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1910s
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Ford Model TSinking of the ''Titanic''World War ISpanish fluWestern Front (World War 1)Eastern Front (World War I)Russian RevolutionBattle of the Somme
From left, clockwise: the Ford Model T is introduced in 1908 and becomes widespread in the 1910s; the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912 causes the deaths of nearly 1,500 people and attracts global and historical attention; CONTEXT: all the events below are part of World War I (1914–1918); French Army lookout at his observation post in 1917; Russian troops awaiting a German attack; a ration party of the Royal Irish Rifles in a communication trench during the Battle of the Somme; Vladimir Lenin addresses a crowd in the midst of the Russian Revolution, beginning in 1917; The Spanish flu pandemic in 1918 kills tens of millions worldwide.
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The 1910s (pronounced "nineteen-tens" often shortened to the "'10s" or the "Tens") was the decade that began on January 1, 1910, and ended on December 31, 1919.

The 1910s represented the climax of European militarism which had its beginnings during the second half of the 19th century. The conservative lifestyles during the first half of the decade, as well as the legacy of military alliances, were forever changed by the June 28, 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The archduke's murder triggered a chain of events in which, within 33 days, World War I broke out in Europe on August 1, 1914. The conflict dragged on until a truce was declared on November 11, 1918, leading to the controversial and one-sided Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919.

The war's end triggered the abdication of various monarchies and the collapse of four of the last modern empires of Russia, Germany, Ottoman Turkey, and Austria-Hungary, with the latter splintered into Austria, Hungary, southern Poland (who acquired most of their land in a war with Soviet Russia), Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, as well as the unification of Romania with Transylvania and Bessarabia.[a] However, each of these states (with the possible exception of Yugoslavia) had large German and Hungarian minorities, creating some unexpected problems that would be brought to light in the next two decades.

The decade was also a period of revolution in many countries. The Portuguese 5 October 1910 revolution, which ended the eight-century-long monarchy, spearheaded the trend, followed by the Mexican Revolution in November 1910, which led to the ousting of dictator Porfirio Díaz, developing into a violent civil war that dragged on until mid-1920, not long after a new Mexican Constitution was signed and ratified. The Russian Empire had a similar fate, since its participation in World War I led it to a social, political, and economical collapse which made the tsarist autocracy unsustainable and, succeeding the events of 1905, culminated in the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, under the direction of the Bolshevik Party, later renamed as the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution of 1918, known as the October Revolution, was followed by the Russian Civil War, which dragged on until approximately late 1922. China saw 2,000 years of imperial rule ended with the Xinhai Revolution, becoming a nominal republic until Yuan Shikai's failed attempt to restore the monarchy and his death started the Warlord Era in 1916.

Treaty of Versailles

Much of the music in these years was ballroom-themed. Many of the fashionable restaurants were equipped with dance floors. Prohibition in the United States began January 16, 1919, with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Best-selling books of this decade include The Inside of the Cup, Seventeen, Mr. Britling Sees It Through, and The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.

During the 1910s, the world population increased from 1.75 to 1.87 billion, with approximately 640 million births and 500 million deaths in total.

Politics and wars

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See also: List of sovereign states in the 1910s
World map showing all empires and colonies in 1914, just before World War I.

Wars

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Internal conflicts

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Major political change

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Vladimir Lenin, Leader of the Bolshevik Party during the Russian Revolution

Decolonization and independence

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Assassinations

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Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Nicholas II of Russia

Prominent assassinations include:

Disasters

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Sinking of the Titanic.
Halifax Explosion
  • The RMS Titanic, a British ocean liner which was the largest and most luxurious ship at that time, struck an iceberg and sank two hours and 40 minutes later in the North Atlantic during its maiden voyage on April 15, 1912. 1,517 people perished in the disaster.
  • On May 29, 1914, the British ocean liner RMS Empress of Ireland collided in thick fog with the SS Storstad, a Norwegian collier, near the mouth of Saint Lawrence River in Canada, sinking in 14 minutes. 1,012 people died.
  • On May 7, 1915, the British ocean liner RMS Lusitania was torpedoed by U-20, a German U-boat, off the Old Head of Kinsale in Ireland, sinking in 18 minutes. 1,199 people died.
  • On November 21, 1916, HMHS Britannic was holed in an explosion while passing through a channel that had been seeded with enemy mines and sank in 55 minutes.
  • From 1918 through 1920, the Spanish flu killed from 17.4 to 100 million people worldwide.
  • In 1916, the Netherlands was hit by a North Sea storm that flooded the lowlands and killed 19 people.
  • From July 1 to July 12, 1916, a series of shark attacks, known as the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, occurred along the Jersey Shore, killing four and injuring one.
  • On January 11, 1914, Sakurajima erupted which resulted in the death of 35 people. In addition, the surrounding islands were consumed, and an isthmus was created between Sakurajima and the mainland.
  • In 1917, the Halifax Explosion killed 2,000 people.
  • In 1919, the Great Molasses Flood in Boston, Massachusetts killed 21 people and injured 150.

Other significant international events

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Science and technology

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Technology

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British World War I Mark V tank

Science

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Economics

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  • In the years 1910 and 1911, there was a minor economic depression known as the Panic of 1910–1911, which was followed by the enforcement of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.
  • The outbreak of World War I caused the Financial Crisis of 1914, leading to the closure of the New York Stock Exchange for four months. U.S. Treasury Secretary William McAdoo implemented measures to stabilize the economy, marking the United States' transition from a debtor to a creditor nation.[23]
  • Following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Russia experienced severe hyperinflation due to economic disarray and war. By 1924, three currency redenominations occurred, culminating in the introduction of the "gold ruble," stabilizing the economy.[24]
  • The United States emerged as a global economic power during World War I, benefiting from industrial expansion and increased consumerism. Wartime loans to Allied nations further strengthened its financial position.[25]
  • The British government implemented extensive controls during World War I under the Defense of the Realm Act, nationalizing key industries and introducing food rationing. Postwar economic challenges included high debt and unemployment.[26]
  • Germany's wartime mobilization strained its economy, leading to shortages and inflation. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 imposed reparations that further destabilized its postwar economy.[27]
  • Italy faced significant economic challenges during World War I, including a 40% devaluation of its currency relative to the British pound. Allied intervention stabilized its currency in 1918.[28]
  • Japan experienced rapid industrialization during World War I, driven by increased demand for exports such as textiles and machinery. This period saw significant growth in heavy industries like steel and shipbuilding, concentrated in urban centers along the Tōkaidō industrial belt.[29]
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Sports

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Literature and arts

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See also: List of years in literature § 1910s, and Publishers Weekly list of bestselling novels in the United States in the 1910s

Below are the best-selling books in the United States of each year, as determined by The Bookman, a New York-based literary journal (1910–1912) and Publishers Weekly (1913 and beyond).[30]

Visual Arts

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See also: Armory Show and History of painting

The 1913 Armory Show in New York City was a seminal event in the history of Modern Art. Innovative contemporaneous artists from Europe and the United States exhibited together in a massive group exhibition in New York City, and Chicago.

Art movements

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Other movements and techniques
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Influential artists

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People

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Business

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Henry Ford

Inventors

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Politics

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Authors

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Entertainers

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Charlie Chaplin
Lillian Gish
Mary Pickford

Sports figures

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Baseball

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Babe Ruth, 1915
See also: History of baseball in the United States

Olympics

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See also: Art competitions at the Summer Olympics

Boxing

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See also

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Timeline

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The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade:

1910 • 1911 • 1912 • 1913 • 1914 • 1915 • 1916 • 1917 • 1918 • 1919

Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

1910s

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

The 1910s was a decade of seismic global transformations, from January 1, 1910, to December 31, 1919, overshadowed by the First World War (1914–1918), which mobilized over 70 million military personnel and inflicted more than 9 million military deaths alongside approximately 5 million civilian fatalities, fundamentally altering international power structures through the dissolution of empires including the German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman. The war's trench stalemates, industrialized killing via machine guns and artillery, and involvement of colonial forces underscored the era's shift toward total warfare, culminating in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles that imposed punitive terms on the Central Powers, sowing seeds for future instability. Concurrently, the 1917 Russian Revolutions—first deposing Tsar Nicholas II in February amid wartime privations and then installing Bolshevik rule under Vladimir Lenin in October—heralded the advent of communist governance and civil war, fracturing the Russian Empire. The decade's cataclysmic toll extended beyond combat with the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic, claiming an estimated 50 million lives worldwide, exceeding war dead and exposing vulnerabilities in global health amid troop movements. Technological strides, such as Henry Ford's 1913 introduction of the moving assembly line for the Model T automobile, revolutionized mass production and mobility, while aviation and tank prototypes emerged from wartime necessities. Culturally, the period witnessed the rise of modernism in art through Cubism and Dada, alongside the maturation of cinema with feature-length films and stars like Charlie Chaplin, reflecting societal flux toward urbanization and women's expanding roles, evidenced by suffrage gains like New Zealand's precedents and U.S. momentum toward the 19th Amendment.

Overview

Chronological Summary

![Montage of key events from the 1910s][float-right] The decade began with significant political upheavals, including the Mexican Revolution starting in 1910, which overthrew the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz after widespread discontent with economic inequality and foreign influence. In China, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 ended over two millennia of imperial rule, establishing the Republic of China under Sun Yat-sen following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. Italy's invasion of Libya in 1911 marked the Italo-Turkish War, resulting in Italy's annexation of Ottoman territories in North Africa. The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 saw the Balkan League defeat the Ottoman Empire, redrawing regional boundaries and heightening ethnic tensions that contributed to broader European instability. Maritime disasters underscored technological vulnerabilities, with the RMS Titanic sinking on April 15, 1912, after striking an iceberg, claiming over 1,500 lives and prompting international safety regulations for ocean liners. Exploration milestones included reaching the on December 14, 1911, ahead of Robert Falcon Scott's fatal British expedition. Tensions in Europe escalated with the on June 28, 1914, by , a Bosnian Serb nationalist, triggering Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to and the . erupted on July 28, 1914, as Austria-Hungary declared war on , drawing in alliances: Germany invaded and on August 4, prompting Britain to enter the conflict, while Russia mobilized against Austria-Hungary and . The war's early phase featured the Schlieffen Plan's failure, leading to trench stalemate on the Western Front by late 1914, with battles like the Marne (September 1914) and halting German advances. On the Eastern Front, Russia's invasion of was repelled at Tannenberg (August 1914). Naval engagements included the (May 1916), the war's largest fleet clash, which maintained British dominance despite heavy losses. The joined the Central Powers in October 1914, opening fronts in the and , while aligned with them in 1915. entered on the Allied side in May 1915 after the Treaty of London promised territorial gains. Unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany from 1917 alienated neutrals, sinking the in 1915 (1,198 deaths) and resuming in 1917, which, combined with the Zimmermann Telegram proposing a Mexican alliance against the U.S., prompted American entry on April 6, 1917. The Russian of 1917 abdicated Tsar Nicholas II amid war fatigue and food shortages, establishing a provisional government, followed by the Bolshevik led by , seizing power and exiting the war via the (March 1918). Civil war ensued in Russia as consolidated control against White forces. The war's end came with the of November 11, 1918, after Allied offensives, including the , broke German lines, exacerbated by internal revolution and naval mutiny. Casualties exceeded 16 million military and civilian deaths, with the 1918-1919 killing an estimated 50 million worldwide, facilitated by troop movements. The Peace Conference in 1919 produced the on June 28, imposing reparations, territorial losses, and disarmament on Germany, while creating the League of Nations, though the U.S. Senate rejected ratification. Other treaties redrew maps, dissolving empires and fostering new nations amid ongoing conflicts like the Greco-Turkish War.

Defining Global Themes

The 1910s were defined by the eruption of in 1914, the first industrialized global conflict that mobilized over 65 million soldiers and resulted in approximately 9.7 million military deaths and 6.8 million civilian fatalities from warfare, famine, and disease. Triggered by the on June 28, 1914, and exacerbated by rigid alliance systems, imperial rivalries, and arms races among European powers, the war expanded beyond to colonies in , , and the Pacific, introducing tactics including , chemical weapons, and aerial bombing. This catastrophe dismantled four major empires—the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian—reshaping national boundaries and sowing seeds for future instability through punitive treaties like Versailles in 1919. Amid the war's devastation, revolutionary upheavals and a global pandemic amplified the era's turmoil. The Russian Revolutions of 1917, beginning with the February overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and culminating in the Bolshevik October seizure of power under , established the world's first communist state and inspired worldwide socialist movements, influencing labor unrest and anti-colonial agitation from to . The 1918-1919 , originating likely from military camps and spreading via troop movements, infected one-third of the global population and caused an estimated 50 million deaths, exceeding I's toll and straining post-war recovery efforts. These events underscored vulnerabilities in centralized empires and mobilized societies, accelerating demands for and social reform. Parallel to geopolitical fractures, the 1910s witnessed cultural and scientific modernism challenging traditional paradigms. Artistic innovations like , pioneered by and around 1910, fragmented representation to reflect subjective perception, while in 1917 rejected rationality amid war's absurdity./05:A_World_in_Turmoil(1900-1940)/5.05:American_Modernism(1910-1935)) Scientifically, published his general in 1915, revolutionizing understandings of gravity and space-time, and the Haber-Bosch process enabled mass ammonia production for fertilizers and explosives, demonstrating technology's dual civilian and martial applications. These advancements, occurring against a backdrop of destruction, highlighted the decade's paradoxical drive toward innovation, laying foundations for 20th-century progress despite immediate human costs.

International Relations and Conflicts

World War I: Causes and Outbreak

![Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, whose assassination triggered the July Crisis]float-right The encompassed intertwined long-term tensions in , including , alliance systems, imperial rivalries, and , which created a volatile international environment primed for conflict. fueled an , particularly the Anglo-German naval competition, where 's construction of battleships under the Tirpitz Plan challenged Britain's naval supremacy, leading to heightened suspicions and military planning for rapid mobilization. The alliance system rigidified divisions: the Triple Alliance bound , , and , while the linked , , and Britain through mutual defense understandings, turning potential bilateral disputes into continental escalations. exacerbated frictions through colonial scrambles, as seen in the Moroccan Crises of and , where German challenges to French influence in tested alliance commitments and nearly provoked war. , especially in the , intensified pressures; Serbian sought to unite , undermining 's multi-ethnic empire and prompting fears of disintegration. The immediate trigger occurred on June 28, 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, and his wife were assassinated in by , a Bosnian Serb nationalist affiliated with the Black Hand group backed by elements in the military. This act provided , seeking to assert dominance over and curb Slavic , an opportunity to deliver a harsh on July 23, 1914, demanding suppression of anti-Austrian activities, participation in investigations, and arrest of conspirators—terms partially accepted on July 25 but which deemed insufficient. provided with a "blank cheque" of support around , encouraging aggressive action without restraint, reflecting Berlin's strategic interest in backing its ally against Russian influence in the . The July Crisis escalated rapidly due to mobilization timetables and perceived threats of preemption. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, prompting Russia to order partial mobilization against Austria on July 29 and full general mobilization on July 30 to honor its Slavic ally and deter further aggression. Germany, viewing Russian mobilization as a direct threat, demanded its halt on July 31; receiving no compliance, Berlin declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, and implemented the Schlieffen Plan by declaring war on France on August 3 and invading neutral Belgium on August 4. Britain, committed to Belgian neutrality via the 1839 Treaty of London and wary of German dominance, issued an ultimatum on August 4, leading to its declaration of war on Germany that evening, thus drawing in the Entente powers. These decisions, driven by fear of disadvantage in delayed mobilization—where armies could deploy millions within days—escalated a regional Balkan conflict into a general European war, with structural rigidities preventing de-escalation despite diplomatic efforts like British mediation proposals.

World War I: Major Phases and Battles

World War I transitioned from rapid maneuvers in 1914 to entrenched stalemate by late that year, followed by attritional battles through 1917, and decisive offensives in 1918 leading to Allied victory. The initial war of movement on the Western Front saw German forces execute the Schlieffen Plan, invading neutral Belgium on August 4, 1914, and advancing toward Paris, but halted by the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne from September 6–12, 1914, which prevented the fall of the French capital and initiated trench lines from the North Sea to Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the Battle of Tannenberg (August 26–30, 1914) resulted in a decisive Russian defeat, with over 120,000 Russian casualties and the encirclement of the Russian Second Army, due to superior German coordination under Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff. The trench warfare phase dominated 1915–1917, characterized by static fronts, massive artillery barrages, and high casualties from failed infantry assaults. The (April 25, 1915–January 9, 1916) aimed to knock the out of the war but ended in Allied evacuation after 250,000 casualties, highlighting logistical failures and Ottoman defenses under Mustafa Kemal. In 1916, the (February 21–December 18, 1916) became a prolonged meat grinder, with French forces under holding against German attacks, incurring 700,000–1,250,000 total casualties as both sides sought to "bleed the enemy white." The (July 1–November 18, 1916), intended to relieve Verdun, saw British forces suffer 57,000 casualties on the first day alone, totaling over 1 million combined losses, with minimal territorial gains but introduction of tanks on September 15. By 1917, mutinies in the French army after the failed Nivelle Offensive (April 16–May 9, 1917) and the disastrous Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) (July 31–November 10, 1917), which yielded five miles of mud-choked ground at 500,000 casualties, exemplified the stalemate's toll. The Central Powers' Caporetto Offensive (October 24–November 19, 1917) shattered Italian lines, capturing 300,000 prisoners and forcing retreat, but strained German resources. The United States' entry on April 6, 1917, following unrestricted submarine warfare, began shifting the balance, though American Expeditionary Forces saw first combat at Cantigny on May 28, 1918. In 1918, Germany's Spring Offensives, including Operation Michael (March 21–April 5, 1918), achieved initial breakthroughs using stormtrooper tactics and gained 40 miles but faltered due to supply shortages and exhaustion, with 239,000 German casualties. Allied responses, bolstered by fresh American troops, culminated in the Hundred Days Offensive, starting with the Battle of Amiens (August 8, 1918), where tanks and air power enabled rapid advances, inflicting 75,000 German losses in days and marking the "Black Day of the German Army." The Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September 26–November 11, 1918) involved 1.2 million U.S. troops, resulting in 26,000 American deaths and breaking German lines, contributing to the armistice on November 11, 1918. These phases underscored how technological stalemates gave way to combined arms maneuvers under superior Allied resources and manpower.

World War I: Home Fronts and Societal Impacts

Governments across belligerent nations implemented economies, directing industrial production toward munitions and supplies while imposing state controls on labor, resources, and transportation. In Britain, the Act of enabled the government to requisition factories and raw materials, leading to a tripling of munitions output by 1918. Similar measures in the United States, through the established in , coordinated production and prioritized military needs, averting shortages in key sectors like and chemicals. These efforts strained civilian economies, fostering and debt; for instance, British national debt rose from £650 million in to over £7 billion by due to financing via bonds and taxes. Labor shortages from male drew women into factories, agriculture, and clerical roles, temporarily expanding female employment. In the , women's workforce participation climbed from 23.6 percent of the working-age population in to 37.7–46.7 percent by , with over 900,000 filling roles in munitions and . Germany employed nearly 1.4 million women in war-related industries by , comprising 30 percent of its armaments workforce. In the United States, women constituted about 20 percent of workers by war's end, often in hazardous munitions assembly where accidents caused thousands of injuries from toxic exposure like TNT poisoning, dubbed "" for yellowed skin. These shifts challenged traditional gender norms but proved largely reversible post-armistice, as returning veterans displaced many women amid economic contraction. Food rationing became widespread to combat shortages exacerbated by naval s and campaigns, prioritizing military needs over civilian consumption. Britain introduced voluntary conservation in before compulsory of , , and in , reducing per capita consumption by 20–30 percent in staples like . Germany's "" of 1916–1917, triggered by a crop failure and Allied , led to widespread , with daily caloric intake dropping below 1,000 for many urban dwellers and contributing to over 400,000 excess civilian deaths from starvation-related causes. The avoided formal but promoted "wheatless" and "meatless" days via the Food Administration under , conserving 15 percent of grain for export to allies. Such policies sparked social unrest, including riots in over bread queues and strikes in Allied nations demanding equitable distribution. Propaganda campaigns sustained morale and recruitment, while conscription provoked resistance amid growing war fatigue. British and American governments distributed millions of posters depicting German atrocities to justify enlistment, with the U.S. Committee on Public Information producing films and pamphlets reaching 75 million citizens. Conscription laws, such as Britain's Military Service Act of 1916, drafted over 2.5 million men but faced opposition, including a Trafalgar Square protest of 200,000 in April 1916 and exemptions for conscientious objectors numbering around 16,000, many imprisoned. In the U.S., the Selective Service Act of 1917 registered 24 million men, enforced by Espionage and Sedition Acts that prosecuted over 2,000 for dissent, curbing anti-war speech. These measures reflected causal pressures of prolonged stalemate, where voluntary recruitment faltered after initial enthusiasm, but also sowed domestic divisions exploited by labor strikes, totaling 4,000 in the U.S. alone in 1917–1918. Societal impacts extended to civilian hardships and demographic shifts, with air raids and disease amplifying war's toll. German and Gotha bomber attacks on Britain from 1915 killed 1,414 and injured 3,416 by 1918, prompting blackouts and shelter drills that disrupted daily life. The 1918 influenza pandemic, facilitated by troop movements, killed an estimated 50 million worldwide, including 675,000 , overwhelming medical systems already strained by resource diversion. Racial and class tensions surfaced, as in the U.S. Great Migration of 500,000 to northern factories, fueling urban riots like Chicago's in with 38 deaths. Overall, civilian deaths reached about 7 million from direct and indirect causes, underscoring how mobilization prioritized victory over welfare, leaving lasting scars on social cohesion and economic stability.

Other International Conflicts

The , fought from September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912, pitted the Kingdom of Italy against the over control of the Ottoman provinces of and in , which Italy sought to colonize as modern . Italian forces, numbering around 150,000 troops, invaded Tripoli on October 3, 1911, and captured key coastal cities including , , and by late October, though Ottoman and local Arab irregulars mounted guerrilla resistance inland. The conflict marked the first use of in warfare, with Italian pilots conducting and dropping bombs on Ottoman positions starting October 23, 1911. To force Ottoman capitulation, Italy extended operations to the Aegean, bombarding the in April 1912 and occupying the Dodecanese Islands in May, prompting international mediation. The war ended with the Treaty of Ouchy (also known as the ), under which the Ottomans ceded to Italy while retaining nominal suzerainty to appease Arab populations; Italy suffered approximately 3,300 killed and 4,400 wounded, while Ottoman losses exceeded 10,000 including disease. This victory weakened Ottoman control in and encouraged Balkan states to challenge Ottoman rule in . The erupted on October 8, 1912, when declared war on the , followed by , , and on October 17, as the sought to expel Ottoman forces from remaining European territories including Macedonia, , and . The League mobilized roughly 750,000 troops against an Ottoman force of about 300,000 in the , achieving rapid advances: Bulgarian armies captured Kirk Kilisse on October 24 and advanced toward , while Serbs took and occupied by March 1913. Ottoman defenses collapsed due to logistical failures and internal disarray, leading to armistices in December 1912 after battles like Lule Burgas, where inflicted heavy casualties. The war concluded with the Treaty of London on May 30, 1913, stripping the Ottomans of nearly all European holdings except Eastern around Adrianople (); total casualties included over 80,000 deaths ( ~65,000, ~36,000, ~9,500, ~3,000) and more than 100,000 Ottoman fatalities from combat and disease. Ethnic violence during the campaign displaced populations and sowed seeds for further conflict, with disputes over Macedonia's partition fueling tensions among the victors. Tensions boiled over into the Second Balkan War in June 1913, as attacked and over Macedonian territories gained in the first war, drawing in and the as opportunists against . Bulgarian forces, exhausted from prior fighting, faced a coalition that quickly reversed their gains: invaded from the north capturing , and pushed back in Macedonia, and Ottomans retook Adrianople on July 21, 1913. The brief conflict, lasting about two months, ended with 's defeat and the Treaty of Bucharest on August 10, 1913, which awarded most of Macedonia to and , to , and southern to while restoring Adrianople to Ottoman control. suffered around 30,000 casualties, with the coalition incurring fewer losses; the war's outcomes heightened Serbian power and irredentist claims, contributing to regional instability that precipitated broader European war in 1914. Beyond these, lesser international engagements included the United States' occupation of Veracruz, , from April 21 to November 23, 1914, during the Mexican Revolution, where U.S. Marines seized the port to block German arms shipments to revolutionary general , resulting in 19 American and 126 Mexican deaths before withdrawal under diplomatic pressure. In the Pacific, Japan's on in January 1915 expanded influence in and amid distractions, though not escalating to full invasion until later. These episodes underscored imperial rivalries but paled in scale compared to the Ottoman-European clashes.

Domestic Political Developments

Revolutions and Regime Changes

The 1910s marked a period of profound political upheaval, with multiple monarchies toppled and republics established amid widespread discontent over autocratic rule, , and the strains of . These revolutions reflected a global shift toward and constitutional governance, though outcomes varied from democratic experiments to authoritarian consolidations. Key events included the overthrow of long-standing dynasties in , , , , and , often involving military revolts, popular uprisings, and provisional governments that struggled to stabilize power. In , republican forces, galvanized by opposition to King Manuel II's perceived weakness and the influence of conservative monarchists, launched an insurrection on October 4, 1910. Naval bombardments of and army defections forced the king's flight to exile on October 5, ending the Braganza dynasty after 800 years and proclaiming the under as provisional president. The new regime promptly expelled religious orders, confiscated church property, and enacted anticlerical laws, though it faced immediate instability with over 40 governments in the following 16 years. China's Xinhai Revolution began with the on October 10, 1911, when units mutinied against corruption and foreign concessions, sparking provincial secessions across southern and central China. , leader of the revolutionary alliance, returned from exile to assume the provisional presidency of the Republic of China on January 1, 1912, but yielded to to avoid civil war; the last emperor, , abdicated on February 12, 1912, formally ending over two millennia of imperial rule. This transition preserved Yuan's military dominance but sowed seeds for warlord fragmentation in the ensuing decade. The Mexican Revolution commenced on November 20, 1910, with Francisco Madero's denouncing Porfirio Díaz's dictatorship and calling for elections; armed risings by figures like , , and compelled Díaz's resignation and exile on May 25, 1911. Madero's subsequent presidency (November 1911–February 1913) implemented modest reforms but alienated radicals, leading to his coup and assassination by General on February 19, 1913; Huerta's regime fell in July 1914 amid U.S. intervention and Constitutionalist advances under , whose forces captured on August 15, 1914, though factional warfare persisted until the 1920s, claiming an estimated 1–2 million lives. Russia experienced dual revolutions in 1917, exacerbated by losses exceeding 2 million dead and food shortages. The (March 8–16, New Style) saw Petrograd strikes escalate into mutinies, forcing Tsar Nicholas II's abdication on March 15 and the Romanov dynasty's end after 304 years; Prince Georgy Lvov formed a , but its continuation of the war fueled unrest. The (November 7, New Style) involved Bolshevik seizure of Petrograd's key sites, with proclaiming Soviet power and dissolving the , initiating civil war and the world's first communist state by 1922. Germany's revolution unfolded in the war's final months, triggered by a naval mutiny on October 29, 1918, against suicidal orders for a final battle fleet sortie. Worker and soldier councils proliferated, prompting Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication on November 9, 1918, and the Hohenzollern monarchy's collapse; Social Democrat assumed chancellorship, suppressing Spartacist uprisings in January 1919 with aid and convening the at on February 6, 1919, to draft a republican constitution ratified in August. This transition averted immediate Bolshevik-style radicalism but left unresolved tensions contributing to later instability.

Electoral and Institutional Shifts

In the United States, the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment on April 8, 1913, marked a significant institutional shift by establishing the of U.S. senators by popular vote, replacing the prior system of selection by state legislatures. This change, certified on May 31, 1913, aimed to enhance democratic accountability and reduce corruption in senatorial appointments. Concurrently, advanced at the state level, with Washington granting full voting rights to women in 1910, followed by in 1911, , , and in 1912, and allowing presidential and municipal suffrage in 1913. In the , the Parliament Act of 1911 fundamentally altered the balance of power between the and the by eliminating the Lords' veto on money bills and restricting their ability to block other legislation to a two-session or three-year delay. Enacted on August 18, 1911, amid constitutional tensions following the rejection of the Liberal budget in 1909, it asserted Commons' primacy in financial matters. The Representation of the People Act of 1918 extended the franchise to all men over 21 and women over 30 meeting a property qualification, expanding the electorate from about 8 million to 21 million and enfranchising approximately 8.4 million women. Germany experienced electoral shifts without formal institutional overhaul, as the 1912 Reichstag election saw the Social Democratic Party (SPD) secure 4.2 million votes (34.8 percent), electing 110 deputies and becoming the largest single party in the legislature for the first time. This outcome reflected growing working-class mobilization under the existing universal male suffrage system but did not alter the Prussian three-class voting restrictions that skewed outcomes toward conservatives. In the , the June 3, 1907, electoral law revision—issued alongside the dissolution of the Second —disproportionately reduced representation for peasants and workers while increasing seats for landowners, resulting in more conservative compositions for the Third (1907–1912) and Fourth (1912–1917). This change curtailed the democratic elements introduced by the 1905 Fundamental Laws, maintaining tsarist control until the 1917 revolutions introduced provisional for the election in November 1917.

Political Violence and Assassinations

![Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria][float-right] The 1910s were marked by a surge in political assassinations, often driven by anarchist ideologies, nationalist fervor, or revolutionary discontent, contributing to global instability. On November 12, 1912, Spanish Prime Minister José Canalejas was shot dead in by anarchist Manuel Pardiñas, who subsequently took his own life; the killing was inspired by resentment over the execution of educator . In Mexico, President and Vice President were assassinated on February 22, 1913, during a military coup led by General , an event known as part of the Decena Trágica that escalated the . King George I of Greece fell victim to assassination on March 18, 1913, while walking unguarded in Thessaloniki, shot by Alexandros Schinas, a mentally unstable individual with possible anarchist leanings; Schinas died days later, reportedly by suicide or police action. The most consequential assassination occurred on June 28, 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie were killed in by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist affiliated with the Black Hand group, precipitating the and the outbreak of . In Russia, , the influential mystic advisor to the imperial family, was murdered on December 30, 1916 (Old Style), by a conspiracy of nobles led by , who poisoned, shot, and drowned him in an effort to curb his sway over Tsar Nicholas II amid wartime crises; autopsy confirmed death by gunshot. extended beyond targeted killings, as seen in the United States where labor disputes turned deadly: the October 1, 1910, dynamite bombing of the building, attributed to union militants James McNamara and his brother John, killed 21 people and injured over 100, highlighting tensions between organized labor and anti-union publishers. The decade closed with a wave of anarchist bombings in the U.S., peaking in 1919 with attacks on prominent figures including a June 2 bomb at the home of Attorney General , which killed the bomber and damaged the residence; these incidents, linked to Italian anarchists like those inspired by , fueled the First and prompted federal crackdowns. Such acts of violence reflected broader ideological clashes, including anti-capitalist radicalism and fears of following the 1917 Russian Revolution, though they often lacked coordination and achieved limited political aims.

Economic Dynamics

Pre-War Growth and Industrialization

The pre-World War I period from 1910 to 1914 marked the culmination of the Second Industrial Revolution, with sustained growth in industrial output across major economies driven by advancements in chemicals, electricity, and techniques. In the United States, the annual , constructed from 43 quantity series, increased from 1,783.9 in 1910 to 1,975.0 in 1913, representing an average annual growth of approximately 3.4 percent amid minor fluctuations, such as a dip to 1,717.9 in 1911. This expansion reflected broader manufacturing gains, including steel and machinery, fueled by bolstering the industrial workforce. A pivotal development occurred in the automotive sector when implemented the moving at his Highland Park plant on December 1, , slashing Model T production time from over 12 hours to 93 minutes per vehicle. This innovation drastically reduced unit costs through , making automobiles accessible to the and exemplifying efficient that influenced global manufacturing. Concurrently, Ford raised daily wages in January 1914, enhancing worker productivity and consumer purchasing power while tying remuneration to performance. In , industrial growth concentrated in high-technology sectors, with emerging as a leader. By 1913, German production hit 18.6 million tons—three times Britain's 6.9 million tons—while iron output reached 14.8 million tons, overtaking Britain's 9.8 million. production in had doubled since 1880, supporting expanded energy needs. The advanced significantly with the Haber-Bosch process, patented in 1910, enabling synthetic ammonia production for fertilizers and underscoring Germany's dominance in synthetic dyes and pharmaceuticals. Electrical engineering matured, with incandescent bulb prices falling to one-fifth of 1880 levels by 1910 and efficiency doubling, facilitating urban and traction systems like streetcars. These innovations, alongside falling freight rates from steel-hulled ships and diesel engines, integrated global markets and propelled , as industrial hubs drew rural migrants. Overall, pre-war industrialization laid foundations for wartime but remained vulnerable to geopolitical disruptions evident by 1914's production dip in the US index to 1,774.1.

Wartime Economies and Resource Mobilization

The outbreak of World War I in July 1914 compelled major belligerent powers to restructure their economies for total war, prioritizing munitions, vehicles, and supplies over civilian goods through centralized planning and state directives. Industrial production in the United States, initially neutral, rose 32 percent from 1914 to 1917, with gross national product increasing nearly 20 percent, driven by exports to Allied powers. In contrast, Central Powers like Germany faced severe constraints from Allied naval blockades, which restricted imports and forced reliance on domestic substitution, such as chemical processes for nitrates. Labor mobilization involved conscripting millions of men, depleting agricultural and industrial workforces; in , approximately 40 percent of the male agricultural labor force was redirected to by 1915. This gap was partially filled by women, whose employment in German factories with ten or more workers grew from 1.59 million in 1913 to 2.32 million by 1918. In Britain, female participation in the workforce expanded from 23.6 percent of the working-age population in 1914 to between 37.7 and 46.7 percent by 1918, enabling sustained output of artillery shells and vehicles. By 1917, nearly 1.4 million German women were integrated into war-related labor, underscoring the scale of societal reconfiguration. Resource allocation featured rationing systems to prioritize military needs, particularly food and fuel; Britain's formal food began in February 1918, while Germany's "" of 1916-1917 highlighted blockade-induced famines, with civilian calorie intake dropping below subsistence levels. Governments financed these efforts mainly through borrowing, with the U.S. issuing Liberty Bonds that raised over $21 billion by 1919 to cover war costs equaling 52 percent of its gross national product. Allied advantages in prewar industrial capacity—2.9 times that of the —facilitated superior mobilization, producing disproportionate despite comparable initial mobilizations. The U.S. entry in April 1917 amplified this disparity, supplying vast munitions and raw materials that tipped production balances decisively.

Post-War Disruptions and Inflation

The of November 11, 1918, triggered widespread economic disruptions as governments shifted from wartime to peacetime production, leading to of millions of soldiers and abrupt declines in industrial . In the United States, factory employment dropped 15 percent from the third quarter of 1918 peak to the second quarter of 1919 low, contributing to a modest amid the reintegration of veterans into civilian labor markets. Concurrently, the 1918 influenza pandemic exacerbated these shocks by reducing economic activity and amplifying inflationary pressures, resulting in substantial declines in real returns on investments. Wartime fiscal policies, including and monetary expansion, sustained high into 1919 across major belligerents. In the , consumer prices rose at an annualized rate of 18.5 percent from to , with everyday goods like shoes increasing from $3 pre-war to $10–$12 by , reflecting persistent supply shortages and excess . European nations experienced similar dynamics after abandoning the gold standard, with accelerating due to reconstruction needs and food/raw material scarcities; governments responded by expanding money supplies, sowing seeds for instability. In Germany, the newly formed inherited war debts and faced acute inflationary pressures from 1919 onward, as fiscal deficits and import barriers hindered recovery. The , signed June 28, 1919, mandated reparations equivalent to 132 billion gold marks (about $33 billion at the time), straining finances and prompting monetary accommodation that devalued the mark; by late 1919, floating exchange rates further fueled price rises. Economic policy uncertainty, including debates over reparations and debt monetization, elevated risks of in , though full episodes emerged post-1919. These disruptions, compounded by political turmoil, delayed stabilization and contributed to social unrest across the continent.

Scientific and Technological Progress

Theoretical Advances in Physics

In 1911, proposed the nuclear model of the atom based on the scattering of alpha particles by thin gold foil, concluding that atoms consist of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus containing nearly all the , orbited by electrons in a mostly empty space. This overturned J.J. Thomson's and provided a framework for subsequent atomic theories, though it initially struggled to explain electron stability without radiation. Building on Rutherford's nucleus, introduced in 1913 a quantized model for the , where electrons occupy discrete orbits with fixed angular momentum multiples of Planck's constant, preventing continuous energy loss and accounting for the atom's . marked the onset of the "," reconciling with quantum ideas for specific systems, though it remained semi-classical and limited to hydrogen-like atoms. Albert Einstein finalized the general theory of relativity in November 1915, submitting the field equations on November 25 that unify with geometry, where mass-energy curves four-dimensional , predicting phenomena like the deflection of light by . This extended to accelerated frames and non-inertial observers, resolving inconsistencies in Newtonian for high speeds and strong fields, with initial predictions verified observationally in later expeditions. These advances, discussed at forums like the 1911 Solvay Conference on atomic structure, shifted physics toward probabilistic and geometric paradigms, challenging and absolute space-time. While experimental confirmations followed, the theoretical innovations of Rutherford, Bohr, and Einstein established core principles enduring in .

Engineering and Industrial Innovations

The decade saw transformative advancements in manufacturing, exemplified by Henry Ford's introduction of the moving assembly line on December 1, 1913, at the Highland Park plant in Michigan, which drastically reduced Model T production time from over 12 hours to approximately 93 minutes per vehicle and lowered costs, enabling mass affordability. This innovation, drawing from earlier industrial practices like Chicago meatpacking, standardized tasks and worker specialization, boosting output to over 500,000 vehicles annually by 1914 and influencing global factory systems. In automotive engineering, Charles Kettering's electric self-starter, patented in 1911 and first implemented in the 1912 , replaced hazardous hand-cranking, using a compact motor to engage the and enhancing , particularly for women drivers. By 1913, it became standard on models, with the system operating on 24 volts for starting while integrating 6-volt lighting, marking a shift toward electrical integration in internal combustion engines. World War I catalyzed military engineering breakthroughs, including the British Mark I tank, prototyped in 1915 and first deployed on September 15, 1916, at the Battle of Flers-Courcelette, where its tracked design and armor enabled traversal of trenches and barbed wire, though initial mechanical unreliability limited impact until later models like the Mark V improved reliability. Over 2,000 tanks were produced by war's end, laying groundwork for mechanized warfare. Aviation progressed rapidly during the war, evolving from fragile reconnaissance biplanes in 1914 to synchronized fighter aircraft by 1917, with interrupter gears allowing machine guns to fire through propellers without damage, as in the German Fokker E.III, enabling dogfights and air dominance strategies. Production scaled massively, with Allied forces fielding thousands of planes by 1918, incorporating stronger engines, maneuverable designs, and early bombsights, while seaplanes advanced naval reconnaissance. Materials science advanced with Harry Brearley's 1913 development of , a 12.8% , 0.24% carbon created accidentally during gun barrel erosion tests at Sheffield's Brown-Firth , offering unprecedented resistance for and industrial tools. This martensitic steel, patented soon after, found wartime applications in weaponry and post-war expansion in durable goods . Industrial electrification expanded, with interconnected power grids and larger generators enabling factory scalability, while wartime demands spurred , such as scaled Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis for explosives, sustaining prolonged conflict through synthetic nitrates. These innovations, driven by commercial efficiency and military necessity, fundamentally reshaped production and engineering paradigms entering the .

Medical and Public Health Developments

In 1910, and introduced Salvarsan (), the first synthetic chemotherapeutic agent specifically designed to combat , an arsenic-based compound that marked a breakthrough in targeted antimicrobial therapy by selectively attacking the causative spirochete . This "magic bullet" approach, tested on over 10 million patients by the , reduced mortality and transmission rates, though its administration required intravenous injection and carried risks of toxicity like . Ehrlich's work built on earlier organoarsenic research, emphasizing rational over empirical remedies, and laid groundwork for modern despite initial controversies over efficacy claims. The , commissioned by the Carnegie Foundation and published in 1910, catalyzed reforms in American by evaluating 155 schools and recommending closure of those lacking rigorous scientific training, resulting in the shuttering of about half by 1920 and elevating standards through integration of laboratory sciences and clinical practice. Authored by educator , the report privileged evidence-based curricula over proprietary or homeopathic institutions, fostering a that prioritized empirical validation and reduced , though critics noted its bias toward elite, research-oriented programs. World War I accelerated blood transfusion techniques, with Belgian physician Albert Hustin demonstrating in 1914 that could anticoagulate for indirect transfusion, enabling storage and reducing clotting risks during battlefield use. American pathologist Roger Lee advanced compatibility testing in the mid-1910s by refining cross-matching methods, minimizing hemolytic reactions and allowing broader application; by 1917-1918, transfusions saved thousands of soldiers from hemorrhagic shock, with British and French armies performing over 20,000 procedures. These innovations, including Oswald Robertson's mobile blood depots, transitioned transfusions from rare, direct arm-to-arm methods to scalable interventions, though pre-war ABO typing by (1901) remained foundational. Wartime exigencies also spurred antiseptics and surgical advances, such as the Carrel-Dakin method (1915), which used dilute () for continuous wound irrigation, drastically lowering infection rates in trench injuries from over 50% to under 5% in treated cases. pioneered by in 1916 at established reconstructive techniques for facial wounds, using tubular pedicle flaps to restore functionality and appearance in over 5,000 patients. Typhoid vaccination, developed pre-war by Almroth Wright, saw mandatory implementation in Allied forces by 1914, reducing incidence from 10-20% in unvaccinated troops to near zero, via heat-killed bacterial inoculations that elicited protective antibodies. The 1918-1919 , caused by an H1N1 virus, infected one-third of the global population and killed 50 million, overwhelming medical systems with secondary bacterial pneumonias treatable only supportively absent antibiotics. responses emphasized non-pharmaceutical interventions: cities implementing early closures, bans on public gatherings, and mask mandates saw 30-50% lower peak mortality, as quantified in U.S. analyses of 43 cities. Failed vaccines targeting (misidentified as the agent) underscored virological gaps, yet the crisis advanced , with and protocols informing future preparedness; U.S. deaths exceeded 675,000, disproportionately affecting young adults via storms. isolation from cod-liver oil in 1917 supported prevention campaigns, linking deficiency to initiatives in urban slums.

Social Transformations

Demographic Shifts and Migrations

The 1910s witnessed substantial transatlantic migration, with approximately 5.7 million immigrants arriving in the United States between 1911 and 1920, predominantly from southern and , driven by economic opportunities in industrializing urban centers and escapes from and pogroms. This influx contributed to the foreign-born population comprising about 14.7 percent of the U.S. total by 1910, before wartime disruptions curtailed flows. The introduced a , marking an early restrictive measure that reduced entries from certain regions, though overall numbers remained high until the war's full impact. In the United States, the onset of accelerated the Great Migration of from the rural South to northern industrial cities, as labor shortages in factories and shipyards created demand amid restricted European immigration. Between 1916 and 1920, an estimated 500,000 to 1 million Black Southerners relocated northward, seeking higher wages and fleeing Jim Crow oppression, with destinations like and absorbing tens of thousands annually. This internal shift, totaling over 1.6 million by 1930 in its first phase, fundamentally altered urban demographics and fueled cultural transformations in receiving cities. World War I triggered unprecedented displacements across Europe, with at least 14 million civilians uprooted from 1914 to 1918 due to invasions, occupations, and scorched-earth policies, spanning fronts from to the . In alone, over 1.5 million fled the German advance in 1914, many to Britain and , while in , the 1915 Great Retreat displaced around 3-4 million from the western territories as the army fell back. Serbia experienced near-total evacuation, with hundreds of thousands dying or migrating amid retreats and epidemics. These movements strained host societies, prompting early international relief efforts by organizations like the . The Ottoman Empire's systematic campaign against from 1915 onward resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.5 million and the displacement of survivors, reducing the Armenian population from about 2 million in 1914 to roughly 800,000 by 1922 through deportations, marches, and massacres concentrated in eastern . Many refugees scattered to , the , or Europe, exacerbating regional instability. Similarly, the and ensuing Civil War (1917-1920) prompted 1.3 to 2 million anti-Bolshevik émigrés, including supporters and intellectuals, to flee to Europe, Asia, and the , forming diaspora communities that preserved opposition narratives. These late-decade upheavals foreshadowed further ethnic realignments following the empire's collapse.

Gender Roles and Suffrage Movements

Prior to , gender roles in Western societies adhered closely to Victorian-era norms, with women primarily confined to domestic responsibilities such as , child-rearing, and limited clerical or teaching positions, while men dominated public spheres including wage labor, politics, and industry. In the and , middle-class women were expected to uphold ideals of moral guardianship within the household, with workforce participation rates low—around 20-25% for women of working age—and concentrated in gender-segregated fields like textiles or domestic service. movements gained momentum in this period, building on earlier campaigns; for instance, U.S. states including Washington (1910), (1911), and (1912) granted women rights in local elections, reflecting incremental progress amid opposition that argued political engagement would undermine women's familial duties. The outbreak of in 1914 profoundly disrupted these roles, as labor shortages from male propelled women into traditionally male occupations. In Britain, female employment rose from 23.6% of the working-age population in 1914 to 37.7-46.7% by 1918, with over 800,000 women entering munitions factories, transportation, and agriculture to sustain wartime production. Similarly, in the U.S., women filled roles in shipyards, railroads, and clerical work, demonstrating capabilities that advocates leveraged to argue for expanded rights, though critics maintained that such shifts were temporary necessities rather than endorsements of equality. These changes fostered greater public visibility for women, including in and auxiliary services abroad, but also sparked backlash over perceived threats to , with some governments imposing marriage bars to encourage postwar to domesticity. Suffrage campaigns intensified during and after the war, yielding key victories. In the U.S., the mobilized parades and lobbying, culminating in Congress passing the 19th Amendment on June 4, 1919, prohibiting denial of voting rights based on sex, though ratification occurred in 1920. Britain's Representation of the People Act of 1918 extended the vote to women over 30 who met property qualifications, enfranchising about 8.4 million amid arguments that women's wartime contributions warranted recognition. Other nations followed selectively, such as Germany's 1918 suffrage for women over 20 tied to the , but persistent cultural resistance—rooted in beliefs that women's primary competencies lay in private rather than public domains—limited full parity, with full equal voting ages not achieved in Britain until 1928. These gains reflected pragmatic wartime imperatives more than ideological shifts, as evidenced by incomplete enfranchisement and postwar efforts to revert women to prewar roles.

Labor Movements and Class Tensions

The 1910s witnessed intensified labor unrest across industrialized nations, driven by rapid , immigration-fueled workforce expansion, and persistent grievances over wages, working hours, and hazardous conditions in factories and mines. In the United States, strikes proliferated amid economic booms and busts, with the (IWW) emerging as a force advocating class-wide over . The decade's conflicts often escalated into violence, reflecting deep class divides exacerbated by corporate resistance and state interventions favoring employers. A pivotal event was the Lawrence Textile Strike of 1912 in , where approximately 25,000 immigrant workers, organized by the IWW, protested a cut equivalent to 25 cents per week amid rising living costs. Lasting from to March, the strike featured innovative tactics like marching children to safety from arrests, culminating in employer concessions including a 5% increase, double pay for , and no discrimination against strikers. Despite this victory, the action highlighted ethnic divisions among workers and the IWW's emphasis on , though it failed to establish lasting unions in the mills. The Colorado Coalfield War of 1913–1914 exemplified lethal class confrontations, as 14,000 miners striking against the (UMWA) demands for union recognition, an eight-hour day, and enforcement of mine safety laws faced eviction and militia deployment by coal operators like John D. Rockefeller Jr.'s Company. On April 20, 1914, the occurred when troops and company guards attacked a tent colony housing 1,200 strikers and families, killing 21 people including 11 children via machine-gun fire and subsequent fire. The incident sparked ten days of armed clashes, resulting in up to 66 additional deaths and federal intervention, but the strike ultimately collapsed without core gains, underscoring corporate influence over state forces. World War I temporarily subdued some tensions through wartime labor pacts, such as the U.S. government's no-strike pledges in exchange for union recognition, but post-armistice —prices rose 15–20% in alone—and returning veterans' reignited conflicts. The year saw over 4 million U.S. workers (one-fifth of the labor force) participate in strikes, fueled by demands for hikes amid Bolshevik-inspired fears of . The of February 1919 involved 65,000 workers across 110 unions, halting city operations for five days in solidarity with 35,000 shipyard strikers seeking a 60-cent hourly wage. Though non-violent and self-policed by strikers, it ended with concessions limited to shipyard raises, prompting elite backlash portraying it as anarcho-syndicalist insurgency. This fed the , with A. Mitchell Palmer's raids targeting IWW members and socialists under the 1917 Espionage Act, resulting in thousands of arrests and deportations. The Great Steel Strike of 1919 mobilized 350,000 workers against U.S. Steel's 12-hour days and low pay, led by the (AFL) but undermined by ethnic fragmentation and employer espionage. Lasting four months, it failed amid injunctions and violence, with 18 strikers killed, reinforcing corporate power and contributing to union decline until the 1930s. In Europe, similar patterns emerged, with Britain's 1919 Triple Alliance threat of coordinated miners', railwaymen, and dockers' action averted by government negotiations, while French and German strikes reflected wartime , often blending economic demands with revolutionary rhetoric influenced by Russia's upheaval. These events underscored causal links between wartime disruptions, unmet gains for labor, and suppressed radical ideologies, rather than inherent class harmony narratives promoted in some union histories.

Cultural and Intellectual Currents

Artistic and Literary Movements

The 1910s marked a pivotal era in visual arts, characterized by avant-garde movements that rejected representational traditions in favor of abstraction, fragmentation, and dynamism, largely influenced by pre-war technological optimism and later by World War I's disillusionment. Cubism, co-developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, dominated early in the decade with its analytic phase from 1910 to 1912, wherein subjects were deconstructed into interlocking planes and faceted forms to convey simultaneity of viewpoints, as seen in Picasso's Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler (1910). By 1912, the movement shifted to synthetic Cubism, integrating collage elements like printed paper to build compositions from non-art materials, expanding painting's boundaries beyond illusionism. Futurism, launched in Italy with Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's 1909 manifesto but peaking in the 1910s, celebrated speed, machinery, and violence through dynamic lines and overlapping forms, as in Umberto Boccioni's (1910), reflecting industrialization's fervor. The 1913 Armory Show in New York, featuring over 1,300 works by European modernists including 33 by Picasso and six by Duchamp, stunned American audiences accustomed to academic realism, sparking debates and sales that totaled $44,000 while catalyzing the acceptance of abstraction in the U.S. Dada emerged in 1916 at Zurich's Cabaret Voltaire amid World War I's chaos, founded by Hugo Ball and others as a nihilistic revolt against rationality and bourgeois culture; Marcel Duchamp's Fountain (1917), a signed urinal submitted as readymade sculpture, epitomized its anti-art stance, questioning artistic authorship and value. In literature, the decade laid foundations for through experimental prose and poetry grappling with fragmentation, subjectivity, and war's absurdities, diverging from Victorian coherence. James Joyce's Dubliners (1914) and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) pioneered interior monologue techniques, portraying psychological depth over linear narrative. T.S. Eliot's The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (published 1915) employed and ironic allusions to evoke urban alienation, influencing poetic innovation. spurred trench poetry by and , documenting horror with stark realism and anti-war sentiment, as in Owen's Dulce et Decorum Est (written 1917, published posthumously).

Entertainment and Media Evolution

The 1910s witnessed the maturation of the film industry, evolving from short one-reel films to multi-reel features that enabled more complex storytelling and character development. Innovations in artificial lighting, closer camera framings, and multi-shot editing sequences replaced single-take scenes, enhancing narrative depth as demonstrated in works by D.W. Griffith. In 1910, producer Carl Laemmle introduced the star system, granting actress Florence Lawrence the first screen credit and elevating performers to marketable celebrities, a shift that boosted audience draw and industry profitability. American film production centralized in Hollywood, California, as companies relocated from New York to exploit consistent sunlight for outdoor shooting and evade East Coast patent enforcers controlled by the . By 1912, major studios had established operations there, solidifying Hollywood's role as the U.S. film capital amid and standardized practices. Stars such as , who debuted his character in 1914, and exemplified the era's comedic and dramatic appeal, with Chaplin's shorts drawing massive audiences through Keystone Studios. Vaudeville, a staple of live variety entertainment featuring comedy sketches, songs, and , dominated theaters but began declining as affordable cinemas proliferated, offering continuous shows that undercut vaudeville's two-a-day format. Revues like the , launched in 1907 and peaking in popularity during the decade, blended elaborate musical numbers with chorus lines, maintaining theatrical allure amid competition from motion pictures. Radio emerged as a nascent broadcast medium, with inventor conducting the first public transmission on January 13, 1910, relaying a live performance of the opera from New York's House to receivers within the city. This event heralded wireless entertainment's potential, though widespread adoption lagged until the 1920s due to technical limitations and regulatory hurdles. In music, coalesced as a syncopated style originating in New Orleans, gaining traction through bands like the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, which recorded the first jazz discs—"Livery Stable Blues" and "Tiger Rag"—in New York on February 26, 1917, introducing the genre to broader audiences via and . Ragtime persisted as a precursor, influencing , while phonograph sales surged, democratizing recorded entertainment in homes.

Sports and Leisure Activities

Baseball maintained its status as the premier professional sport in the United States during the 1910s, with major league attendance remaining consistently high despite economic pressures and the onset of World War I. The Chicago Cubs dominated early in the decade, compiling 530 wins from 1906 to 1910, including 104 victories in 1910 alone, though their success waned as the war disrupted schedules and player availability. Cy Young achieved his 500th career win on July 19, 1910, pitching for the Cleveland Naps in a 5-4 victory over the Washington Senators. The Philadelphia Phillies reached the World Series in 1915, led by Grover Cleveland Alexander's 31 wins and four one-hitters, marking a peak for the franchise before wartime enlistments thinned rosters. Boxing gained prominence through high-profile heavyweight bouts, exemplified by Jack Johnson's defense of his world title against on July 4, 1910, in , dubbed the "Fight of the Century." Johnson, the first African American heavyweight champion, won decisively by technical knockout in the 15th round, sparking race riots across the U.S. due to prevailing racial animosities. Johnson retained the title until April 5, 1915, when defeated him in , , amid Johnson's legal troubles and exile following a racially motivated conviction. These events underscored boxing's role in reflecting and exacerbating social tensions, with Johnson's victories challenging narratives in sport. The 1912 Summer Olympics in , , represented a pinnacle of international athletic competition before World War I's disruptions, hosting 2,497 athletes from 28 nations across 102 events in 14 sports from July 6 to 22. Innovations included the first use of electronic timing in and the introduction of cross-country running, where of won three gold medals in distance events. The led the medal tally with 25 golds, though controversies arose, such as Jim Thorpe's initial triumphs in the and before his amateur status was questioned due to prior semi-professional play. The 1916 Olympics were canceled due to the war, halting global multisport gatherings until 1920. World War I profoundly affected sports from 1914 onward, with many European leagues suspended and professional play curtailed as athletes enlisted or were conscripted, yet military training programs incorporated sports like and football to build and morale among troops. In the U.S., the constructed 77 baseball fields in , fostering the sport's spread overseas and aiding soldier welfare. Post-armistice, the 1919 Inter-Allied Games in served as a precursor to the Antwerp Olympics, featuring over 1,500 athletes from Allied nations in events emphasizing rehabilitation and international unity. Leisure activities emphasized participatory recreation, with ballroom dancing surging in popularity through dances like the , introduced around 1914, and the , often performed in public halls and restaurants equipped with dance floors. Amusement parks and county fairs drew crowds for rides, exhibitions, and competitive games, providing accessible outdoor entertainment amid urbanization. Women increasingly engaged in sports such as and , alongside driving automobiles, reflecting gradual shifts in gender norms, though participation remained limited by societal expectations and wartime . Auto racing emerged as a spectator thrill, with the inaugural held on May 30, 1911, won by at an average speed of 74.59 mph.

Notable Individuals

Political and Military Leaders

The 1910s featured political leaders whose decisions precipitated and prolonged , alongside military commanders who directed its campaigns, culminating in revolutionary shifts. In Russia, Tsar Nicholas II, who ascended in 1894, led the empire into war against and in 1914, but military defeats and domestic unrest forced his abdication on March 15, 1917, ending the Romanov dynasty. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in October 1917, assumed leadership, negotiating the on March 3, 1918, to exit the war and consolidate Soviet power amid civil conflict. In the United States, , inaugurated as president on March 4, 1913, initially pursued neutrality but requested a on April 2, 1917, after German submarine warfare intensified, mobilizing over 4 million troops under General , who commanded the arriving in from June 1917. Pershing insisted on independent American units, contributing to the Allied offensives that broke the stalemate by late 1918. European Allied leaders included , who became British prime minister on December 6, 1916, replacing amid criticisms of ineffective strategy, and , appointed French premier on November 16, 1917, whose resolve stiffened defenses during the . On the Central Powers side, German Kaiser Wilhelm II, whose blank check to after Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination on June 28, 1914, escalated the into global war, deferred military authority to and after 1916, whose delayed but could not prevent defeat. Allied military coordination fell to , named Supreme Commander on March 26, 1918, orchestrating the that forced the on November 11, 1918. Field Marshal Douglas Haig commanded British forces on the Western Front from December 1915, overseeing battles like the Somme in , where over 1 million casualties occurred, reflecting the era's attritional tactics driven by industrial firepower over maneuver. Russian General Aleksey Brusilov's 1916 offensive against captured 400,000 prisoners but exhausted reserves, hastening revolutionary fervor. These leaders' reliance on mass and mobilization, with over 16 million deaths by war's end, underscored causal links between imperial rivalries, alliance systems, and technological escalation rather than isolated diplomatic failures.

Scientists and Inventors

The 1910s marked a pivotal era in scientific advancement, particularly in physics and chemistry, amid the backdrop of World War I, which accelerated innovations in materials and weaponry. Albert Einstein, a German-born physicist, published his general theory of relativity in 1915, reformulating gravity as the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy, building on his 1905 special relativity and resolving inconsistencies with Newtonian mechanics. This theoretical framework predicted phenomena like the bending of light by gravity, later confirmed observationally. Meanwhile, in chemistry, Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch perfected the Haber-Bosch process around 1913, enabling large-scale ammonia synthesis from nitrogen and hydrogen under high pressure and temperature, which supported agricultural fertilizers and wartime explosives production. Marie Curie, the Polish-French physicist and chemist, received the on November 10, 1911, for her prior isolation of and , though her 1910s work included pioneering mobile units ("Little Curies") for battlefield radiography during , saving countless lives despite her own radiation exposure. In , Danish physicist introduced his quantized model of the in 1913, incorporating Planck's quantum hypothesis to explain spectral lines, laying groundwork for . Dutch physicist discovered in mercury at 4.2 in 1911, observing zero electrical resistance, a phenomenon that defied classical conductivity theories and opened avenues in low-temperature physics. Engineering innovations transformed industry and transportation. American industrialist implemented the moving at his Highland Park plant on December 1, 1913, reducing Model T production time from over 12 hours to about 93 minutes, drastically lowering costs and enabling mass automobile ownership. , an American electrical engineer, invented the electric self-starter for automobiles in 1911, patented in 1915, eliminating hand-cranking and improving safety, first adopted by . In aviation and military technology, British engineers developed the first tanks in 1916, with the Mark I deployed at the , combining tractor mobility with armor to overcome stalemates. Genetics advanced through American biologist Thomas Hunt Morgan's work at , where in 1910 he identified the white-eyed mutation in fruit flies, providing evidence for chromosomal inheritance of traits. These contributions, often spurred by wartime necessities, underscored empirical experimentation and theoretical rigor, though institutional biases in academia toward established paradigms occasionally delayed acceptance of paradigm-shifting ideas like relativity.

Cultural Figures and Entertainers


The 1910s marked the ascendancy of cinema as a dominant medium, propelled by technological advancements like feature-length films and the . , a British who immigrated to the , joined Keystone Studios in December 1913 and debuted his iconic Tramp character in the short film on February 7, 1914, which established him as a pioneering figure in and narrative. By 1916, Chaplin had transitioned to Corporation, producing highly profitable shorts such as The Floorwalker (May 1916) and The Rink (December 1916), earning him unprecedented creative control and weekly salaries exceeding $10,000. Mary Pickford, dubbed "America's Sweetheart," rose to prominence through films starting in 1909, but her 1910s output included over 50 features, including Tess of the Storm Country (1914), which grossed significantly and solidified her as one of Hollywood's first major stars with influence over production and salary negotiations reaching $1 million annually by decade's end. In 1919, Pickford co-founded with Chaplin, , and to gain independence from studio monopolies, reflecting the era's shift toward actor-driven enterprises. Douglas Fairbanks, known for swashbuckling roles, debuted in films like The Lamb (1915) and married Pickford in 1920, amplifying their joint star power in adventure genres. Lillian Gish, alongside sister Dorothy, began with D.W. Griffith's Biograph in 1912, starring in melodramas such as An Unseen Enemy (September 1912), the first Biograph two-reeler, and later in (1915), where her performance as Elsie Stoneman showcased innovative close-up techniques and emotional depth in silent acting. Griffith himself, as a director, revolutionized and scale with films like Intolerance (1916), though his output emphasized spectacle over consistent profitability. In music, , an immigrant songwriter, penned hits like "" in 1911, which sold over a million copies of and popularized in compositions. , often credited as the "Father of the Blues," published "" in 1912, adapting African American folk forms into commercial that influenced jazz's emergence. , a performer, gained fame through routines and songs like "Swanee" (1919, composed by ), bridging minstrel traditions with emerging recording technology, though his style drew from controversial performative tropes. These figures collectively drove toward mass appeal, with cinema attendance surging to 50 million weekly in the U.S. by 1919 amid and leisure expansion.

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