about the union, noting the long-standing arrangement between their fathers, Kings and Gama. King enters, voicing impatience and threatening military action against Castle Adamant, the women-only Ida has established, should she fail to appear. King Gama arrives with his three sons—Arac, Guron, and Scynthius—described as hulking and martial figures, but without Ida. Gama reveals that Ida has repudiated the betrothal, vowing and dedicating herself to educating women in the belief that they possess superior intellectual capacities to men, rendering and male rule obsolete. Enraged, orders Gama's meager army routed offstage and has Gama imprisoned, dispatching him back to Ida with an : honor the trothplight or face invasion by Hildebrand's forces. The scene shifts to the grounds of Castle Adamant, where female students receive instruction from professors Lady Blanche in and Lady Psyche in abstract philosophy, emphasizing rigorous over domestic pursuits. Lady Psyche lectures on evolutionary , positing man's descent from apes and women's potential ascent to higher forms through . Princess Ida enters, articulating her foundational principles: women, unencumbered by male influence, will cultivate reason to govern justly, eradicating passion-driven conflicts and establishing a rational . She dismisses the betrothal as a relic of patriarchal tyranny, asserting female . Melissa, Lady Blanche's daughter and a , expresses admiration for Ida's ideals, while Blanche reveals her own thwarted scholarly ambitions due to norms. Armored female guards then drag in the chained King Gama, who delivers Hildebrand's demand. Ida steadfastly refuses, proclaiming her commitment to the university's separatist . Gama, departing under guard, hints at the prowess of his sons, foreshadowing conflict, as the women chorus their determination to uphold their principles against male incursion.

Act II: Infiltration and Ideological Clashes

In the gardens of Castle Adamant, Lady Psyche delivers a to the university's graduates on the evolutionary superiority of women, asserting that "man is nature's sole mistake" and expounding a satirical Darwinian where women ascend toward angelic perfection while men remain mired in brutish origins, as depicted in the "Towards the empyrean heights." This sets the stage for ideological tension, with Psyche's rhetoric privileging abstract intellectual ideals over observable in strength and behavior, a theme Gilbert mocks through exaggerated . Princess Ida enters, reinforcing the institution's mission in "Mighty maiden with a mission," proclaiming women's destined rule through and from male influence, dismissing betrothal as patriarchal tyranny. Hilarion, , and Florian then infiltrate by scaling the outer wall, disguised in female academic robes to evade detection, embodying a literal breach of the segregated . Ida initially accepts them as new pupils despite their unconventional arrival, probing their commitment to the anti-male creed, which underscores the performative nature of the disguise and the intruders' underlying toward enforced segregation. Lady Psyche recognizes her brother Florian among the trio but conceals their identity upon learning the penalty for male trespass——while confiding in Ida's daughter , who wavers in her ideological loyalty, hinting at innate attractions transcending doctrinal barriers. The group proceeds to a , where , emboldened by wine, performs the "Kissing " ("A lady fair to see"), inadvertently revealing their male sex through flirtatious advances and a kiss with Psyche, shattering the illusion and provoking among the women. Ida, recoiling into a stream, is rescued by , who appeals to their betrothal and natural affinities, but she demands their execution, exposing the fragility of her principles when confronted by physical reality and male agency. The intrusion escalates into combat when Ida's hulking half-brothers—Arac, Guron, and Scynthius—assault the men at King Gama's incitement, goaded by his barbed wit on their effete appearance; yet and his companions prevail through superior skill and vigor, subduing the brothers and empirically demonstrating male physical advantages in direct conflict, contra the university's teachings. King then arrives with his army, insisting Ida honor the childhood betrothal or face invasion, framing the clash as a realist corrective to ideological : women's self-reliant yields to causal forces of , , and martial necessity. Throughout, Gilbert juxtaposes the women's lofty denunciations of —rooted in untested theory—with the men's pragmatic assertions of complementary roles, highlighting how denial of innate differences invites disruption.

Act III: Resolution and Natural Affinities

In Act III, set in the of Castle Adamant under siege by King Hildebrand's army, Princess Ida rallies her female students, arming them with battle-axes and urging defiance against male incursion through the chorus "Death to the invader!" The women's enthusiasm wanes rapidly, however, as individuals like Sacharissa recoil from the prospects of and makeshift , revealing the practical limits of their ideological commitment to excluding men and ruling independently. Ida, undeterred initially, asserts her solitary resolve in the and "I built upon a rock," vowing to defend her principles alone if her followers falter, thereby highlighting the fragility of collective utopian fervor when tested by imminent threat. The arrival of King Gama, bearing facial bruises from prior captivity, accompanied by his hulking sons Arac, Guron, and Scynthius, interrupts the preparations. Gama, seeking to avert full-scale war, proposes a chivalric wager to Hildebrand's forces: a three-on-three duel between Ida's brothers and the disguised princes , , and Florian, with Ida's hand as the stake, framing the contest as a test of martial prowess rather than ideological validity. Ida, moved by her father's evident suffering and the brothers' brute strength contrasted with the princes' agility, permits the combat despite her reservations. The ensuing fight sees the princes triumph decisively, subduing Arac, Guron, and Scynthius through superior wit and coordination, as depicted in the "Whene'er I spoke sarcastic ," where the brothers' defeat underscores physical and temperamental disparities between the combatants. Hilarion's victory, coupled with his unmasked declaration of enduring fidelity to their childhood betrothal, prompts Ida's gradual capitulation; she tends to the frayed alliances and, confronting the wager's outcome, acknowledges the persistence of personal bonds over abstract doctrine. This yields to complementary pairings driven by evident mutual attractions: Ida consents to marry Hilarion, Psyche pairs with after her earlier dalliance exposes her preferences, and Melissa aligns with Florian, bypassing her mother's separatist leanings. Lady Blanche, having maneuvered against Ida's leadership, ascends to university principal, securing her administrative ambitions amid the institution's reconfiguration. The resolution, culminating in the finale "A lady fair of lineage high," illustrates how innate heterosexual complementarities and protective instincts prevail against enforced segregation, as Ida concedes that her vision of female supremacy dissolves under the weight of lived relational realities.

Musical Numbers

Key Arias, Duets, and Ensembles

Princess Ida's musical numbers include songs, lyrical solos, and choral ensembles that blend Sullivan's tuneful melodies with Gilbert's satirical , often demanding precise ensemble timing and vocal agility from performers. Key arias highlight character quirks, such as King Gama's self-pity, while duets and ensembles amplify ideological clashes and comic disguises. The Act I patter trio "If you give me your attention," performed by (tenor), (tenor), and Florian (), introduces the princes' infiltration plan with rapid, overlapping mocking scholarly pomposity; it premiered on January 5, 1884, at the and remains a staple for its rhythmic complexity. King Gama's Act I "Ida was a twelvemonth old, half a half a gipsy" employs to depict his pampered upbringing and physical deformities, satirizing parental through exaggerated self-description. In Act II, Lady Psyche's aria "A lady fair of lineage high" narrates a Darwinian fable of from apes, underscoring the opera's critique of intellectual overreach with melodic storytelling. Cyril's aria "Would you know the kind of maid" in Act II praises idealized in time, contrasting the opera's feminist with traditional roles. The Act III trio "Come, mighty must!" for brothers Arac, Guron, and Scynthius (basses) delivers martial bombast in and chorus, parodying heroic resolve amid their reluctant defense. Notable ensembles include the Act II opening chorus "Towards the empyrean heights," sung by female students and professors, which evokes lofty academic aspirations in fugal style. The Act I finale ensemble builds chaos around the princes' disguise discovery, featuring layered for the full cast. Duets are sparser, with the Act III exchange between Ida and Hilarion emphasizing romantic reconciliation through lyrical dialogue.

Orchestration and Stylistic Features

Sullivan scored Princess Ida for a chamber typical of the Savoy Theatre productions, comprising two flutes (with the second doubling ), one , two clarinets, one , two horns, two trumpets, two trombones, and percussion, and strings, without or additional brass depth. This configuration provided nimble support for the vocal demands, emphasizing transparency and woodwind color over heavy symphonic weight, which suited the operetta's blend of and mock-grandiosity. Stylistically, the score integrates Sullivan's melodic lyricism with parodic nods to and classical forms, such as Handelian contrapuntal textures and walking bass lines in numbers evoking sturdy arias, which underscore the opera's ridicule of utopian ideals and intellectual posturing. songs, like those for the disguised princes, deploy rapid syllabic delivery over sprightly rhythms to heighten comedic absurdity, while ensembles—such as the Act I chorus "Towards the empyrean heights"—employ layered and march-like figures to militaristic and evolutionary themes. The , drawing from principal themes, sets a buoyant yet stately tone, reflecting the work's Tennysonian elevation without descending into full operatic pomposity. Overall, Sullivan's orchestration prioritizes vocal clarity and rhythmic drive, with economical brass fanfares and string ostinatos amplifying ideological clashes, distinguishing Princess Ida as more classically oriented than Sullivan's lighter predecessors, aligning musically with Gilbert's blank-verse to evoke a pseudo-medieval grandeur. This restraint in forces and eclectic allusions facilitated the opera's premiere on 5 January 1884, where concerted pieces were praised for matching Sullivan's peak in the genre.

Performance History

Early Revivals and Savoy Legacy

Princess Ida premiered at the on 5 January 1884 under the management of , running for 246 consecutive performances until 17 June 1884, a shorter duration than most contemporary works. Following the close of the London production, D'Oyly Carte dispatched multiple touring companies across Britain and internationally, including a New York engagement at the beginning 25 February 1884, to capitalize on the opera's initial appeal despite its mixed reception for perceived length and topical satire. These touring ensembles, such as the designated "Princess Ida No. 1" company, sustained performances through 1884 and into subsequent years, introducing the work to provincial audiences but without prompting an immediate London return. The opera saw no further professional staging in London by the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company until a 1919 revival, reflecting its relative unpopularity compared to staples like The Mikado or The Pirates of Penzance; factors included its three-act structure demanding larger casts—particularly for Act II's all-female ensemble—and Gilbert's pointed critiques of and higher education, which some contemporaries found less enduringly comedic. Touring revivals persisted sporadically into the via authorized companies, but the prioritized newer Savoy operas or proven repertory favorites, relegating Princess Ida to occasional inclusion rather than regular rotation. As the eighth Savoy opera, Princess Ida solidified the theatre's role as the epicenter of Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operettas, exemplifying D'Oyly Carte's model of integrated production where librettist, composer, and impresario collaborated under strict artistic control to enforce canonical interpretations. This legacy encompassed a repertory system blending new premieres with revivals, though Princess Ida's demands for elaborate staging and its divergence from the lighter fare of predecessors limited its frequency; nonetheless, it contributed to the enduring professional tradition of G&S performance, with D'Oyly Carte's licensing monopoly preserving textual and musical fidelity against unauthorized adaptations until the copyrights expired in 1961. The work's place in this canon underscores the Savoy era's emphasis on satirical sophistication, even as Princess Ida highlighted the risks of overly intellectual premises in popular light opera.

20th-Century Staging and Adaptations

The included Princess Ida in its 1924 London season at the Prince's Theatre, marking an early 20th-century professional revival amid the company's ongoing repertory. This production followed sporadic performances in the preceding decades, reflecting the opera's niche status due to its and blank-verse dialogue, which contrasted with the more patter-driven G&S works. The company staged it again in 1939, its last pre-World War II mounting, before wartime disruptions halted operations. Postwar revival came in 1954 at the Savoy Theatre, the first D'Oyly Carte production since 1939, necessitated by the destruction of original props in a 1941 air raid. Directed by Bridget D'Oyly Carte with new designs, it featured Ella Halman as Lady Blanche, Marjorie Thomas as Lady Psyche, and Helen Landis as Princess Ida, running as part of a season emphasizing lesser-performed Savoy operas. Thereafter, Princess Ida appeared irregularly in D'Oyly Carte tours through the 1960s and 1970s, often in abbreviated repertory seasons, underscoring its challenging demands on performers and audiences compared to staples like The Mikado. In the United States, a revival opened on Broadway at the on September 27, 1934, under the auspices of the Opera Company, with Muriel Dickson as Ida and running 73 performances until December 8. A briefer 1955 mounting at the Shubert Theatre lasted three performances from October 13 to 15, highlighting the opera's limited commercial appeal amid mid-century preferences for lighter G&S fare. Televised stagings emerged late in the century, including a 1982 production directed by Anthony Besch for the Brent Walker series, featuring Bonita Crompton as Ida and preserving traditional staging with period costumes and sets. No major cinematic adaptations materialized, with efforts confined to faithful operatic renditions rather than loose reinterpretations, preserving Gilbert's satirical intent on Tennysonian and educational utopias. Amateur and regional groups, such as Savoyards, mounted productions sporadically, but professional output remained dominated by custodian companies like D'Oyly Carte until its 1982 dissolution.

Contemporary Productions and Modern Challenges

In the 21st century, productions of Princess Ida have been less frequent than those of other works, largely due to its demanding requirements for a large ensemble and extended runtime. Notable revivals include the Gilbert & Sullivan Very Light Opera Company's 2018 staging in , which incorporated textual revisions to adapt character relationships for contemporary sensibilities, and the Houston Gilbert and Sullivan Society's 2016 production emphasizing elegant simplicity in sets and orchestration. The Malvern Gilbert & Sullivan presented a production directed by Jeff Clarke in September 2025, marking its return to their repertoire after 15 years and highlighting spectacle in staging. Earlier examples encompass the MIT Gilbert & Sullivan Players' 2000 rendition and a 2006 cycle production in , . Staging Princess Ida poses logistical hurdles uncommon in the Savoy canon, as its and need for a substantial female chorus—depicting the students of Castle Adamant—demand greater resources than typical two-act operettas. Companies often condense acts or employ creative casting to manage budgets and venues, with historical data indicating fewer than one major revival per decade in professional circuits since 2000. This scarcity perpetuates a cycle of limited exposure, reducing audience familiarity and performer expertise compared to staples like . Thematically, modern productions grapple with the opera's satire of separatist and Tennysonian ideals of women's , which some critics interpret as reinforcing outdated gender hierarchies amid heightened sensitivity to in classical works. For instance, certain stagings revise Ida's arc to avoid abrupt submission, reflecting concerns that the original resolution undermines female agency in a post-#MeToo context. Scholarly analyses counter that Gilbert targets ideological extremes on both sides, satirizing male pomposity alongside female utopianism, rather than endorsing blanket anti-, though such defenses have not fully mitigated perceptions of dated humor. These tensions have prompted debates over textual versus accessibility, with proponents arguing that unaltered performances preserve the work's causal critique of rigid as self-defeating.

Reception and Legacy

Contemporary Critical Responses

Princess Ida premiered at the Savoy Theatre on 5 January 1884, where it elicited a mix of praise for its musical and performative elements alongside reservations about the libretto's tonal shifts and fidelity to its literary source. The Times review highlighted Arthur Sullivan's score as a strong point, commending sentimental ballads, patter-songs, and ensembles, including the "sad last song of Princess Ida" and a "clever trio with contrapuntal brass effects." Performances received uniform acclaim for excellence, with specific nods to Leonora Braham's charming portrayal of Princess Ida, Rosina Brandram's formidable Lady Blanche, George Grossmith's excelsior King Gama, and Durward Lely's tenor roles. The audience response was enthusiastic, marked by applause for W. S. Gilbert, Sullivan, and producer Richard D'Oyly Carte across all sections of the house. Critics, however, noted structural challenges, such as the opera's three-act format with dialogue, which lent it a more operatic gravity than the lighter Savoy predecessors, potentially contributing to perceptions of excess in singing and dancing that might warrant cuts. The , adapted from Alfred Tennyson's The Princess and subtitled a "respectful perversion," was faulted for transforming the source's tragic heroine into a "commonplace modern damsel," diluting the original's depth in favor of satirical commentary on contemporary debates over women's education and gender roles. Despite these critiques, the production's commercial viability was evident in its 246-performance run, signaling solid public appeal amid the era's topical interest in feminist ideals and Darwinian influences.

Scholarly Debates and Interpretive Controversies

Scholars have debated the extent to which Princess Ida endorses or critiques Victorian gender norms, particularly in its portrayal of women's higher education as incompatible with traditional . Eleanor Lybeck argues that the opera prototypes the "" archetype, linking Ida's Castle Adamant to real institutions like Girton College, founded in , while satirizing intellectual pursuits through numbers like "Come, girls, come!" which mocks female graduates' aspirations. However, interpreters differ on intent: Carolyn Williams posits that Gilbert's challenges stereotypes rather than women themselves, viewing the Savoy operas as less conservative than assumed, whereas Laura Fasick describes the treatment of Ida as unsympathetic and reinforcing conservative views. Alan Fischler highlights the opera's "unfunny" tone, attributing it to Gilbert's premise that women and advanced education are inherently at odds, a notion intended to provoke discomfort. A related controversy concerns the balance between Gilbert's satirical and Sullivan's music, which some see as mitigating anti-feminist elements. In a 2012 , Abigail Krause analyzes Gilbert's depiction of Ida and her cohort—marked by arrogance, hypocrisy, and quick capitulation—as parodying ideals from contemporaneous works like Olive Schreiner's The Story of an African Farm (), portraying educated women as unnatural or illogical, with the plot resolving via male intervention implying force over reason. Sullivan's score counters this through emotional depth, employing and in Ida's arias like "Minerva!" to lend dignity and sympathy, creating ambiguity that ran for 246 performances despite the libretto's weaknesses. This musical elevation, Krause contends, prevents outright derision, though Gilbert's exaggeration of Tennyson's source material—where Ida's convictions falter more extremely—tilts toward undermining feminist autonomy. Comparisons to Alfred Tennyson's 1847 poem The Princess, Gilbert's direct source, underscore interpretive divides on reversion. While Tennyson's narrative treats female intellectual aspirations with nuance, allowing women intellectual growth without , Gilbert and Sullivan's adaptation parodies this into outright , reducing resolution to sexual desire overriding ideology. Critics like those in Raiders of the Lost Archive argue Tennyson's return to traditional roles stems not from fearing empowered women but from anxiety over men's emotional vulnerability eroding power, a subtlety lost in the operetta's comedic exaggeration. Gayden Wren frames the satire as targeting untempered idealism across generations and politics, not exclusively, aligning with Gilbert's broader topsy-turvydom. Additional contention arises over the opera's Darwinian allusions, such as the grotesque depictions of King Gama's sons, which satirize evolutionary theory's implications for human degeneracy and amid 1880s debates. This layer, per some analyses, reinforces the narrative's causal emphasis on innate affinities prevailing over constructed , though scholars note it amplifies the work's perceived hostility to progressive reforms without resolving whether the mockery equally indicts male failings.

Position in the Gilbert and Sullivan Canon

Princess Ida, the eighth in the series of fourteen comic operas by and , premiered at the on 5 January 1884. This collaboration marked the first following Sullivan's knighthood in 1883 and adapted Gilbert's earlier blank-verse play The Princess (1870), itself drawn from Alfred, Lord Tennyson's 1847 poem of the same name. The opera's initial London run extended approximately nine months, reflecting moderate contemporary interest but falling short of the sensational success achieved by predecessors like (1878) and (1879). Within the Gilbert and Sullivan canon, Princess Ida occupies a peripheral position, consistently ranking among the least revived and performed works alongside Utopia, Limited (1893) and The Grand Duke (1896). Its relative obscurity stems from logistical challenges, including a demanding cast structure that requires ten distinct male principal roles without chorus doubling, alongside separate women's and men's choruses, which elevates staging expenses and complexity compared to the more compact ensembles in core repertory pieces. The three-act format, exceeding two hours in duration, further contrasts with the typical two-act brevity of most Savoy operas, deterring frequent mountings by amateur and professional companies alike. Critics and historians attribute additional marginalization to a perceived mismatch between Gilbert's satirical treatment of Tennyson's feminist themes—depicting a women-only university enforcing misandry—and Sullivan's elevated, occasionally Wagnerian score, which imparts a grandeur ill-suited to light comic resolution. This tonal discord, unique in the canon, underscores Princess Ida's transitional role between the partnership's early triumphs and the polished exoticism of The Mikado (1885), which eclipsed it in popularity and solidified the canon's commercial staples. Despite these drawbacks, Princess Ida retains niche esteem among Savoy enthusiasts for its intellectual ambition, including Sullivan's most extensive songs and Gilbert's prescient mockery of gender separatism and academic pretensions, positioning it as an that rewards study over routine production. Its underperformance does not diminish its canonical inclusion but highlights how practical and interpretive hurdles have confined it to occasional revivals, preserving the Savoy repertory's emphasis on the more accessible hits that dominate global stagings.

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