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Robigalia
DurationApril 25
TypeFestival

The Robigalia was a festival in ancient Roman religion held April 25, named for the god Robigus. Its main ritual was a dog sacrifice to protect grain fields from disease. Games (ludi) in the form of "major and minor" races were held.[1] The Robigalia was one of several agricultural festivals in April to celebrate and vitalize the growing season,[2] but the darker sacrificial elements of these occasions are also fraught with anxiety about crop failure and the dependence on divine favor to avert it.[3]

Description

[edit]

The Robigalia was held at the boundary of the Ager Romanus.[4] Verrius Flaccus sites it in a grove (lucus) at the fifth milestone from Rome along the Via Claudia.[5] The celebration included games (ludi) and a sacrificial offering of the blood and entrails of an unweaned puppy (catulus).[6] Most animal sacrifice in the public religion of ancient Rome resulted in a communal meal and thus involved domestic animals whose flesh was a normal part of the Roman diet;[7] the dog occurs as a victim most often in magic and private rites for Hecate and other chthonic deities,[8] but was offered publicly at the Lupercalia[9] and two other sacrifices pertaining to grain crops.[10]

Origin

[edit]
Religion in
ancient Rome
Marcus Aurelius sacrificing
Marcus Aurelius (head covered)
sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter
Practices and beliefs
Priesthoods
Deities
Related topics

Like many other aspects of Roman law and religion, the institution of the Robigalia was attributed to the Sabine Numa Pompilius,[11] in the eleventh year of his reign as the second king of Rome.[12] The combined presence of Numa and the flamen Quirinalis, the high priest of Quirinus, the Sabine god of war who become identified with Mars,[13] may suggest a Sabine origin.[14]

The late Republican scholar Varro says that the Robigalia was named for the god Robigus,[15] who as the numen or personification of agricultural disease could also prevent it.[16] He was thus a potentially malignant deity to be propitiated, as Aulus Gellius notes.[17] But the gender of this deity is elusive.[18] The agricultural writer Columella gives the name in the feminine as Robigo, like the word used for a form of the disease of wheat rust,[19] which has a reddish or reddish-brown color. Both Robigus and robigo are also found as Rubig- which, following the etymology-by-association of antiquity,[20] was thought to be connected to the color red (ruber) as a form of homeopathic or sympathetic magic.[21] The color is thematic: the disease was red, the requisite puppies (or sometimes bitches) had a red coat,[22] the red of blood recalls the distinctively Roman incarnation of Mars as both a god of agriculture and bloodshed.[23]

William Warde Fowler, whose work on Roman festivals remains a standard reference,[24] entertained the idea that Robigus is an "indigitation" of Mars, that is, a name to be used in a prayer formulary to fix the local action of the invoked god.[25] In support of this idea, the priest who presided was the flamen Quirinalis, and the ludi were held for both Mars and Robigo.[26] The flamen recited a prayer that Ovid quotes at length in the Fasti, his six-book calendar poem on Roman holidays which provides the most extended, though problematic, description of the day.[27]

Other observances

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Chariot races (ludi cursoribus) were held in honor of Mars and Robigo on this day.[28] The races had two classes, "major and minor," which may represent junior and senior divisions. In chariot racing, younger drivers seem to have gained experience with a two-horse chariot (biga) before graduating to a four-horse team (quadriga).[29]

Other horse and chariot races in honor of Mars occurred at the Equirria and before the sacrifice of the October Horse.

Calendar context

[edit]
A section of the Fasti Praenestini, with the entry on the "Feast of Robigo" at bottom right ("ROB").

The Fasti Praenestini also record that on the same day the festival celebrated a particular class of sex workers: "pimped-out boys,"[30] following the previous day's recognition of meretrices, female prostitutes regarded as professionals of some standing.[31]

Other April festivals related to farming were the Cerealia, or festival of Ceres, lasting for several days in mid-month; the Fordicidia on April 15, when a pregnant cow was sacrificed; the Parilia on April 21 to ensure healthy flocks; and the Vinalia, a wine festival on April 23.[32] Varro considered these and the Robigalia, along with the Great Mother's Megalensia late in the month, the "original" Roman holidays in April.[33]

The Robigalia has been connected to the Christian feast of Rogation, which was concerned with purifying and blessing the parish and fields and which took the place of the Robigalia on April 25 of the Christian calendar.[34] The Church Father Tertullian mocks the goddess Robigo as "made up," a fiction.[35]

References

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Further reading

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Robigalia

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from Grokipedia
Robigalia was an ancient Roman festival celebrated on to honor Robigo (or Robigus), a invoked to protect crops, especially , from blight, red rust, and . Traditionally attributed to the institution of King , the rite aimed to safeguard during the vulnerable spring growth period, reflecting Rome's deep reliance on grain production. The festival's central ritual involved a procession from Rome along the Via Claudia to a sacred grove at the fifth milestone, where the Flamen Quirinalis—priest of Quirinus—performed sacrifices of a red dog and a sheep to avert crop diseases. Offerings included incense, wine, and the animals' entrails burned on a fire, accompanied by prayers such as Ovid's plea to "spare Ceres' grain" from the scaly god of rust. The dog's sacrifice linked to homeopathic magic and the rising of Sirius, the Dog Star, symbolizing purification against agricultural threats. Public games, known as ludi cursoribus, featured chariot races—biga (two-horse) for youths and (four-horse) for elders—honoring both Robigo and Mars, blending religious devotion with communal entertainment. Robigo's gender ambiguity and association with and Mars underscored the festival's ties to broader Roman agrarian and martial cults. By , the Robigalia faced criticism from Christian writers like and was eventually supplanted by the introduced by in AD 604.

Festival Overview

Description and Purpose

The Robigalia was an ancient Roman festival honoring the Robigo, also known as Robigus, specifically to avert the destructive effects of robigo—a fungal or affecting and other cereals that threatened crop yields. This agricultural rite sought to safeguard grain fields from mildew and disease, reflecting the Romans' deep reliance on healthy harvests for sustenance and . The core purpose of the Robigalia was to propitiate Robigo through solemn rituals, ensuring the deity's favor and preventing from ruining the maturing crops during spring. By invoking divine , the aimed to secure bountiful production and broader agricultural , underscoring its role in Roman religious practices tied to and renewal. As a public observance, the Robigalia involved key religious officials, notably the Flamen Quirinalis, who led the proceedings, alongside participants from who gathered to affirm communal ties to the land. The event's structure emphasized collective participation in prayers and offerings to invoke safeguarding against afflictions.

Date and Location

The Robigalia was observed annually on , corresponding to the Roman calendrical notation of VII Kalendas Maias. This date is explicitly recorded in the Fasti Praenestini, an ancient marble calendar from Praeneste that details Roman religious observances. The primary site of the festival was the , or , dedicated to Robigo, situated at the fifth milestone along the Via Claudia, a major road extending southeast from . This location is confirmed by the Fasti Praenestini, which specifies the observance "via Claudia ad milliarium V" in connection with averting crop blight. The rural positioning of the grove outside the urban boundaries of held particular importance, as it bridged the city's central institutions with the surrounding agricultural territories essential to the republic's economy and food supply. By conducting the rites in this liminal space near corn-growing fields, the festival reinforced Rome's dependence on rural productivity while extending protective rituals from the urban core to the vital farmlands.

Deity and Religious Significance

Nature of Robigo/Robigus

Robigo, also known as Robigus, represents the Roman of robigo, a term denoting , red , or more broadly affecting grain fields. This conceptualization frames the deity not as a benevolent agricultural spirit but as an embodiment of the destructive fungal disease that could devastate tender crops, particularly during the vulnerable growth period in spring. Ancient writers describe robigo as a scaly, insidious force capable of blighting entire harvests, underscoring its role as a natural hazard threatening Roman agrarian prosperity. The gender of the remains ambiguous across surviving sources, with no definitive resolution in Roman theology. portrays Robigo explicitly as a feminine , addressing her as a "dreadful " and invoking her mercy in poetic prayers to spare the corn from her blighting touch. In contrast, Varro refers to Robigus in the masculine form, listing him among the twelve patron of who ensure crops remain free from rust when properly propitiated. This inconsistency reflects the fluid nature of Roman numina, where abstract forces like robigo could be invoked in either without strict mythological consistency, possibly adapting to or literary contexts. Theologically, Robigo/Robigus embodies a potentially malevolent power that Romans sought to avert through , aligning with principles of homeopathic where invoking the harmful agent paradoxically ensures its restraint. Rather than worshiping the deity for causing , rituals conceptualized it as a controllable force: prayers entreated it to redirect its destructive influence away from fields toward iron weapons or other non-agricultural targets, thereby securing crop safety and embodying the Roman view of divine negotiation to mitigate environmental threats. This protective orientation highlights the deity's dual nature as both peril and safeguard, integral to the agrarian that personified natural calamities to render them ritually manageable.

Prayers and Invocations

The prayers and invocations during the Robigalia were central to the ritual, serving as verbal appeals to Robigo to avert crop blight and ensure agricultural prosperity. These supplications, recited in a formal procession to a sacred grove outside Rome, emphasized humility and negotiation with the deity's potentially destructive power. The most detailed surviving example of such an invocation comes from Ovid's Fasti, where the flamen Quirinalis addresses Robigo directly in lines 905–914. The prayer begins: "Thou scaly Mildew, spare the sprouting corn, and let the smooth top quiver on the surface of the ground. O let the crops, nursed by the stars of a propitious sky, grow till they are ripe for the sickle." This plea highlights the vulnerability of emerging crops to rust and mildew, invoking celestial benevolence to foster healthy growth up to harvest. Key themes in the invocations include requests to redirect Robigo's blight away from vital agriculture toward inert or non-productive targets, such as iron implements or weapons, thereby preserving the harvest while acknowledging the deity's dominion. The prayer continues by urging: "And may you harm iron rather than the sprouting corn, and may the peaceful farmer reap the of Ceres." Additionally, the rites incorporated assurances of ongoing devotion through annual offerings, reinforcing a reciprocal bond to prevent future harm. The Quirinalis played a pivotal role in delivering these prayers, leading the procession and performing the invocations at the grove of Robigo near the fifth milestone on the Via Claudia. As the of , his participation linked the festival to broader Roman religious traditions, ensuring the words carried authoritative weight in appeasing the .

Rituals and Practices

Procession

The procession for the Robigalia formed a central communal element of the festival, involving an organized march from the city of Rome to the sacred grove dedicated to Robigo (or Robigus). This journey underscored the event's agricultural focus by bridging the urban center with the rural periphery of Roman territory. The route followed the Via Claudia, a key road extending northeast from Rome, culminating at the fifth milestone where the grove was located. This site marked the approximate boundary of the ager Romanus, the cultivated lands under Rome's direct protection, emphasizing the procession's role in extending ritual safeguards to the fields. The flamen Quirinalis, the high priest of Quirinus, led the group, often described as proceeding in the evening to perform the rites upon arrival. Participants included the Quirinalis at the forefront, accompanied by a throng of attendants clad in white robes, who carried the sacrificial victims—a and a sheep—along with and wine. Ovid recounts encountering this procession while traveling the opposite direction, noting how the white-robed crowd filled the road as they advanced toward the grove. While primary accounts center on the priestly retinue, the festival's agricultural nature suggests involvement of representatives from rural communities, though explicit mentions of farmers are absent in surviving texts. Symbolically, the procession represented a deliberate transition from the urban space of to the rural grove, embodying the community's collective effort to invoke divine protection against crop blight. By traversing this path to the territorial edge, participants enacted a boundary-crossing that mirrored the festival's aim to avert robigo—the or threatening grain—from encroaching on fertile lands. This movement highlighted the interdependence of city and countryside in Roman .

Sacrifices and Offerings

The primary sacrifices at the Robigalia consisted of the entrails of a and a sheep, offered to the flames by the Quirinalis in the of Robigo outside . The dog was typically selected for its coloration, a homeopathic choice symbolizing the reddish hue of rust (robigo), the fungal disease the festival aimed to avert. This canine victim also evoked the rising of the Star (Sirius), associated with the summer that could scorch ripening crops and exacerbate . The sheep's entrails complemented the dog's in the offering, reinforcing the rite's protective intent against agricultural threats, though the focus remained on the dog's apotropaic role. Accompanying these sacrifices were libations of wine poured onto the , along with placed there to burn, enhancing the ritual's aromatic appeal to the . Performed annually on following the from the , this combination of bloody and unbloody offerings underscored the festival's emphasis on propitiating Robigo to safeguard the grain fields from and drought.

Historical Origins

Attribution to Numa Pompilius

The establishment of the Robigalia festival is traditionally attributed to , Rome's second king, who reigned from approximately 715 to 673 BCE. Ancient sources credit him with instituting the rite in the eleventh year of his reign, around 704 BCE, as a key element of his religious initiatives to organize and expand the city's cult practices. This attribution, like many of Numa's reforms, is considered legendary by modern scholars, lacking contemporary corroboration beyond literary tradition. Numa's reforms prioritized the veneration of agricultural deities, reflecting Rome's reliance on farming in its early development, and the Robigalia was integrated into to invoke divine protection against crop diseases, thereby supporting the agrarian . This attribution aligns with his broader efforts to promote peaceful pursuits over ones, including the distribution of land to encourage settled among citizens. No archaeological evidence, such as inscriptions or artifacts, confirms the festival's origins under Numa, leaving the account dependent on later literary traditions rather than contemporary material records.

Primary Ancient Sources

The primary ancient sources for the Robigalia festival are drawn from Roman literary works spanning the late Republic to the early , providing etymological, , and agricultural details on the observance. These texts, primarily by poets, historians, and agronomists, document the festival's purpose in averting crop , though they vary in depth and perspective, with poetic accounts offering vivid narratives and practical treatises emphasizing utility. Ovid's (Book IV, lines 901–940), composed around 8 CE, offers the most comprehensive and evocative description of the Robigalia, situating it on (when "six days of April remain") and detailing a led by a Quirinalis from to a near the fifth milestone on the Via Claudia outside the Porta Nomentana. In the poem, Ovid narrates encountering the white-robed and accompanies the priest, who the entrails of a and a sheep on an altar, accompanied by incense and wine libations. The priest recites a to Robigo, imploring the to spare the growing grain from and : "Spare, O scaly Mildew, the stalks of Ceres: / Let the tender blades quiver aloft in the open air. / Let the crops, nursed by kindly powers, / Come to the sickle in due season. / Nor is thy power to be despised: the blighted corn / The sorrowing farmer counts as lost." Ovid explains the dog's as symbolic of the rising Icarian Star (Sirius), which portends and premature ripening that invites . Marcus Terentius Varro, in De Lingua Latina (Book VI.16, ca. 43 BCE), provides an etymological note on the festival's name, deriving Robigalia from Robigus, the divine personification of rust (robigo), to whom sacrifices were offered alongside the crops to prevent grain from contracting the disease: "Robigalia dicta ab Robigo; secundum segetes huic deo sacrificatur, ne robigo occupet segetes" (The Robigalia is named from Robigo; sacrifice is made to this god alongside the crops, lest rust seize the crops). Varro's account, embedded in a linguistic treatise, underscores the festival's agricultural focus but lacks ritual specifics, reflecting his interest in etymology and rural practices. Pliny the Elder, in Naturalis Historia (Book XVIII.69, ca. 77 CE), briefly mentions the Robigalia in a discussion of Roman agrarian festivals instituted by in the eleventh year of his reign (ca. 715–672 BCE), placing it on April 25 (the seventh day before the Kalends of May) when crops are vulnerable to : "Numa... Robigalia constituit, quae hodie servantur a. d. VII Kal. Maias, cum frumenta robigine periclitantur" (Numa established the Robigalia, which today are observed on the seventh day before the Kalends of May, when the crops are in danger from ). Pliny groups it with the and as protective rites, emphasizing its role in averting fungal threats to . Marcus Porcius Cato, in (ca. 160 BCE), alludes to similar agricultural propitiations in sections on field prayers (e.g., 141), invoking Mars to ward off rust and pests from crops, which scholars link to Robigalia-like rituals, though Cato does not name the festival explicitly. Lucius Junius Moderatus , in De Re Rustica (Book X.342, ca. 60–65 CE), references the Robigalia in his verse calendar of farm labors, advising against certain activities during the festival to honor its protective aims against , drawing on earlier agronomists like Cato and Varro. Sextus Pompeius Festus, in his late 2nd-century CE epitome of Verrius Flaccus's De Verborum Significatu (s.v. Robigalia), elaborates on the , identifying Robigo as the (or ) of and explaining the festival's sacrifices at the Robigalia grove to avert field diseases, preserving Flaccus's Augustan-era scholarship. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, in De Spectaculis (5.8, ca. 200 CE), critiques the Robigalia as a pagan involving processions and sacrifices, condemning Christian participation in such "demonic" festivals alongside games and . These sources range from the Republican era (Cato, Varro) to the Imperial period (Ovid, Pliny, Columella, Festus) and early Christian critique (Tertullian), with Ovid's poetic vividness contrasting the pragmatic focus of agricultural authors like Varro and Columella, who may exhibit biases toward interpreting rituals as practical crop safeguards rather than purely religious acts.

Calendar and Cultural Context

Position in the Roman Calendar

The Robigalia occupied a fixed position in the Roman calendar on April 25, denoted as ante diem septimum Kalendas Maias (the seventh day before the Kalends of May), as attested in surviving fasti such as the Fasti Praenestini. This marble inscription, originally from Praeneste (modern Palestrina) and dating to the late first century BCE, explicitly marks the date with the entry "ROBIGALIA" alongside details of its agrarian purpose, situating the festival during the critical spring sowing period when grains were emerging and vulnerable to rust and mildew. The Roman lunar-solar calendar, adjusted periodically to align with the agricultural year, placed such observances to synchronize religious duties with seasonal imperatives, ensuring timely invocations against crop threats in the temperate Mediterranean climate. Temporally, the Robigalia followed the Parilia on , a rite focused on purifying herds and marking the year's pastoral renewal, and preceded the major festivals of May, including the (May 9, 11, and 13) for averting malevolent spirits. This intercalary slot in late thus served as a pivotal bridge in the 's agrarian sequence, extending protective measures from to nascent field crops amid the post-winter thaw and pre-harvest anxieties. The festival's alignment reflected the Romans' holistic calendrical framework, where religious holidays punctuated the farming cycle to foster communal resilience against environmental hazards. As a festival (feriae publicae), the Robigalia was designated a religious in the , with notations indicating no business (NP, nefastus publicus) and thus a suspension of legal proceedings, though no explicit bans on manual labor or commerce were recorded, distinguishing it from more restrictive observances. The ceremonies emphasized elite religious authority, led by the Quirinalis in a state-sponsored , underscoring the festival's role as a centralized civic rather than a diffuse popular event. This status integrated the Robigalia into the 's hierarchy of feriae, where public sanctity supported the ’s agricultural foundation without disrupting daily societal functions.

Connections to Other Agricultural Festivals

The Robigalia formed an integral part of the Roman agricultural festival cycle in , a month dedicated to rituals ensuring the and protection of fields, , and emerging crops during the spring planting season. This sequence included the Cerialia (April 12–19), Fordicidia (April 15), Parilia (April 21), (April 23), and (April 28–May 1), all emphasizing purification, , and divine intervention to safeguard agrarian productivity. Particularly, the Robigalia shared close thematic ties with the Cerialia, as both festivals invoked protection for grain crops against threats like and scarcity; while the Cerialia broadly honored Ceres for overall agricultural abundance through games and processions, the Robigalia targeted the specific peril of (robigo) via offerings to the Robigo, reflecting a specialized apotropaic focus within the shared concern for preservation. Their calendrical proximity—spaced just six days apart—underscored a complementary progression in crop guardianship, with the Cerialia's general blessings paving the way for the Robigalia's aversion. The Robigalia also connected to the Fordicidia and Parilia as elements of April's purification sequence, where rituals transitioned from enrichment—through the Fordicidia's of pregnant cows to Tellus for fertile earth—to pastoral cleansing in the Parilia, which ritually purified sheepfolds and herds with fire and sulfur to avert . These interconnected observances collectively addressed the multifaceted risks to rural livelihood, blending agrarian and pastoral safeguards in a holistic spring renewal. In the wider calendar, this cluster exemplified spring festivals promoting proactive fertility and defense against environmental hazards, in contrast to autumn harvest rites like the Consualia (August 21 and December 15), which celebrated the successful ingathering and storage of grains under , marking abundance rather than anticipatory protection.

Legacy and Interpretations

Transition to Christian Rogation Days

The Robigalia, as a pagan agricultural rite, gradually declined amid the of the during , giving way to analogous Christian observances that repurposed its core elements for monotheistic worship. The festival was supplanted by the (or ), a Christian and fixed on to directly counter and replace the Robigalia's timing and purpose of seeking protection for crops against and . This adaptation preserved the date's significance in the early spring calendar while transforming supplications from the deity Robigus to invocations of and the saints, ensuring the ritual's communal from the city to sacred groves or fields echoed the original but aligned with emerging . The institutionalization of as a formalized practice occurred under (r. 590–604), who leveraged a catastrophic plague in in AD 590 to reinforce and expand these observances. Interpreting the epidemic as divine punishment—possibly linked to post-Lenten excesses—Gregory initiated elaborate litany processions, dividing participants into seven groups to chant pleas for mercy while traversing the city barefoot, a measure credited with halting the plague's spread. These events directly supplanted lingering pagan customs like the Robigalia by redirecting agricultural anxieties toward Christian intercession, broadening pleas for field protection to include safeguards against and pestilence, and establishing processional litanies as a staple of Rogation rites. This transition formed part of the broader Christian reworking of , where syncretic strategies allowed the church to absorb and sanitize pagan forms to facilitate conversion and cultural continuity. The Robigalia's emphasis on averting crop devastation was repurposed into Rogation prayers that invoked on the , with processions serving as public demonstrations of penitence and communal solidarity rather than sacrifices to classical gods. By the 6th century, such adaptations had embedded into the Western liturgical calendar, marking the effective eclipse of the Robigalia while perpetuating its protective intent in a Christian framework; these observances continue annually in the as of 2025.

Modern Scholarly Views

Modern scholars widely regard the traditional attribution of the Robigalia to King as legendary, viewing it as a later construct rather than historical fact, with the festival likely emerging from earlier Italic agricultural practices in the late or early period. This stems from the pattern in Roman tradition where many religious institutions were retroactively credited to Numa to lend them antiquity and legitimacy, though no contemporary evidence supports his direct involvement. Contemporary interpretations emphasize Indo-European parallels in the conceptualization of deities, noting shared traits with figures in other traditions that embody destructive natural forces while serving as avertors of harm. For instance, the use of red-colored sacrifices at the Robigalia mirrors patterns where vibrant offerings propitiate deities of and decay, suggesting a deeper substrate for such agricultural numina beyond uniquely Roman invention. From an agronomic perspective, the festival underscores early Roman recognition of fungal pathogens like wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici), a devastating causing pustules on grains that could wipe out harvests if unchecked. Agricultural writers such as (1st century CE) linked Robigo explicitly to this "red rust" (robigo), reflecting practical farming knowledge of environmental risks, including the disease's correlation with the heliacal setting of Sirius around April 25, which heightened crop vulnerability through increased humidity. Modern confirms that such awareness predated scientific , with the Robigalia serving as insurance against yield losses estimated at up to 50% in affected fields. Scholars highlight elements of homeopathic or in the rituals, where the of a red —symbolizing the rust's color and the withering of crops—aimed to transfer away from fields through imitative action. This approach, as analyzed in studies of Roman agrarian rites, blended empirical with prophylactic symbolism to mitigate uncertainties in pre-industrial . Additionally, the deity's gender ambiguity—manifest as masculine Robigus in or feminine Robigo in —points to fluid Italic conceptions of numina, where personifications of natural phenomena transcended strict binary categories. Post-2000 scholarship integrates the Robigalia into broader environmental histories, portraying it as evidence of adaptive responses to climate variability in the Mediterranean, where erratic springs amplified disease risks for staple wheat cultivation. Recent analyses also explore pagan-Christian syncretism, arguing that the festival's processional and expiatory elements influenced the structure of Rogationtide processions, facilitating the transition from agrarian polytheism to medieval Christian liturgy without abrupt rupture. In Ovid's Fasti, for example, 21st-century readings interpret the rite's undercurrents of anxiety as subtle critiques of Augustan pax, where imperial prosperity masked persistent ecological threats to food security.

References

  1. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/calendar/robigalia.html
  2. https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/roman-religion/roman-feasts/robigalia/
  3. https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/OvidFastiBkFour.php
  4. https://ia802801.us.archive.org/9/items/romanfestivalsof0000unse/romanfestivalsof0000unse.pdf
  5. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/varro/de_re_rustica/1*.html
  6. https://www.academia.edu/37252434/_A_Blight_on_the_Pax_Augusta_The_Robigalia_in_Ovids_Fasti_Classical_World_111_4_Summer_2018_pp_503_523
  7. https://www.theoi.com/Text/OvidFasti4.html
  8. http://www.societasviaromana.net/Collegium_Religionis/quirinus.php
  9. https://www.digitalaugustanrome.org/records/porta-catularia/
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20677486
  11. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA%2A/Robigalia.html
  12. https://www.loebclassics.com/view/varro-latin_language/1938/pb_LCL333.191.xml
  13. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/18%2A.html
  14. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cato/De_Agricultura/I*.html
  15. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Columella/De_Re_Rustica/home.html
  16. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0055%3Aentry%3Dro-bigalia
  17. https://www.attalus.org/docs/cil/add_8.html
  18. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48553439
  19. https://digitalmapsoftheancientworld.com/ancient-history/history-ancient-rome/roman-religion/roman-festivals/
  20. https://ecologyandsociety.org/vol27/iss2/art9/
  21. https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/liturgicalyear/activities/view.cfm?id=1307
  22. https://academic.oup.com/book/45807/chapter/403203448
  23. https://brill.com/display/book/9789086866533/BP000006.pdf
  24. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/75896/bager_1.pdf
  25. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antichthon/article/out-of-the-temples-and-into-the-streets-reassembling-the-christianisation-of-roman-urban-space/54E46A3DD5047A7E9369B5C2641B940E
  26. https://doi.org/10.1353/clw.2018.0038
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