Hubbry Logo
Protein quaternary structureProtein quaternary structureMain
Open search
Protein quaternary structure
Community hub
Protein quaternary structure
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Protein quaternary structure
Protein quaternary structure
Protein quaternary structure
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Protein primary structureProtein secondary structureProtein tertiary structureProtein quaternary structure
The image above contains clickable links
The image above contains clickable links
This diagram (which is interactive) of protein structure uses PCNA as an example. (PDB: 1AXC​)

Protein quaternary structure[a] is the fourth (and highest) classification level of protein structure. Protein quaternary structure refers to the structure of proteins which are themselves composed of two or more smaller protein chains (also referred to as subunits). Protein quaternary structure describes the number and arrangement of multiple folded protein subunits in a multi-subunit complex. It includes organizations from simple dimers to large homooligomers and complexes with defined or variable numbers of subunits.[1] In contrast to the first three levels of protein structure, not all proteins will have a quaternary structure since some proteins function as single units. Protein quaternary structure can also refer to biomolecular complexes of proteins with nucleic acids and other cofactors.

Description and examples

[edit]

Many proteins are actually assemblies of multiple polypeptide chains. The quaternary structure refers to the number and arrangement of the protein subunits with respect to one another.[2] Examples of proteins with quaternary structure include hemoglobin, DNA polymerase, ribosomes, antibodies, and ion channels.

Enzymes composed of subunits with diverse functions are sometimes called holoenzymes, in which some parts may be known as regulatory subunits and the functional core is known as the catalytic subunit. Other assemblies referred to instead as multiprotein complexes also possess quaternary structure. Examples include nucleosomes and microtubules. Changes in quaternary structure can occur through conformational changes within individual subunits or through reorientation of the subunits relative to each other. It is through such changes, which underlie cooperativity and allostery in "multimeric" enzymes, that many proteins undergo regulation and perform their physiological function.

The above definition follows a classical approach to biochemistry, established at times when the distinction between a protein and a functional, proteinaceous unit was difficult to elucidate. More recently, people refer to protein–protein interaction when discussing quaternary structure of proteins and consider all assemblies of proteins as protein complexes.

Nomenclature

[edit]
The quaternary structure of this protein complex would be described as a homo-trimer because it is composed of three identical smaller protein subunits (also designated as monomers or protomers).

The number of subunits in an oligomeric complex is described using names that end in -mer (Greek for "part, subunit"). Formal and Greco-Latinate names are generally used for the first ten types and can be used for up to twenty subunits, whereas higher order complexes are usually described by the number of subunits, followed by -meric.

  • 13 = tridecamer
  • 14 = tetradecamer
  • 15 = pentadecamer*
  • 16 = hexadecamer
  • 17 = heptadecamer*
  • 18 = octadecamer
  • 19 = nonadecamer
  • 20 = eicosamer
  • 21 = 21-mer
  • 22 = 22-mer
  • 23 = 23-mer*
  • etc.
*No known examples

The smallest unit forming a homo-oligomer, i.e. one protein chain or subunit, is designated as a monomer, subunit or protomer. The latter term was originally devised to specify the smallest unit of hetero-oligomeric proteins, but is also applied to homo-oligomeric proteins in current literature. The subunits usually arrange in cyclic symmetry to form closed point group symmetries.

Although complexes higher than octamers are rarely observed for most proteins, there are some important exceptions. Viral capsids are often composed of multiples of 60 proteins. Several molecular machines are also found in the cell, such as the proteasome (four heptameric rings = 28 subunits), the transcription complex and the spliceosome. The ribosome is probably the largest molecular machine, and is composed of many RNA and protein molecules.

In some cases, proteins form complexes that then assemble into even larger complexes. In such cases, one uses the nomenclature, e.g., "dimer of dimers" or "trimer of dimers". This may suggest that the complex might dissociate into smaller sub-complexes before dissociating into monomers. This usually implies that the complex consists of different oligomerisation interfaces. For example, a tetrameric protein may have one four-fold rotation axis, i.e. point group symmetry 4 or C4. In this case the four interfaces between the subunits are identical. It may also have point group symmetry 222 or D2. This tetramer has different interfaces and the tetramer can dissociate into two identical homodimers. Tetramers of 222 symmetry are "dimer of dimers". Hexamers of 32 point group symmetry are "trimer of dimers" or "dimer of trimers". Thus, the nomenclature "dimer of dimers" is used to specify the point group symmetry or arrangement of the oligomer, independent of information relating to its dissociation properties.

Another distinction often made when referring to oligomers is whether they are homomeric or heteromeric, referring to whether the smaller protein subunits that come together to make the protein complex are the same (homomeric) or different (heteromeric) from each other. For example, two identical protein monomers would come together to form a homo-dimer, whereas two different protein monomers would create a hetero-dimer.

Structure Determination

[edit]

Protein quaternary structure can be determined using a variety of experimental techniques that require a sample of protein in a variety of experimental conditions. The experiments often provide an estimate of the mass of the native protein and, together with knowledge of the masses and/or stoichiometry of the subunits, allow the quaternary structure to be predicted with a given accuracy. It is not always possible to obtain a precise determination of the subunit composition for a variety of reasons.

The number of subunits in a protein complex can often be determined by measuring the hydrodynamic molecular volume or mass of the intact complex, which requires native solution conditions. For folded proteins, the mass can be inferred from its volume using the partial specific volume of 0.73 ml/g. However, volume measurements are less certain than mass measurements, since unfolded proteins appear to have a much larger volume than folded proteins; additional experiments are required to determine whether a protein is unfolded or has formed an oligomer.

Common techniques used to study protein quaternary structure

[edit]
  • Ultracentrifugation
  • Surface-induced dissociation mass spectrometry[3]
  • Coimmunoprecipation[4]
  • FRET[4][5]
  • Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)[6][7]

Direct mass measurement of intact complexes

[edit]

Direct size measurement of intact complexes

[edit]

Indirect size measurement of intact complexes

[edit]

Methods that measure the mass or volume under unfolding conditions (such as MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and SDS-PAGE) are generally not useful, since non-native conditions usually cause the complex to dissociate into monomers. However, these may sometimes be applicable; for example, the experimenter may apply SDS-PAGE after first treating the intact complex with chemical cross-link reagents.

Structure Prediction

[edit]

Some bioinformatics methods have been developed for predicting the quaternary structural attributes of proteins based on their sequence information by using various modes of pseudo amino acid composition.[2][8][9]

Protein folding prediction programs used to predict protein tertiary structure have also been expanding to better predict protein quaternary structure. One such development is AlphaFold-Multimer[10] built upon the AlphaFold model for predicting protein tertiary structure.

Role in Cell Signaling

[edit]

Protein quaternary structure also plays an important role in certain cell signaling pathways. The G-protein coupled receptor pathway involves a heterotrimeric protein known as a G-protein. G-proteins contain three distinct subunits known as the G-alpha, G-beta, and G-gamma subunits. When the G-protein is activated, it binds to the G-protein coupled receptor protein and the cell signaling pathway is initiated. Another example is the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) pathway, which is initiated by the dimerization of two receptor tyrosine kinase monomers. When the dimer is formed, the two kinases can phosphorylate each other and initiate a cell signaling pathway.[11]

Protein–protein interactions

[edit]
Main article: Protein–protein interaction

Proteins are capable of forming very tight but also only transient complexes. For example, ribonuclease inhibitor binds to ribonuclease A with a roughly 20 fM dissociation constant. Other proteins have evolved to bind specifically to unusual moieties on another protein, e.g., biotin groups (avidin), phosphorylated tyrosines (SH2 domains) or proline-rich segments (SH3 domains). Protein–protein interactions can be engineered to favor certain oligomerization states.[12]

Intragenic complementation

[edit]

When multiple copies of a polypeptide encoded by a gene form a quaternary complex, this protein structure is referred to as a multimer.[13] When a multimer is formed from polypeptides produced by two different mutant alleles of a particular gene, the mixed multimer may exhibit greater functional activity than the unmixed multimers formed by each of the mutants alone. In such a case, the phenomenon is referred to as intragenic complementation (also called inter-allelic complementation). Intragenic complementation appears to be common and has been studied in many different genes in a variety of organisms including the fungi Neurospora crassa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe; the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium; the virus bacteriophage T4,[14] an RNA virus,[15] and humans.[16] The intermolecular forces likely responsible for self-recognition and multimer formation were discussed by Jehle.[17]

Assembly

[edit]

Direct interaction of two nascent proteins emerging from nearby ribosomes appears to be a general mechanism for oligomer formation.[18] Hundreds of protein oligomers were identified that assemble in human cells by such an interaction.[18] The most prevalent form of interaction was between the N-terminal regions of the interacting proteins. Dimer formation appears to be able to occur independently of dedicated assembly machines.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Protein quaternary structure

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Protein quaternary structure refers to the spatial arrangement and non-covalent association of two or more polypeptide chains, known as subunits, to form a functional . Each subunit typically has its own tertiary structure, and the overall assembly is stabilized by interactions including hydrophobic effects, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and sometimes electrostatic interactions. Unlike primary, secondary, and tertiary structures, which pertain to a single polypeptide chain, quaternary structure is only present in multi-subunit proteins and is absent in monomeric proteins. The quaternary structure plays a critical role in enabling the biological functions of oligomeric proteins, which constitute a large proportion of known protein structures. It facilitates cooperative subunit interactions that enhance stability, allow for , and permit complex activities such as or enzymatic that would be inefficient in single-chain proteins. Many oligomeric proteins exhibit symmetric arrangements with even numbers of subunits, though asymmetry can occur, and the interfaces between subunits often involve specific contact sites that influence the protein's overall shape and activity. Prominent examples of proteins with quaternary structure include hemoglobin, a tetramer composed of two α-globin and two β-globin subunits that enables cooperative oxygen binding and transport in blood, and , a homotetrameric enzyme with four identical subunits that efficiently breaks down to protect cells from oxidative damage. Other notable cases are , a triple-helical assembly of three polypeptide chains providing structural support in connective tissues, and , a multi-subunit complex essential for accurate . These assemblies highlight how quaternary structure underpins diverse physiological roles, from oxygen delivery to genomic maintenance.

Fundamentals

Definition and characteristics

Protein quaternary structure refers to the spatial arrangement and non-covalent association of two or more polypeptide chains, known as subunits, to form a functional multi-subunit complex. This highest level of protein organization builds upon the primary structure (the linear sequence of ), secondary structure (local folding patterns such as α-helices and β-sheets), and tertiary structure (the three-dimensional fold of an individual polypeptide chain), but specifically describes the interactions that assemble distinct chains into a cohesive unit. Quaternary structure is essential for the stability, function, and of many proteins, enabling cooperative behaviors that a single chain cannot achieve. Unlike monomeric proteins, which consist of a single polypeptide chain and thus lack quaternary structure, oligomeric proteins with multiple subunits exhibit this level of organization as a prerequisite for assembly. These complexes can be classified as homooligomers, where all subunits are identical in sequence and structure, or heterooligomers, involving subunits with distinct sequences. Many quaternary structures display symmetry, such as cyclic symmetry (e.g., ring-like arrangements) or dihedral symmetry (e.g., combinations of rotational axes), which facilitates efficient packing and functional coordination among subunits./01:_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04:_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.03:_Tertiary_and_Quaternary_Structures) The interfaces between subunits in quaternary structures are predominantly stabilized by non-covalent interactions, including hydrogen bonds, , hydrophobic effects, and ionic (electrostatic) interactions, which allow for reversible assembly and disassembly under physiological conditions. In certain cases, covalent bridges between residues from different subunits provide additional stability, particularly in extracellular proteins. These interactions collectively ensure the precise orientation required for . The concept of quaternary structure was first formalized in the late 1950s by , building on earlier biophysical studies of protein associations, such as those by on secondary and tertiary folding in the 1940s and 1950s.

Examples of quaternary structures

exemplifies a heterotetrameric quaternary structure, composed of two α subunits and two β subunits arranged in an α₂β₂ configuration, which enables cooperative oxygen binding through allosteric transitions between tense (T) and relaxed (R) states. This subunit arrangement facilitates oxygen transport in erythrocytes, where binding of oxygen to one subunit induces conformational changes that enhance affinity at the others, achieving a sigmoidal binding curve essential for efficient delivery to tissues. ATP synthase demonstrates a complex multi-subunit quaternary assembly functioning as a rotary motor, consisting of the membrane-embedded F₀ domain (including a ring of 8–15 c-subunits depending on the organism) and the peripheral F₁ domain (with three αβ pairs, plus γ, δ, and ε/OSC subunits). The asymmetric rotor within this structure drives ATP synthesis by harnessing proton motive force, with the c-ring rotation coupling proton translocation to conformational changes in the F₁ catalytic sites for binding and . Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (), the key enzyme in CO₂ fixation, forms a large hexadecameric (L₈S₈) structure in and , with eight large catalytic subunits (L) forming a central barrel and eight small subunits (S) capping each end to stabilize the complex. This arrangement enhances enzymatic efficiency in the by positioning active sites at L-S interfaces, though the overall slow catalysis underscores the need for high cellular concentrations in photosynthetic organisms. Viral capsids often exhibit icosahedral symmetry to enclose genetic material efficiently, as seen in cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV), where 180 identical coat protein subunits self-assemble into a T=3 icosahedral shell with quasi-equivalent positions. This symmetric motif protects the and enables host cell entry via controlled disassembly, with the icosahedral geometry minimizing protein usage while maximizing stability. Quaternary structures vary from closed symmetric assemblies, such as homodimers where two identical subunits interface via hydrophobic cores for stability (e.g., in many active sites), to open asymmetric complexes like eukaryotic , which comprises 12 subunits. These motifs support diverse functions, including the multi-enzyme coordination in the , a massive ~5–9 MDa assembly of E1 (), E2 (dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase), and E3 (dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase) components that channels substrates for production with high efficiency via substrate channeling.

Nomenclature and classification

Naming conventions

The nomenclature of protein quaternary structures follows standardized conventions established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB), particularly in their recommendations for multiple forms and subunit composition. Subunits are typically denoted using lowercase Greek letters (e.g., α, β, γ) for distinct polypeptide chains within an , with numerical subscripts indicating ; for instance, is described as an α₂β₂ tetramer to reflect its composition of two α subunits and two β subunits. Roman letters (e.g., A, B) may alternatively be used for subunit types, especially in structural databases, with subscripts similarly denoting the number of each, such as A₂ for a homodimer or ABCD for a heterotetramer with four unique subunits. These notations emphasize the oligomeric state, where a is often symbolized as M₁ or simply "monomer," a homodimer as α₂ or A₂, and heteromers by listing distinct subunit types in sequence without repetition unless requires it. Historically, protein quaternary structure naming began with ad hoc approaches in the mid-20th century, driven by experimental discoveries like . For example, (LDH) isozymes were initially identified in the late 1950s and early as five distinct forms numbered LDH-1 through LDH-5 based on their anodic electrophoretic mobility, without initial reference to subunit composition; this reflected tissue-specific variants later understood as combinations of heart (H) and muscle (M) subunits (e.g., LDH-1 as H₄, LDH-5 as M₄). Such empirical labeling evolved toward systematic frameworks as advanced, incorporating genetic and biochemical insights to align names with subunit identity and assembly, as outlined in IUBMB guidelines for oligomeric enzymes. Modern databases like the (PDB) further standardize this by annotating quaternary structures through "biological assemblies," which describe the functional oligomeric state (e.g., "tetramer" for α₂β₂), distinct from the crystallographic "asymmetric unit" that may represent only a portion or multiple copies of the assembly. Challenges in naming arise from ambiguities between the asymmetric unit— the minimal asymmetric portion of a lattice—and the biological assembly, the presumed functional . In the PDB, approximately 52% of structures exhibit differences in or stoichiometry between these, requiring author-provided or software-generated annotations to resolve the true quaternary form; for , some entries (e.g., PDB ID 1OUT) have an asymmetric unit comprising only two chains (αβ), necessitating operations to generate the full α₂β₂ tetramer as the biological assembly. This distinction prevents misinterpretation of oligomeric states but demands careful validation, often using biophysical data to confirm notations like α₂β₂ over incomplete representations.

Types of oligomeric states

Protein quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains, or subunits, into a functional complex, with oligomeric states classified primarily by the number of subunits and their identity. Monomeric proteins lack quaternary structure, consisting of a single subunit. Oligomers are categorized by , such as dimers (two subunits), trimers (three), tetramers (four), and higher-order forms like pentamers, hexamers, or even icosamers (twenty subunits) observed in certain assemblies. These can be further divided into homooligomers, where all subunits are identical in sequence, and heterooligomers, composed of distinct subunit types. Many oligomeric proteins exhibit in their arrangement, often described by symmetries that reflect rotational and reflectional equivalences among subunits. Cyclic symmetries, denoted as Cn, include C2 for dimers (180-degree ) and C3 for trimers (120-degree ). Dihedral symmetries, Dn, are common in even-numbered oligomers, such as D2 for tetramers (combining C2 rotations with perpendicular axes) or D3 for hexamers. These symmetric arrangements facilitate efficient assembly and stability. In contrast, asymmetric oligomers lack such regular , resulting in unique interfaces between each subunit pair, which can allow for greater functional diversity but may complicate assembly pathways. Approximately 60-65% of known protein complexes display symmetric or pseudo-symmetric structures.00059-X.pdf) The of an oligomeric state significantly influences protein stability and assembly dynamics. Higher-order oligomers often incur greater entropic penalties during formation due to the loss of translational and rotational freedom of individual subunits, which must be offset by favorable enthalpic interactions like hydrogen bonds or hydrophobic contacts at interfaces. Despite this, oligomeric states enhance overall stability compared to monomers in many cases, as multiple interfaces distribute . In nature, oligomeric proteins predominate, with estimates indicating that 30-50% of proteins across domains of form oligomers, and roughly 20% of eukaryotic proteins are predicted to form homooligomers (as of 2024); interactome studies from the suggest that a substantial fraction of eukaryotic proteins participate in multiprotein complexes, underscoring the prevalence of quaternary structures, particularly among enzymes.00059-X Dimers and tetramers are the most common states, comprising a large fraction of observed oligomers, while homooligomers account for about 79% of those with 2-12 subunits. Evolutionarily, oligomeric states arise and diversify through mechanisms like and fusion events. Gene duplication of a homooligomer can produce paralogous subunits that initially retain self-interaction but diverge to form heterooligomers, introducing and enabling functional specialization. This process is evident in approximately 30% of protein complexes, where duplicated subunits maintain preferential binding interfaces from their homomeric ancestors. Fusion events, where separate genes merge into a single polypeptide, can also contribute to heterooligomer by linking domains that previously interacted non-covalently. Such evolutionary pathways promote the accretion of additional subunits, increasing complex complexity over time. For instance, homotetramers may be denoted as α₄ in to indicate identical subunits. Recent AI models like have advanced predictions of these states across proteomes (as of 2024).

Experimental determination

Biophysical and spectroscopic techniques

Biophysical and spectroscopic techniques provide indirect insights into protein quaternary structure by measuring physical properties such as behavior, energy transfer, optical activity, and patterns in solution, allowing inference of oligomeric states, subunit arrangements, and dynamics without requiring or high-resolution . These methods are particularly valuable for studying proteins in near-native conditions, complementing direct measurements by offering contextual information on shape and interactions. Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC), encompassing sedimentation velocity and sedimentation equilibrium modes, determines quaternary structure through the protein's hydrodynamic properties under , yielding molecular weight, shape, and oligomeric composition. In sedimentation velocity AUC, the s20,ws_{20,w} (standardized to at 20°C) is used to estimate the oligomeric state by comparing observed values to those of monomeric forms; for example, hemoglobin's tetrameric state shows an s20,ws_{20,w} of approximately 4.5 S, distinct from the 2.5 S of its subunits. Sedimentation equilibrium AUC measures concentration gradients at equilibrium to derive association constants and , as demonstrated in studies of insulin hexamers where equilibrium data confirmed the hexameric . These techniques are non-destructive and solution-based, enabling real-time monitoring of assembly equilibria, but they require pure samples and calibration with known standards, providing low-resolution envelopes rather than atomic details. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) probes inter-subunit distances in quaternary structures by exploiting non-radiative energy transfer between donor and acceptor fluorophores attached to specific residues, with efficiency dependent on proximity. The FRET efficiency EE is given by E=1/(1+(r/R0)6)E = 1 / (1 + (r / R_0)^6), where rr is the donor-acceptor distance and R0R_0 is the Förster distance (typically 2-6 nm for protein pairs), allowing mapping of interfaces. This method excels in detecting conformational changes and dynamics in living cells but is limited by the need for site-specific labeling and potential perturbations from fluorophores, offering distance constraints rather than full structures. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy assesses the secondary structure content within protein complexes by measuring differential absorption of left- and right-circularly polarized light, indirectly informing on quaternary stability and folding. Far-UV spectra (190-250 nm) reveal α-helical and β-sheet contributions in oligomers; for example, dimerization of aspartyl proteases induces β-sheet formation indicative of interface-stabilized folding. Near-UV (250-300 nm) detects tertiary environment changes at subunit interfaces, as seen in the increased aromatic asymmetry in assembled complexes. is rapid, requiring minimal sample, and solution-compatible, but of spectra for mixed structures demands reference databases, and it provides ensemble averages without distinguishing individual subunits. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) generates low-resolution three-dimensional envelopes of protein quaternary structures in solution by analyzing X-ray scattering at small angles, which reflects overall size, shape, and flexibility. The scattering profile's RgR_g and maximum dimension Dmax⁡D_{\max} estimate oligomeric dimensions; for the yeast tetramer, SAXS yielded an RgR_g of 3.2 nm, matching its compact assembly. modeling from SAXS data reconstructs shapes, as in the case of the chaperonin where envelopes confirmed the 14-subunit double-ring architecture. SAXS is advantageous for heterogeneous or dynamic complexes under physiological conditions but suffers from orientation averaging and requires sources for high flux, yielding models at 1-2 nm resolution without atomic specificity. Recent advances integrate these techniques with (NMR) for enhanced dynamic profiling of quaternary structures; hybrid AUC-NMR approaches, developed around 2020-2023, correlate data with residue-specific chemical shifts to map subunit motions in oligomers. Such combinations provide multi-scale insights, though they demand specialized instrumentation and software.

Mass spectrometry and direct measurement methods

Native (nMS) enables the direct analysis of intact protein complexes in the gas phase while preserving non-covalent interactions, providing precise measurements of and to elucidate quaternary structures. This technique is particularly valuable for determining subunit composition in oligomeric proteins, as it detects charge state distributions that correspond to specific oligomeric states without requiring denaturation. The core principle of nMS involves (ESI), where proteins in non-denaturing aqueous solutions are sprayed into charged droplets that evaporate to yield gas-phase ions with multiple charges, typically 10–100 for complexes up to several hundred . The resulting (m/z) spectrum displays peaks spaced by approximately 1 Da/z, allowing to yield the neutral mass of the intact complex; for instance, distinct peak series reveal monomeric, dimeric, or higher-order oligomers based on their mass differences. Subunit identification often employs mild activation techniques, such as (CID) or surface-induced dissociation (SID), which selectively disrupt non-covalent interfaces under controlled energy, producing fragment ions that map subunit connectivity and . Coupling ESI with (IMS) further enhances quaternary structure analysis by separating ions based on their collision cross-sections (CCS), which reflect the size and shape of the complex in the gas phase. CCS values, derived from drift times through a buffer gas, provide complementary size information to mass data, aiding in distinguishing compact oligomers from loosely associated states or confirming conformational changes upon ligand binding. A classic application is the determination of hemoglobin's quaternary structure, where ESI-nMS revealed the 64 kDa α₂β₂ tetramer as the dominant species, with m/z peaks confirming the intact complex and mild dissociation yielding subunit masses of approximately 15–16 kDa for α and β chains. This approach has since been extended to map interfaces via top-down fragmentation, such as electron capture dissociation (ECD), which cleaves bonds while preserving non-covalent associations for detailed subunit topology. Recent advances in the , including charge reduction (ECCR) combined with SID, have enabled nMS analysis of megadalton-scale complexes by lowering charge states for better resolution and inducing topology-specific fragmentation, as demonstrated on heterogeneous assemblies up to 1 MDa. These developments, alongside charge detection mass spectrometry (CDMS) variants, extend direct mass measurements to even larger systems, such as viral capsids exceeding 80 MDa, while maintaining native-like conditions.

Imaging and scattering techniques

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has revolutionized the structural determination of protein quaternary structures by enabling visualization of macromolecular complexes in their near-native states at near-atomic resolutions, typically achieving 2-4 for large assemblies such as ribosomes. In cryo-EM, biological samples are rapidly frozen in vitreous ice through , which preserves the native hydrated conformation without crystallization artifacts, allowing imaging of heterogeneous and asymmetric complexes that are challenging for other methods. This technique's resolution is influenced by , with practical limits around 100 for reliable reconstructions, though advances have extended it to smaller complexes below 50 ; the 2017 recognized its development as a transformative tool for biochemistry. As of 2025, AI-driven denoising and particle picking algorithms have further improved resolutions for dynamic quaternary structures, enabling analysis of smaller and more flexible assemblies. For asymmetric protein complexes, cryo-EM excels in resolving quaternary arrangements without imposing artificial , as demonstrated in structures of spliceosomes, where multiple protein subunits and RNAs form dynamic, non-symmetric interfaces essential for splicing. In contrast, symmetric oligomers like viral capsids benefit from symmetry averaging during image processing, which enhances signal-to-noise ratios and yields high-resolution maps of icosahedral assemblies composed of repeating protein subunits. X-ray crystallography remains a cornerstone for determining quaternary structures of proteins that form well-ordered, symmetric crystals, providing atomic-level details of subunit interfaces in assemblies like hemoglobin tetramers. However, it requires crystallization, which can disrupt native quaternary interactions in flexible or heterogeneous complexes. Neutron scattering complements these imaging methods by probing quaternary interfaces through hydrogen/deuterium labeling, where isotopic contrast reveals solvent-accessible regions and subunit contacts without radiation damage. Despite these strengths, cryo-EM faces challenges in sample preparation, including protein denaturation at the air-water interface during grid freezing and preferred orientation biases that limit particle diversity. Recent advances, particularly by 2025, incorporate AI-driven denoising algorithms to improve map quality from low-signal micrographs, enabling higher resolutions for challenging samples. Cryo-EM models can be validated for quaternary composition using to confirm subunit .

Computational prediction and modeling

Traditional homology and docking approaches

Traditional and protein-protein docking represent foundational computational strategies for predicting protein quaternary structures, relying on sequence similarity to known structures and biophysical simulations of intermolecular interactions. constructs three-dimensional models of individual protein subunits by aligning the target sequence to homologous templates from the (PDB), exploiting evolutionary conservation of structure. A widely used tool for this purpose is MODELLER, which generates models by satisfying spatial restraints derived from the template's atomic coordinates, bond lengths, angles, and dihedral preferences. These models serve as input for assembling oligomeric complexes, particularly when experimental structures of subunits are unavailable. Protein-protein docking complements homology modeling by predicting the arrangement of multiple subunits into a quaternary assembly. In rigid-body docking, exemplified by ZDOCK, unbound subunit structures are translated and rotated exhaustively to sample possible binding orientations, with initial poses scored based on shape complementarity between molecular surfaces and desolvation energy terms. This fast-search phase generates thousands of candidate complexes, which are then filtered and ranked using energy-based functions that approximate the binding free energy, ΔG=ΔH−TΔS\Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S, where ΔH\Delta H captures enthalpic contributions from van der Waals, electrostatic, and hydrogen bonding interactions, and TΔST \Delta S accounts for entropic changes upon association. Typical protein-protein interfaces in stable complexes bury more than 1000 Ų of solvent-accessible surface area, providing a geometric threshold for distinguishing biologically relevant docks from decoys. Refinement stages enhance docking accuracy by introducing flexibility. Following rigid-body sampling, flexible refinement allows limited side-chain movements and backbone adjustments to resolve steric clashes and optimize hydrogen bonds at the interface, often employing simulations with empirical force fields such as . The force field parameterizes atomic interactions through bonded (bonds, angles, torsions) and non-bonded (, van der Waals) terms, enabling minimization and short simulations to stabilize the complex. This pipeline has been applied to diverse systems, such as enzyme-inhibitor pairs and antibody-antigen complexes, where docking success correlates with sequence identity above 30% to experimental templates. Despite their utility, traditional homology and docking approaches face significant limitations, particularly for quaternary structures with novel folds or highly dynamic interfaces. accuracy diminishes below 30% sequence identity, leading to unreliable subunit geometries that propagate errors in docking. Assessments from the Critical Assessment of () experiments prior to 2020 revealed success rates of approximately 30% for oligomeric models, defined as root-mean-square deviation below 4 Å for interfaces, with failures common in cases lacking close homologs or involving conformational changes upon binding. These methods often require experimental validation, such as comparison to cryo-EM maps, to confirm predicted assemblies.

AI-driven prediction methods

AI-driven prediction methods for protein quaternary structures leverage deep learning architectures, particularly transformer-based models, to infer inter-subunit interfaces directly from amino acid sequences without relying on explicit physical simulations or homology templates. These approaches treat quaternary structure prediction as an extension of single-chain folding, using multiple sequence alignments (MSAs) to capture co-evolutionary signals that indicate residue-residue contacts across subunits. By training on large datasets of experimentally determined multimers from the (PDB), these models learn to predict both intra- and inter-chain interactions simultaneously, enabling rapid generation of complex assemblies. A core principle in these methods is the use of attention mechanisms within transformer networks to model long-range dependencies and predict inter-subunit contacts. For instance, co-evolution patterns in MSAs highlight residues that stabilize interfaces, allowing the model to generate maps and angular orientations for multiple chains. This end-to-end learning paradigm contrasts with traditional physics-based docking by incorporating implicit geometric and evolutionary constraints during training on PDB-derived multimers, achieving predictions in minutes on standard hardware. Prominent examples include AlphaFold-Multimer, introduced in 2022, which extends the AlphaFold2 framework to handle protein complexes by jointly modeling all chains during inference. It excels at predicting homomeric interfaces, with subsequent versions incorporating interface-specific extensions for improved accuracy on binding sites. Similarly, RoseTTAFold complexes, part of the RoseTTAFold All-Atom suite released in 2024, uses a three-track to predict assemblies involving proteins and other biomolecules, demonstrating competitive performance on diverse oligomeric states. Diffusion-based models, such as those in the Chroma framework, generate quaternary structures by iteratively denoising noisy atomic coordinates, enabling scalable predictions for large multimers through reversible folding processes inspired by natural assembly. In terms of accuracy, these methods achieve over 80% success in identifying correct interfaces for homodimers based on 2025 benchmarks, with median interface root-mean-square deviation (iRMSD) below 2 for many cases. For heteromers, performance relies on robust co-evolution signals, yielding reliable predictions when MSAs are deep, though accuracy drops for transient or low-homology interactions. These benchmarks, evaluated on held-out PDB complexes, highlight the methods' ability to outperform prior docking tools by factors of 2-3 in speed and precision for well-conserved assemblies. Recent advances integrate dynamics and multi-modal interactions, as seen in AlphaFold3 (2024), which employs a architecture to predict complexes with ligands and nucleic acids, enhancing modeling for functional contexts. The open-sourcing of these tools has accelerated applications in , where predicted interfaces guide and lead optimization for protein-protein interaction inhibitors.

Biological roles and functions

Stability, function, and regulation

The quaternary structure of proteins contributes significantly to their overall stability by forming robust subunit interfaces that resist denaturation. These interfaces, often involving hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, and salt bridges, buffer against thermal unfolding, resulting in higher melting temperatures (Tm) for oligomeric proteins compared to their monomeric counterparts. For instance, the dodecameric carbamoyltransferase from the hyperthermophilic archaeon exhibits exceptional thermal stability, retaining 50% activity after 60 minutes at 100°C, primarily due to stabilizing interactions at inter-trimer interfaces; mutations disrupting these interfaces, such as E25Q/M29A/W33A, lead to trimer dissociation and a drastic reduction in at 85°C from 150 minutes to 2.5 minutes. This enhanced stability arises despite an entropic cost associated with association, estimated at approximately -5 cal/K·mol for crosslinking in model systems like inhibitor, which is balanced by the high specificity of interface formation that minimizes non-specific interactions and maximizes favorable energetics. Quaternary structure also enables critical functional properties, particularly through allosteric mechanisms where shifts in subunit arrangement propagate conformational changes across the complex. The Monod-Wyman-Changeux (MWC) model describes how oligomeric proteins exist in equilibrium between tense (T) and relaxed (R) quaternary states, allowing ligand binding to one subunit to cooperatively influence others without breaking symmetry, as seen in hemoglobin's oxygen-binding cooperativity. Additionally, catalytic sites can form directly at subunit interfaces, enhancing efficiency by coordinating residues from multiple subunits; in short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase enzymes, conserved tetrameric interfaces maintain active-site geometry essential for substrate binding and catalysis. Regulation of quaternary structure often involves environmental cues or modifications that alter subunit interactions. For example, in , an octameric oxygen-binding protein, iron-coordinating anions like induce dissociation into monomers by binding preferentially to the monomeric form, shifting the and modulating oxygen affinity. Post-translational modifications, such as or ubiquitination at interface residues, can further fine-tune stability and assembly; these PTMs introduce charge changes or steric hindrance that promote or inhibit oligomerization, thereby controlling activity in response to cellular signals. In pathological contexts, aberrant quaternary structures contribute to disease; misfolded amyloid-β oligomers in adopt toxic quaternary arrangements that disrupt neuronal function, distinct from benign fibrillar forms.

Role in cellular signaling and interactions

Protein quaternary structures play a pivotal role in cellular signaling by enabling receptor oligomerization, which is essential for . In receptor tyrosine kinases such as the (EGFR), ligand binding induces dimerization, bringing the intracellular kinase domains into proximity to facilitate trans-autophosphorylation on residues. This autophosphorylation creates docking sites for downstream effectors, activating pathways like MAPK/ERK that regulate and survival. Similarly, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) form quaternary complexes with heterotrimeric G proteins (composed of Gα, Gβ, and Gγ subunits), where agonist binding triggers conformational rearrangements that promote GDP-to-GTP exchange on Gα, dissociating the complex and initiating diverse signaling cascades such as cAMP production or calcium mobilization. Quaternary structures also mediate specific protein-protein interactions in signaling networks, distinguishing between transient and stable complexes to ensure precise temporal control. Transient interactions, such as those involving Src homology 2 (SH2) domains binding to phosphotyrosine motifs on activated receptors, propagate signals rapidly in cascades like the PI3K/AKT pathway, with binding affinities typically in the micromolar range for specificity. In contrast, stable complexes provide sustained signaling; for instance, 14-3-3 proteins act as central hubs in interactomes, forming persistent dimers that bind over 200 client proteins via phosphorylated serine/threonine motifs, thereby coordinating anti-apoptotic and regulation signals across multiple pathways. These interactions rely on mechanisms where quaternary assembly allows ligand-induced conformational changes to propagate across subunits, enhancing signal fidelity. Upon ligand binding, oligomeric receptors like EGFR undergo asymmetric dimer rearrangements, with one kinase domain activating the other, transmitting allosteric effects from the extracellular ligand-binding site to the intracellular signaling domain. In GPCRs, oligomerization biases signaling outcomes by altering G protein coupling; for example, dimer formation in the platelet-activating factor receptor shifts β-arrestin recruitment, favoring certain effectors over others. Specificity arises from interface residues, where hot-spot amino acids (often hydrophobic or charged) at subunit contacts discriminate partners; mutations in these residues can reduce binding affinity by up to 100-fold, preventing off-target interactions in crowded cellular environments. Dysregulation of quaternary structures contributes to diseases like cancer, where mutations at dimer interfaces disrupt signaling balance. In RAS proteins, which typically function as monomers but form dimers to activate RAF kinases, oncogenic mutations such as G12V alter the dimer interface, impairing activity and constitutive MAPK signaling, as observed in up to 30% of human tumors. Recent studies from the highlight how such interface-disrupting variants in RAS promote uncontrolled proliferation by stabilizing aberrant dimers, underscoring the therapeutic potential of targeting these quaternary contacts.

Assembly, dynamics, and special phenomena

Mechanisms of complex assembly

Protein subunits typically fold into their tertiary structures prior to or concurrently with assembly into quaternary complexes, often following a nucleation-condensation pathway where a compact nucleus of native-like interactions forms first, followed by rapid condensation of the remaining structure to enable subunit association. This mechanism ensures that partially folded intermediates are minimized, reducing the risk of off-pathway aggregation during complex formation. In many cases, individual subunits achieve their folded state through chaperone-assisted mechanisms, particularly for proteins that are prone to misfolding, such as , which requires the eukaryotic chaperonin TRiC (also known as CCT) to attain its monomeric fold before incorporating into filamentous structures.30900-0) Assembly kinetics of protein complexes frequently proceed hierarchically, with stable dimers forming first as rate-limiting steps, followed by the addition of subsequent subunits to build higher-order oligomers. This stepwise process enhances efficiency by leveraging high-affinity interfaces in early intermediates, with overall rates often diffusion-limited for weakly interacting subunits. Concentration plays a critical role, as assembly is governed by equilibrium dissociation constants (Kd) at subunit interfaces typically ranging from nanomolar to micromolar, favoring complex formation under physiological conditions where local concentrations promote association over dissociation. At the genetic level, co-translational assembly facilitates quaternary structure formation by allowing nascent polypeptides to interact during synthesis on the , thereby stabilizing subunits and preventing premature degradation or misfolding. This process is particularly prevalent for complexes with large interfaces, where early subunit contacts during translation enhance folding fidelity. In prokaryotes, organization optimizes assembly by co-transcribing and co-translating genes encoding complex subunits in an order that mirrors the hierarchical assembly pathway, ensuring stoichiometric production and sequential incorporation.01541-7) Environmental factors such as and significantly influence subunit and thus the propensity for quaternary assembly, with deviations from optimal conditions altering charge interactions and promoting either dissociation or unwanted aggregation. For instance, near the , reduced can hinder association, while salts modulate electrostatic screening to fine-tune interface stability. Errors in these assembly processes, such as kinetic in misfolded states, often lead to off-pathway aggregates implicated in neurodegenerative diseases, underscoring the precision required for functional complex formation.

Intragenic complementation and dynamics

Intragenic complementation arises in multimeric proteins when subunits carrying different mutations within the same gene assemble into hybrid oligomers that partially or fully restore enzymatic function, a process dependent on the protein's quaternary architecture. This phenomenon allows defective subunits to compensate for each other's impairments if the mutations affect non-overlapping functional domains, such as active sites or structural elements. A classic example is observed in β-galactosidase, a tetrameric where α-complementation occurs: an N-terminal α-peptide (residues 3–92) from one mutant subunit restores activity to a defective ω-acceptor subunit lacking this region, enabling the formation of active heterotetramers. In heterozygous diploids, wild-type subunits typically dominate mixed oligomers due to their superior assembly efficiency, resulting in higher overall activity than in homozygous mutants and underscoring the role of quaternary structure in genetic dominance. Quaternary structure dynamics encompass subtle conformational fluctuations, including motions at subunit interfaces that transiently alter intersubunit contacts without leading to dissociation. These motions, often on the to timescale, facilitate allosteric communication and substrate access within stable complexes. For instance, in response to immune signals like interferon-γ, alternative subunits such as the immunoproteasome-specific LMP7 (β5i) replace the constitutive β5 during the assembly of specialized immunoproteasomes, adapting the complex to enhanced without requiring exchange in mature particles.35468-5/fulltext) Allosteric , exemplified in (PAH), involves coordinated shifts in tetrameric interfaces that propagate regulatory signals across subunits, enhancing catalytic efficiency in response to binding while maintaining oligomeric integrity. Such dynamics are probed using advanced biophysical techniques that capture transient states. (NMR) relaxation dispersion methods, including Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill sequences, detect microsecond-timescale exchange at quaternary interfaces by measuring variations in transverse relaxation rates of backbone amides or methyl groups. Single-molecule (smFRET) provides spatiotemporal resolution of interface breathing and subunit rearrangements, tracking distance changes between fluorophore-labeled sites in individual complexes to reveal heterogeneous motion landscapes. Biologically, intragenic complementation enhances evolutionary robustness by permitting viable phenotypes in compound heterozygotes, as seen in argininosuccinate lyase (ASL) deficiency where hybrid tetramers mitigate severe metabolic defects from distinct mutations. Dynamic interfaces in quaternary structures offer therapeutic opportunities, with small-molecule modulators stabilizing transient states to disrupt pathological interactions, as demonstrated in recent advances targeting protein-protein interfaces in cancer and neurodegeneration.

References

  1. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7123217/
  2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564343/
  3. https://comis.med.uvm.edu/VIC/coursefiles/MD540/MD540-Protein_Organization_10400_574581210/Protein-org/Protein_Organization9.html
  4. https://bc401.bmb.colostate.edu/7/intro.php
  5. http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty/cronk/CHEM245pub/L08.html
  6. https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/1biochem/proteins4.html
  7. https://rockedu.rockefeller.edu/component/escape-protein-background/
  8. https://alpha.chem.umb.edu/chemistry/ch130/seagraves/documents/AmionAcidsAndProteinsPt2FPDF.pdf
  9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/quaternary-structure
  10. https://bmcbioinformatics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2105-7-187
  11. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-09654-8
  12. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11092833/
  13. https://www.pearson.com/channels/biochemistry/learn/jason/protein-structure/quaternary-structure
  14. https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006104
  15. https://samples.jblearning.com/0763739057/40632_CH01_smerdon.pdf
  16. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7370311/
  17. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-11259-0
  18. https://elifesciences.org/articles/43128
  19. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1834656/
  20. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2168653/
  21. https://www.nature.com/articles/329354a0
  22. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0405844101
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10353340/
  24. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-25570-y
  25. https://academic.oup.com/bioinformatics/article/22/23/2876/278405
  26. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01:Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04:The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.03:Tertiary_and_Quaternary_Structures
  27. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610704001002
  28. https://cmgm-new.stanford.edu/biochem/biochem201/Handouts/v%2Bvchap6.pdf
  29. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.biophys.29.1.105
  30. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022283697913681
  31. https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(24)00059-X
  32. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8396596/
  33. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1895999/
  34. https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-2007-8-4-r51
  35. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00212
  36. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2011.0823
  37. https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jms.4578
  38. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-32075-9
  39. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00745
  40. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscentsci.4c00461
  41. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10700022/
  42. https://elifesciences.org/articles/60482
  43. https://academic.oup.com/nar/article/51/8/4043/7084596
  44. https://www.technologynetworks.com/analysis/articles/cryo-electron-microscopy-principle-strengths-limitations-and-applications-377080
  45. https://www.aimspress.com/aimspress-data/aimsbpoa/2022/1/PDF/biophy-09-01-002.pdf
  46. https://cryoem101.org/chapter-1/
  47. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9416522/
  48. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2017/press-release/
  49. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41592-023-01847-9
  50. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7096719/
  51. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5850374/
  52. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1613612113
  53. https://www.proteinstructures.com/protein-crystallography-basics/
  54. https://pubs.aip.org/aip/acp/article/989/1/35/564978/Deuterium-Labeling-and-Neutron-Scattering-for
  55. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4913355/
  56. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959440X23001203
  57. https://www.nanoimagingservices.com/about/blog/three-common-challenges-to-adopting-cryo-em-in-your-drug-discovery-program-and-how-to-overcome-them
  58. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0968432825000356
  59. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12271583/
  60. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-biosciences/articles/10.3389/fmolb.2019.00033/full
  61. https://salilab.org/modeller/
  62. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/prot.10389
  63. https://ambermd.org/
  64. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2574623/
  65. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-33729-4
  66. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abj8754
  67. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03819-2
  68. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl2528
  69. https://openreview.net/forum?id=SV6mT8iSFP
  70. https://academic.oup.com/nar/article/53/W1/W472/8119807
  71. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07487-w
  72. https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1432-1327.2001.02302.x
  73. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2492820/
  74. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9433937/
  75. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/hemerythrin
  76. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-35795-8
  77. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26051935/
  78. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41388-018-0348-3
  79. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31299-z
  80. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-34056-4
  81. https://www.nature.com/articles/srep00334
  82. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2015648118
  83. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.97.4.1525
  84. https://elifesciences.org/articles/79602
  85. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00757
  86. https://translationalneurodegeneration.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40035-017-0077-5
  87. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4868117/
  88. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3631351/
  89. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7685179/
  90. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6984960/
  91. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC23030/
  92. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-02036-3
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.