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from Wikipedia
S-comma (majuscule: Ș, minuscule: ș) is a letter which is part of the Romanian alphabet, used to represent the sound /ʃ/, the voiceless postalveolar fricative (like sh in shoe). S-comma consists of an s with a diacritical comma underneath it, and is distinct from s-cedilla.
History
[edit]The letter was proposed in the Buda Lexicon, a book published in 1825, which included two texts by Petru Maior, Orthographia romana sive latino-valachica una cum clavi and Dialogu pentru inceputul limbei române, introducing ș for /ʃ/ and ț for /ts/.[1]
Unicode support
[edit]S-comma was not initially supported in early Unicode versions, nor in the predecessors like ISO/IEC 8859-2 and Windows-1250. Instead, Ş (S-cedilla), a character available since Unicode 1.1.0 (1993), was used for digital texts written in Romanian. In some contexts, like with low-resolution screens and printouts, the visual distinction between ș and ş is minimal. In 1999, at the request of the Romanian Standardization Association[citation needed], S-comma was introduced in Unicode 3.0. Nevertheless, encoding for the S-comma was not supported in retail versions of Microsoft Windows XP, but a later European Union Expansion Font Update provided the feature. While digital accessibility to S-comma has since improved, both characters continue to be used interchangeably in various contexts like publishing.
The letter is part of Unicode's Latin Extended-B range, under "Additions for Romanian", titled as "Latin capital letter S with comma below" (U+0218) and "Latin small letter s with comma below" (U+0219).[2] In HTML, these can be encoded by Ș and ș, respectively.
Usage
[edit]The letter represents the voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/ (as in "show") in Romanian language. On outdated systems which do not support the glyph, the symbol Ş/ş (S with cedilla) is used. Example word: Timișoara.
Character encoding
[edit]| Preview | Ș | ș | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unicode name | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH COMMA BELOW | LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH COMMA BELOW | ||
| Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex |
| Unicode | 536 | U+0218 | 537 | U+0219 |
| UTF-8 | 200 152 | C8 98 | 200 153 | C8 99 |
| Numeric character reference | Ș |
Ș |
ș |
ș |
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Marinella Lörinczi Angioni, "Coscienza nazionale romanza e ortografia: il romeno tra alfabeto cirillico e alfabeto latino ", La Ricerca Folklorica, No. 5, La scrittura: funzioni e ideologie. (Apr., 1982), pp. 75–85.
- ^ Unicode code charts. Latin Extended-B: Range 0180–024F
from Grokipedia
Ș (uppercase) and ș (lowercase) is a letter of the Romanian alphabet, used to represent the phoneme /ʃ/, the voiceless postalveolar fricative sound equivalent to "sh" in the English word "shoe".[1][2] It is formed by adding a comma diacritic (known as virguliță in Romanian) below the Latin letter S, distinguishing it from similar characters in other languages.[2] This letter is exclusive to the Romanian alphabet among European languages, serving as one of five special diacritic-modified letters (alongside Ă, Â, Î, and Ț) that adapt the 26-letter Latin script to Romanian's phonetic needs, resulting in a total of 31 letters.[1][3]
The adoption of Ș occurred during Romania's transition from the Cyrillic script to the Latin-based alphabet in the mid-19th century, formalized by a decree in 1860 under Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, as part of broader efforts to align Romanian orthography with its Romance language roots and Western European standards. Prior to this, Romanian was primarily written in a Cyrillic variant influenced by Slavic scripts, but the shift emphasized the language's Latin heritage derived from Vulgar Latin spoken in the Roman province of Dacia. In modern usage, Ș appears in native Romanian words such as școală ("school") and in the country's name România, and it is essential for accurate spelling and pronunciation, with the lowercase ș collating after s in alphabetical order.[1][2] Digitally, Ș is encoded in Unicode as U+0218 (capital) and U+0219 (small), separate from the cedilla variant Ş/ş used in some legacy systems, to ensure proper rendering in Romanian texts.[2] The letter's design reflects ongoing orthographic standardization, avoiding substitutions like "sh" or "sch" common in other languages for the same sound, such as Italian sc before e or i, French ch, or Portuguese x.[3]
Origins and Development
Historical Evolution
The letter Ș emerged during the 19th-century transition from the Cyrillic to the Latin script in Romanian orthography, a process driven by efforts to affirm the language's Romance roots amid national unification. Prior to this, in 18th-century Transylvanian printings that adopted Latin script under Hungarian influence, the /ʃ/ sound—previously represented by the Cyrillic Ш (Sha)—was often denoted through notations such as the digraph "si" or inconsistent modifications, reflecting the lack of standardization in early Protestant and Catholic texts.[4] These practices evolved from the Transylvanian School's 18th-century advocacy for Latin-based writing, as seen in works like Samuil Micu's Carte de rugăciuni (1779), which laid groundwork for phonetic representation but did not yet introduce dedicated diacritics.[4] A pivotal advancement occurred in 1819 when Petru Maior proposed Ș (S with a diacritic) in his Ortographia romana to systematically represent /ʃ/, replacing earlier "si" conventions and aligning with etymological principles to highlight Latin origins.[4] The 1859 unification of the Romanian principalities under Alexandru Ioan Cuza accelerated script standardization, culminating in the 1860 official adoption of the Latin alphabet in Wallachia and Moldavia, which replaced the Cyrillic Ш entirely.[5] This reform was formalized through proposals by August Treboniu Laurian and Ion Heliade Rădulescu, who advocated for comma-below diacritics like Ș and Ț in their 1860 regulation to ensure phonetic accuracy in the new 31-letter alphabet, influenced by broader European Latinization movements.[5][6] Transitional scripts during the 1827–1870 period, as promoted by Rădulescu in publications like Curierul românesc, bridged the gap by mixing Cyrillic elements (e.g., Ш for /ʃ/) with Latin forms to ease the shift.[6] In the 20th century, the character's role extended to Moldovan orthography following the 1989 language law, which reinstated the Latin script after decades of Soviet-imposed Cyrillic use from 1938 to 1989.[7] To align with Romanian standards and distinguish from the cedilla form Ş used in the brief Soviet Latinization of 1928–1932, post-1989 Moldovan texts adopted the comma diacritic for Ș, ensuring consistency in representing /ʃ/ across unified cultural boundaries.[7][8] This standardization was reinforced in subsequent reforms, solidifying Ș as a core element of modern Romanian and Moldovan writing systems.[8]Design and Variants
The letter Ș consists of a capital S with a low comma, known as a virgule, positioned directly below the baseline of the letter, distinguishing it from the cedilla, which is a hook-shaped mark placed higher on the descender. This precise anatomy was officially mandated by the Romanian Academy in 2003, with the specification reaffirmed in the 2005 edition of the Dicționarul Ortografic, Ortografic și Morfologic al Limbii Române (DOOM2), requiring the use of the comma below for both Ș and Ț to align with Romanian orthographic norms.[9] Historically, variants of the diacritic appeared before the adoption of standards like ISO 8859-2 in 1987, with the cedilla form (Ş) commonly employed in typewriters, early printing presses, and initial computing environments due to limited glyph availability in international standards like ISO 8859-2. In handwriting, transitional forms persisted, where the diacritic was sometimes rendered as an apostrophe-like vertical stroke or simplified curve rather than a full comma, reflecting practical adaptations in non-digital contexts. The Romanian Standards Association formalized the comma-below variant in SR 13411:1999, adopting Unicode code points U+0218 (capital) and U+0219 (lowercase) to replace the cedilla equivalents.[10][11] Typographic issues frequently arise from confusion with the cedilla-based Ş (U+015E), which serves a different phonetic role in Turkish orthography, leading to incorrect substitutions in multilingual digital texts. To ensure proper rendering, font designers are recommended to position the comma accent at or below the baseline without hooking, as seen in modern typefaces like those compliant with ISO/IEC 8859-16:2001, avoiding the elevated placement common in legacy cedilla glyphs. Historical print examples from the early 20th century, influenced by proposals from linguists like Titu Maiorescu in 1866, often featured a raised cedilla-like mark under S, contrasting with contemporary baseline-aligned commas that enhance legibility in digital and print media.[10]Linguistic Role
Phonetic Value
The letter Ș denotes the phoneme /ʃ/ in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), classified as a voiceless postalveolar fricative.[12] This sound is produced by directing airflow through a narrow constriction formed by raising the blade or front of the tongue toward the hard palate immediately behind the alveolar ridge, generating turbulent friction noise without vocal cord vibration.[13] In Romanian phonetics, /ʃ/ is typically unaspirated, contributing to its sibilant quality distinct from alveolar /s/.[14] Articulatorily, the tongue body remains low while the front approximates the postalveolar region, creating a grooved channel for air escape that emphasizes high-intensity frication; this positioning contrasts with the more forward alveolar contact for /s/, highlighting /ʃ/'s retracted articulation. Romanian speakers maintain consistent voicelessness throughout the fricative, with minimal aspiration due to the absence of a following stop release, aligning with the language's general lack of aspirated fricatives.[15] In Romanian, /ʃ/ forms phonemic contrasts with /s/, as in pairs like șir ("series") and sir ("sulfur"), underscoring the diacritic's role in preventing ambiguity.[14] Such pairs demonstrate /ʃ/'s lexical significance, where substitution alters meaning or invalidates spelling per Romanian orthographic norms. Acoustically, /ʃ/ exhibits a broadband noise spectrum with primary energy in the 2,000-3,500 Hz range, corresponding to a lowered second spectral peak around 2,000-2,500 Hz on spectrograms, lower than /s/'s 4,000-8,000 Hz concentration due to the posterior articulation.[16] This spectral profile, with compact energy and reduced higher harmonics, aids perceptual distinction in sibilant contrasts. The phoneme /ʃ/ often derives from Latin consonant clusters like /sk/ or /ks/ before front vowels, and is common in loanwords from Slavic or other sources.Orthographic Function
The letter Ș functions as a distinct grapheme in the Romanian writing system, specifically denoting the phoneme /ʃ/ as a single character rather than relying on digraphs like "sh" or "sch" common in other languages, thereby preserving the phonetic clarity and one-to-one correspondence of Romanian orthography.[17][18] In Romanian spelling rules, Ș appears in initial, medial, and (rarely) final positions—for instance, in names like Ștefan, words like mașină or șarpe, and forms like reuș (from "reuși," to succeed)—while its capitalized form Ș is used at the start of sentences or in proper nouns, with the lowercase ș employed otherwise; Romanian orthography does not permit doubling of Ș (such as șș), as consonant gemination is not phonemically distinguished and spelling remains strictly phonetic.[19][20] Ș interacts with other diacritics in limited cases, such as potential co-occurrence with circumflex or breve on adjacent vowels (e.g., șî in archaic or variant forms, though rare in modern standard usage), and in dictionary sorting, it follows plain S but precedes T in alphabetical order.[21] The orthographic role of Ș developed through reforms promoting phonetic spelling, with the 1904 Romanian Academy decree adopting principles of one sound per graphic sign and standardizing diacritics; the comma below S was later formalized as the official form in 2003, replacing earlier cedilla variants and conventions like "sch." This was reinforced by the 1993 orthographic norm, which mandated its use in education and publications to ensure consistency.[22][8][19]Language-Specific Usage
In Romanian
The letter Ș is integral to Romanian orthography, representing the voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/ in words across the lexicon. It appears in approximately 1.06% of Romanian characters, making it a relatively infrequent but essential element in vocabulary formation. This prevalence underscores its role in both native evolutions and borrowings, particularly in everyday terms related to education, urban life, and inquiry. For instance, "școală" (school) derives from Latin "schola" via intermediate Slavic mediation, reflecting the palatalization common in Romance-Slavic contact. Similarly, "oraș" (city) originates from Proto-Slavic *gordъ, denoting a fortified settlement, which entered Romanian during early medieval interactions with South Slavic languages. These examples illustrate how Ș often marks phonetic shifts in loanwords, contributing to the language's hybrid character without dominating the core Latin-derived stock. Many Romanian words featuring Ș trace their etymological roots to Slavic influences, which constitute approximately 10-15% of the modern lexicon and frequently introduce the /ʃ/ sound through adaptations of Proto-Slavic *š. Common instances include "șosea" (highway), borrowed from French "chaussée" in the 19th century, and "șanț" (ditch), borrowed from Polish "szaniec," ultimately from German "Schanze," highlighting the phonological assimilation of /ʃ/ in terms denoting infrastructure and landscape. Such borrowings, absorbed in three historical waves—from Proto-Slavic, Old Church Slavonic, and later Balkan Slavic—enrich Romanian's expressive range, especially in domains like administration and nature, while preserving the letter's consistent orthographic function.[23][24][25] In regional contexts, Ș maintains uniformity across Daco-Romanian dialects spoken in Romania and Moldova, serving as a stable marker of /ʃ/ irrespective of phonetic variations in vowel systems or intonation. Following Moldova's 1989 declaration of Romanian as the official language, the Latin alphabet—including Ș—was reinstated, replacing the Soviet-era Cyrillic script and aligning orthographic practices with those in Romania. This post-1989 shift facilitated cultural reunification, ensuring Ș's seamless use in bilingual education and media, though minor spelling preferences persist in informal Moldovan usage. Literarily, Ș enhances the rhythmic and phonetic texture of Romanian classics, as seen in Mihai Eminescu's poetry, where it evokes intimacy and subtlety. In his untitled lyric "O, de-ai ști cum șoapta ta divină," the word "șoapta" (whisper) captures ethereal dialogue, employing /ʃ/ to mimic soft sibilance and underscore themes of divine longing. Eminescu's frequent deployment of Ș-laden terms like "șoapte" in works such as "Satire III" amplifies the auditory allure of Romantic verse, influencing generations of writers and reinforcing the letter's poetic resonance in national literature.In Other Languages
The letter Ș, representing the voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/, finds limited adoption outside Romanian in the Gagauz language, a Turkic language spoken by communities in Moldova, Ukraine, and Romania. In the Latin-based alphabet used for Gagauz in Romania, Ș (S with comma below) is employed instead of the cedilla variant Ş common in the standard Gagauz orthography elsewhere, aligning with local Romanian conventions for diacritics. This usage dates to the post-1950s standardization of the Latin script for Gagauz, particularly in loanwords influenced by Romanian or Russian, such as școală for "school" (borrowed via Romanian from Latin schola).[26][27] In Moldovan contexts beyond standard Romanian orthography, Ș appears sporadically in Gagauz-influenced writings or bilingual materials, reflecting shared regional scripts but without independent systemic role. Comparatively, Ș contrasts with similar graphemes for /ʃ/ in neighboring linguistic traditions: the caron variant š predominates in Slavic languages like Serbian and Croatian for the same sound, while the cedilla form ş is standard in Turkic languages such as Turkish and Azerbaijani, highlighting Ș's unique comma diacritic as a Romanian-specific adaptation occasionally borrowed regionally.Technical Representation
Unicode Implementation
The letter Ș is assigned the code point U+0218 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH COMMA BELOW) in Unicode, while its lowercase form ș is U+0219 (LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH COMMA BELOW); both reside in the Latin Extended-B block (U+0180–U+024F).[28] These code points were introduced in Unicode 3.0, released in September 1999, as part of additions specifically supporting Romanian orthography. As Unicode characters, Ș and ș are categorized as letters: Ș as an uppercase letter (Lu general category) with a simple lowercase mapping to ș, and ș as a lowercase letter (Ll) mapping uppercase to Ș.[29] Each has a canonical decomposition to the base letter (U+0053 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S or U+0073 LATIN SMALL LETTER S) plus U+0326 COMBINING COMMA BELOW, but under Unicode Normalization Form C (NFC), the precomposed forms Ș and ș are the canonical representations and are preferred for composing Romanian text to ensure stability and round-trip integrity.[30] For compatibility with legacy systems, Unicode distinguishes Ș/ș from the earlier Ş (U+015E LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH CEDILLA) and ş (U+015F LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH CEDILLA), which were available since Unicode 1.1 and originally repurposed for Romanian despite being designed for cedilla-based languages like Turkish.[31] NFC normalization preserves this distinction, as the cedilla forms decompose canonically to base S/s plus U+0327 COMBINING CEDILLA (not the comma), preventing automatic substitution in Romanian contexts and avoiding orthographic errors in normalized text.[32] Historically, the shift from cedilla to comma below reflected refinements in diacritic design for Romanian (detailed in Design and Variants). Emoji properties and variant selectors do not apply to Ș or ș, as they are alphabetic letters without stylistic or presentation variants. Unicode 15.0, released in September 2022, enhanced collation support through updates to the Unicode Collation Algorithm (UCA 15.0), providing tailored weightings for Romanian diacritics like the comma below to improve sorting accuracy in multilingual environments.Encoding Standards
In legacy character encoding schemes predating widespread Unicode adoption, the Romanian letter Ș (S with comma below) and its lowercase counterpart ș were often represented using approximations, typically the visually similar S/s with cedilla (Ş/ş) due to limited glyph support in 8-bit systems. These encodings played a key role in digital text handling for Eastern European languages, including Romanian, from the late 1980s onward. The ISO/IEC 8859-2 standard (Latin-2), first published in February 1987, supports Central and Eastern European Latin-script languages and assigns code 0xAA to the uppercase Ş (U+015E, Latin capital letter S with cedilla, used as a proxy for Ș) and 0xBA to the lowercase ş (U+015F, Latin small letter S with cedilla, used as a proxy for ș). This encoding was widely used in Eastern European computing environments for text files and early web content involving Romanian.[33][34] Similarly, Microsoft's Windows-1250 code page (Central European), introduced in the early 1990s with Windows 3.1, employs the same positions: 0xAA for uppercase Ş and 0xBA for lowercase ş, serving as substitutes for the comma variants in Romanian texts. It became prevalent in older Microsoft applications, such as Word and Notepad, for processing documents in Central European locales.[35][36] Extensions to the Macintosh Roman encoding for Romanian text featured variable mappings for Ș and ș, often relying on custom or locale-specific adjustments that differed across system versions. This variability caused frequent compatibility problems, such as glyph substitution errors, during cross-platform file transfers before the 2000s. In obsolete typesetting systems like pre-Unicode LaTeX using the T1 (Cork) font encoding, Ș and ș were not directly available; instead, they were approximated by combining base letters with comma accents or using cedilla glyphs, complicating conversions to modern formats. Early digital Romanian texts sometimes encountered challenges when migrating from Cyrillic-based systems, where the similar-looking Ш (U+0428, Cyrillic sha) was mistakenly substituted or required manual remapping. Unicode has since superseded these legacy encodings as the universal standard for Ș and ș representation.Input and Display
Keyboard Layouts
In the standard Romanian keyboard layout, the lowercase ș is accessed by pressing the semicolon key (;), while the uppercase Ș requires Shift + semicolon.[37] This QWERTY-based variant, defined by the Romanian National Standard SR 13392:2004, positions diacritics like the comma below on dedicated or shifted keys for efficient input without modifiers in most cases.[37] The Romanian (Programmers) layout, an alternative QWERTY variant, uses the AltGr modifier for diacritics to preserve English-like key positions; specifically, AltGr + S produces ș, and AltGr + Shift + S yields Ș.[38] This layout employs dead keys for the comma diacritic, allowing sequential input where the comma key acts as a non-printing modifier before the base letter.[38] Note that Romanian orthography requires the comma below diacritic for Ș/ș (Unicode U+0218/U+0219), distinct from the visually similar cedilla variant Ş/ş (U+015E/U+015F) used in some legacy systems. Many input methods produce the cedilla by default, requiring specific layouts or tools for the correct comma below. On non-Romanian keyboards, alternative methods include compose key sequences in X11 environments, such as pressing the Compose key followed by s and , to input ș (or Shift for Ș).[39] For the US International layout, users can type right Alt (dead key for diacritics) + s + , to produce ş (the cedilla variant U+015F), not the standard comma below ș; for the correct glyph, use compose sequences or character map tools.[40] Mobile devices support Ș input through language-specific keyboards. On iOS, adding the Romanian keyboard via Settings > General > Keyboard provides long-press options on s for ş (cedilla variant), not a dedicated Ș key or the standard comma below; third-party keyboards like Gboard may offer correct input.[37][41] Android's Gboard Romanian layout uses long-press on s for ș (comma below in recent versions), with swipe gestures for language switching, though dedicated keys are not standard.[42][43] Historically, 20th-century Romanian typewriters, often based on QWERTZ designs, utilized dead keys for diacritics like the comma below; typists would press a dead comma key followed by s without advancing the carriage, then overstrike to form ș or Ș.[44] This mechanism, inherited from European typewriter standards, facilitated diacritic production on limited-key models before digital layouts emerged.[44]Font and Rendering Support
The letter Ș (U+0219) and its uppercase counterpart Ș (U+0218) are supported in major Unicode-compliant typefaces, including Arial Unicode MS, which has included these glyphs since its initial release with Microsoft Office 2000 in 1999 to provide broad international character coverage.[45][46] Other widely used fonts such as Segoe UI (default on Windows) and San Francisco (default on macOS) also incorporate Ș, ensuring consistent rendering in contemporary digital typography.[46] However, older fonts predating Unicode 3.0 (2000), when these code points were standardized, often lack native support, resulting in fallback mechanisms that substitute Ș with the visually similar Ş (U+015F, S with cedilla), particularly in legacy systems or incomplete font families.[28] Rendering Ș presents specific challenges related to diacritic positioning and spacing. In sans-serif fonts like Arial, the comma below requires precise kerning adjustments to avoid excessive space between the stem of S and the diacritic, especially when adjacent to punctuation; serif fonts such as Times New Roman handle this more naturally due to their baseline extensions but may still exhibit minor overlaps in tight compositions.[46] Ligatures involving Ș are generally avoided to preserve the integrity of the comma diacritic, as standard OpenType features like 'liga' (standard ligatures) do not apply to accented letters, preventing unintended glyph substitutions.[47] OpenType tables, particularly 'mark' for diacritic anchoring and 'kern' for pairwise adjustments, enable better positioning of the comma below, with modern fonts using these to align it centrally under the S glyph across varying weights and sizes.[28][48] Browser and operating system support for Ș has evolved significantly. Modern browsers including Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge on Windows 10 and later, as well as macOS Ventura (13.0) and subsequent versions, provide full rendering without issues, leveraging system fonts for accurate display.[49][50] Historically, Internet Explorer 6 (released 2001, end-of-support 2006) suffered from rendering bugs on pre-Windows XP systems, often displaying Ș as a plain "s" due to incomplete Unicode 3.0 implementation and limited font fallback, though updates like Service Pack 2 improved partial compatibility.[51][49] Developers can verify Ș rendering using Unicode font testers such as those on FileFormat.info, which display the glyph across installed fonts and browsers to identify gaps.[46] Additionally, CSS properties like font-feature-settings allow fine-tuned control, such as enabling 'locl' (localized forms) or 'ss01' (stylistic set 1) in compatible fonts to enforce comma-below rendering over cedilla fallbacks, e.g., font-feature-settings: "locl" 1;.[50][52]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C8%99an%C8%9B
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C8%99osea