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Giacomo Ceruti, Women Working on Pillow Lace (1720s)
The Junior Sewing Circle of the North Lima Mennonite Congregation, North Lima, Ohio, 1952
Group working on the Mekong quilts project in Vietnam (2009)

A sewing circle is a group of people who meet regularly for the purpose of sewing, often for charitable causes.

Application to sewing

[edit]

Sewing circle participants, usually women, typically meet regularly for the purpose of sewing. They often also support charitable causes while chatting, gossiping or discussing.

For example, in ante-bellum America, local anti-slavery or missionary "sewing circles were complementary, not competing, organisations that allowed [women] to act on their concern for creating a more just and moral society".[1] Other examples of sewing circles include the Fragment Society, the Mennonite Sewing Circle, and those organized by RMS Titanic survivor Emily Goldsmith aboard the rescue ship RMS Carpathia: Goldsmith, "a talented seamstress, organized sewing circles to make garments out of cloth and blankets for those passengers dressed in nightclothes when they entered the lifeboats."[2]

During World War II, sewing circles were formed to help people "make do and mend" in response to rationing in the United Kingdom. The Women's Voluntary Services organized sewing circles and classes during the war.[3] Elizabeth II hosted sewing circles twice a week, with both palace staff and aristocrats attending.[4]

Apart from charitable purposes, contemporary sewing circles may be formed into organisations on a national level, such as the Guilds in Australia and America "for people who regard sewing as a creative and rewarding activity".[5][6]

"Chew the rag"

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It has been speculated that the phrase "chew the rag" could be related to gossiping while working in a sewing circle.[7]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sewing circle

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A sewing circle is a group, especially of women, meeting regularly to sew, often producing items for charitable causes or community needs. These gatherings emerged as a traditional American social institution in the mid-19th century, offering women opportunities for companionship, skill development, and mutual aid in eras when domestic labor dominated their public participation. Historically, sewing circles extended beyond mere craftsmanship to foster informal networks for discussing and advancing social causes, including in the antebellum period, where participants shared political views while creating textiles for fundraising or personal use. During conflicts such as the Civil War, these groups mobilized to produce quilts, garments, and bandages for soldiers, thereby contributing materially to national efforts while sustaining community resilience among women left to manage households. In the and beyond, sewing circles addressed local crises, such as post-fire reconstruction on , underscoring their role in practical and collective problem-solving. Such assemblies highlighted the intersection of domestic production and subtle empowerment, enabling women to influence broader societal dynamics through sustained, hands-on collaboration, though their impact remained constrained by prevailing gender norms.

Definition and Etymology

Primary Definition

A sewing circle is a recurrent assembly of individuals, primarily women, convened for the collective activity of sewing textiles such as garments, quilts, or linens, typically to produce items for charitable, religious, or communal benefit. These gatherings integrate manual craftsmanship with social engagement, enabling participants to exchange conversation, share knowledge, and strengthen interpersonal ties while fulfilling practical objectives like outfitting the indigent or supporting institutional causes. The concept emphasizes organized, purposeful collaboration over solitary , distinguishing it from informal personal . Historically rooted in 19th-century American practices, sewing circles emerged as structured societies by 1834, often affiliated with churches or movements to channel women's labor toward societal aid. Participants contributed handmade goods to missions, hospitals, or relief efforts, reflecting a blend of domestic and civic contribution amid limited formal opportunities for women. While predominantly female-led due to prevailing norms in domestic , sewing circles occasionally included men or served mixed groups in community settings, adapting to cultural contexts. The format's versatility has sustained its relevance, evolving from aid-focused enterprises to broader creative or therapeutic outlets, yet retaining the core emphasis on shared production and fellowship.

Etymological Origins

The term "sewing circle" emerged in by 1834, denoting a of women or girls who convened regularly to sew garments or items intended for charitable or religious distribution, such as aid to the needy or efforts. This compound phrase is descriptive rather than derived from any specialized linguistic root, pairing the "sewing"—from sīwian, meaning to stitch or join with needle and thread—with "circle" in its 17th-century sense of a recurrent social assembly or intimate group, akin to reading or study circles. The expression's coinage aligns with the expansion of formalized women's benevolent organizations in the antebellum , where domestic skills were channeled into collective amid limited public roles for women. Early attestations underscore its ties to reform and aid societies; for instance, antislavery sewing circles in , documented by the 1840s, produced clothing for enslaved people and fugitives as part of abolitionist networks. Similarly, groups like the Hopedale Sewing Circle, active from 1848, raised funds through sales to support utopian communities and tract distribution, illustrating the term's practical application in communal enterprise. While the literal usage predominates in 19th-century records, later adaptations—such as the Hollywood for discreet lesbian social networks in the 1920s, purportedly coined by actress —repurpose the phrase metaphorically, evoking veiled gatherings without altering its foundational charitable connotation.

Historical Development

Early Origins and Pre-Modern Practices

Communal practices, precursors to formalized sewing circles, emerged in pre-industrial societies where production required effort due to the labor-intensive nature of hand- without machines. In ancient civilizations, techniques originated in around 3400 BCE, evidenced by padded garments found in tombs, and in by the BCE, as indicated by archaeological quilted armor. These early methods involved group labor for efficiency, though specific social gatherings are less documented. In medieval , professional guilds for tailors and embroiderers formed by the , regulating craft practices among men primarily, while women often sewed in household or settings, such as producing liturgical vestments collaboratively. By the colonial era in America, communal sewing evolved into social work parties known as quilting bees, documented in the late 18th century. Midwife Martha Ballard's diary entries from Maine record quilting gatherings, such as on November 10, 1790, when women assembled to quilt and share textile tasks, integrating sewing with community support and skill transmission to younger generations. These events paralleled other cooperative labors like barn raisings, emphasizing mutual aid in rural households where fabrics were scarce and hand-sewn quilts essential for warmth. Participation was predominantly female, fostering social bonds amid isolation, with diaries noting preparation of materials and teaching daughters techniques by December 1792. Such pre-modern practices laid the groundwork for later sewing circles by combining practical production with interpersonal exchange, though they lacked the charitable or organized structure of 19th-century iterations. Evidence from primary sources like Ballard's records, preserved by historical societies, underscores the veracity of these communal efforts over romanticized narratives. In , similar informal groups appeared in workshops, as depicted in 18th-century Italian paintings of lacemaking schools where women worked collectively under instruction, highlighting skill-sharing in pre-industrial economies.

19th-Century Expansion in the United States and

In the , sewing circles expanded significantly during the as informal women's groups affiliated with churches and reform movements, focusing on charitable production of and goods for the needy. Church-based sewing circles emerged in the early 1800s to support relief efforts, producing items like garments and bedding for local poor and disaster victims. A notable catalyst was the Great Fire of in , which spurred the formation of dedicated sewing circles that supplied , food, and rent assistance to affected families, marking a shift toward organized response. These groups also intertwined with social reform, particularly , where meetings facilitated discussion and ; by 1847, observers noted sewing circles as effective venues for sustaining anti-slavery agitation through shared ideas and material aid like clothing for freed slaves. During the Civil War (1861–1865), and circles ramped up production of soldiers' uniforms, blankets, and bandages, connecting disparate communities through collective wartime charity. In , particularly Britain during the (1837–1901), sewing circles gained traction as social gatherings for middle- and working-class women, emphasizing plain for alongside fancy work for personal edification. bees and similar sewing assemblies proliferated from the late 18th into the , fostering skill-sharing and community bonds while producing items for household use or charity distribution to the impoverished. These activities aligned with broader philanthropic efforts amid industrialization's dislocations, though they remained less formalized than American counterparts, often tied to or voluntary societies rather than expansive reform networks.

20th-Century Evolution

In the early 20th century, sewing circles expanded their roles amid global conflicts, particularly during (1914–1918), when women's groups mobilized to produce essential items for military personnel. In , the Canadian Red Cross Society initiated widespread sewing efforts shortly after the war's outbreak, with a call issued on October 30, 1914, for volunteers to sew shirts, pyjamas, and kit bags, fostering community solidarity through these gatherings. Similar initiatives occurred in the United States and , where circles contributed quilts and bandages, blending domestic skills with national support. The , including the , saw circles pivot toward domestic relief, with groups quilting for impoverished families to provide warmth and aid. By (1939–1945), these networks intensified under campaigns like the British "" initiative, which encouraged rationing-compliant repairs and production of comfort items such as millions of socks, balaclavas, and gloves through organized work parties. In the United States, female participation in rose dramatically from approximately 50% of women in 1939 to 82% by 1944, driven by "Sew for Victory" drives that repurposed household skills for wartime manufacturing of uniforms and supplies. Post-1945, sewing circles evolved from predominantly utilitarian functions to include educational and preservationist aims, as quiltmakers and needleworkers formed formal guilds for mutual instruction and cultural continuity. Throughout the century, these groups maintained church and community ties, adapting to industrialization's rise in clothing by emphasizing artisanal techniques and social bonding. This shift reflected broader socioeconomic changes, including women's increasing workforce participation, yet preserved sewing circles as venues for skill-sharing amid technological advances like home machines.

Social and Functional Roles

Community Building and Charity Work

Sewing circles have long functioned as social hubs for women, enabling the exchange of techniques, , and emotional support within local communities. These gatherings, often convened in homes or churches, strengthened interpersonal ties and preserved cultural practices through collaborative handiwork. In 19th-century , such circles not only facilitated these interactions but also extended aid to families facing hardship by distributing sewn garments and coordinating further assistance like food provisions and rent payments. Charitable production formed a core activity, with participants crafting items such as quilts, , and for distribution to the needy, orphans, and disaster victims. In the Hopedale community from 1848 to 1863, the local sewing circle aligned with Practical Christian principles to supply essentials to nearby residents in distress, emphasizing direct aid over abstract . Church-affiliated groups frequently directed outputs toward efforts, outfitting evangelists and funding home missions through sales of handmade goods. During the (1861–1865), sewing circles proliferated under Ladies' Aid Societies, where thousands of northern women volunteered to produce uniforms, socks, and bandages for Union troops, while southern counterparts mirrored these efforts for Confederate forces in church basements and public halls. These initiatives extended beyond wartime; early 19th-century Jewish benevolent societies in the U.S. similarly organized for communal welfare, aiding immigrants and the impoverished. In Europe, Victorian-era equivalents, such as British Dorcas societies, focused on garment-making for the poor, blending community solidarity with practical benevolence.

Political and Activist Uses

In the , sewing circles frequently functioned as covert platforms for abolitionist , enabling women—who were largely excluded from formal political participation—to discuss anti-slavery literature, organize boycotts of goods produced by slave labor such as and , and produce handmade items for fairs that supported the movement. These gatherings combined with ideological exchange, allowing participants to agitate for while adhering to societal expectations of domestic productivity. Notable examples include the Rochester Ladies' Anti-Slavery Sewing Society, established in 1851 in , by six women who sewed garments and raised funds to aid fugitive slaves and anti-slavery publications, issuing annual circulars to document their efforts and sustain a written legacy of . Similarly, the Cincinnati Ladies' Anti-Slavery Sewing Circle, founded in 1849 by Sarah Otis Ernst, focused on creating goods for sale at abolitionist bazaars, contributing significantly to the financial backbone of the cause in the Midwest. These circles not only generated revenue—antislavery fairs relying heavily on women's sales—but also fostered resolve among participants by exposing them to reformist texts during meetings. Beyond abolition, sewing circles extended to other reform efforts, including early campaigns, where groups sewed banners, quilts, and emblems emblazoned with political slogans to rally support and fundraise, as seen in artifacts like the Hoosier Suffrage Quilt used in meetings around 1910–1920. During the Civil War era, such circles shifted toward producing uniforms and supplies for Union troops while embedding anti-slavery sentiments into their discourse, effectively merging charitable labor with partisan advocacy. This dual role—practical output paired with ideological mobilization—highlighted sewing circles' utility as "soft politics," where women's traditional skills masked and advanced causal interventions against entrenched social hierarchies.

Interpersonal and Cultural Dynamics

Sewing circles cultivated interpersonal bonds through structured yet informal interactions, where women engaged in sewing tasks while exchanging personal narratives, advice, and emotional support. This model prioritized over , enabling participants to contribute uniquely—such as in or execution—fostering a sense of collective and organic akin to frames that accommodate diverse inputs. In these settings, conversations often revolved around daily challenges, reinforcing trust and mutual reliance among members who might otherwise lack such outlets due to domestic constraints. Gossip emerged as a key dynamic, functioning both as a bonding mechanism and a tool for social regulation in women's gatherings, including sessions during tedious communal labors like spinning or . Historically, it transmitted vital knowledge on topics such as and social norms while enforcing community standards, though it could also lead to reputational conflicts documented in early modern cases. Sociologically, this verbal exchange built interpersonal cohesion by challenging isolation and affirming shared values, particularly in premodern societies where women's public roles were curtailed. Culturally, these circles served as resilient networks for navigating power imbalances, as seen in 19th-century examples where enslaved and free women co-created quilts blending African and Anglo-American motifs, facilitating limited intercultural dialogue amid systemic inequities. In abolitionist contexts, such as the 1833 Female Anti-Slavery Society, interracial sewing groups promoted equitable relations between Black and white participants like Charlotte Forten and , advancing democratic ideals through joint production for charitable ends. Wartime quilting circles further exemplified this by uniting women across classes in homes or churches, where rhythmic sewing provided therapeutic solace and spaces to articulate fears and hopes, thereby sustaining community resilience. Following the 1846 Great Fire in , sewing circles formed to produce and sell goods for rebuilding, enhancing social ties and economic recovery through women's collaborative efforts tied to church and communal needs. Overall, these dynamics underscored sewing circles' role in cultural transmission, where manual work anchored oral traditions and relational support, adapting to crises while preserving feminine domains of expression and solidarity.

Distinct Cultural Usages

The Hollywood "Sewing Circle" Euphemism

The term "Sewing Circle" emerged in Hollywood as a coded euphemism during the silent film era through the mid-20th century, denoting informal social networks among lesbian, bisexual, or otherwise same-sex-attracted actresses who gathered privately to socialize, confide, and pursue romantic or sexual relationships away from public scrutiny. These meetings, often hosted at private residences, masqueraded as innocuous sewing sessions to evade detection amid the era's rigid moral codes and studio-enforced image controls, where open homosexuality could derail careers through scandals or contract breaches. The phrase's adoption reflected the necessity for discretion in an industry dominated by powerful studios that prioritized heterosexual public personas for marketability, particularly after the 1930 implementation of the Motion Picture Production Code (Hays Code), which indirectly reinforced norms against "sex perversion" by prohibiting depictions or implications of non-heteronormative behavior. Attribution for originating or popularizing the term varies, with Russian-American actress credited by some accounts as an early user in the 1920s, while is more frequently associated with its widespread application among her circle in and . Dietrich, known for her androgynous roles and rumored affairs with women including Edith Piaf and possibly , reportedly described her group of female companions—comprising figures like Garbo, , , and —as her "sewing circle," emphasizing lunches and conversations over actual needlework. Garbo, who retired from acting in 1941 amid persistent rumors of relationships with and others, participated in such networks, as documented in de Acosta's private letters and later biographies, though Garbo herself never publicly confirmed involvement. Bankhead, outspoken in her , hosted gatherings that extended the euphemism's use into the 1950s, blending Hollywood elites with broader bohemian scenes. Evidence for the Sewing Circle's existence relies heavily on anecdotal memoirs, posthumous revelations, and insider gossip rather than contemporaneous , given the risks of exposure; for instance, biographer Axel Madsen's 1991 book compiles accounts from participants' associates, portraying it as a supportive haven amid professional isolation, but critics note the potential for embellishment in retrospective narratives. Historians caution that while relationships like Dietrich's with (documented in personal correspondence from ) substantiate intimate female bonds, the "circle" framework may romanticize fragmented, overlapping affairs rather than a formalized club, with systemic underreporting due to destroyed and legal pressures under anti-sodomy laws prevailing until 2003. The euphemism faded post-1960s as cultural attitudes shifted with the and (1969), allowing more overt visibility, though it endures in scholarship as emblematic of Hollywood's closeted underbelly. Quilting bees emerged in colonial America as communal gatherings centered on the collective production of , typically involving women framing a quilt top over stretched fabric and stitching layers together by hand. Documented as early as the , these events combined practical labor with social interaction, where participants divided tasks such as quilting rows competitively to expedite completion. The term "bee" derives from dialectal English for a helpful gathering, akin to husking or bees, reflecting rural traditions brought by European settlers. By the mid-19th century, bees reached peak popularity , particularly between 1850 and 1875, serving as key social outlets for women in rural and pioneer communities. These events often occurred in homes, with the hostess providing meals featuring dishes like pies and stews to sustain participants through extended sessions. Beyond , bees facilitated news exchange, , skill-sharing, and opportunities, functioning informally as matrimonial venues where engagements were announced. Men occasionally attended for and but rarely participated in the , underscoring the gatherings' role as rare female-dominated spaces amid domestic isolation. While romanticized in as emblematic of colonial cooperation, historical evidence suggests quilting bees were genuine but regionally variable practices, less ubiquitous than later myths portrayed amid 19th-century industrialization and migration. Primary accounts, including diaries and periodicals, confirm their occurrence in areas like and the Midwest, where quilts provided essential warmth and items. Related variants included pre-quilting "piecing frolics," where women assembled tops collaboratively before the bee, and charity-focused iterations during wartime, such as and II efforts producing comfort quilts for soldiers. In the , the Freedom Quilting Bee, founded in 1965 in Alberta, Alabama, adapted the model into an economic cooperative for Black women during the Civil Rights era, generating income through sales while preserving communal techniques.

Modern Adaptations and Continuations

Contemporary Sewing Groups

Contemporary sewing groups encompass a range of formal organizations, local guilds, and informal social gatherings that continue the tradition of collective sewing while incorporating modern elements such as digital communication and specialized interests like quilting or upcycling. These groups often emphasize skill-sharing, community support, and creative expression, with many adapting to online platforms for broader accessibility following the rise of social media in the early 2000s. The American Sewing Guild (ASG), founded in to preserve and promote sewing arts, maintains an active national presence with local chapters across the that host meetings, workshops, fashion shows, and neighborhood groups focused on technique development. By the 2020s, ASG continues to offer resources like project tutorials and Q&A forums, serving sewists of all skill levels through in-person and virtual events. Specialized entities like the Modern Quilt Guild, established in October 2009 in , have expanded rapidly via online networks, amassing over 15,000 members across more than 200 guilds in 39 countries by 2021. The guild promotes modern quilting—characterized by bold colors, , and contemporary designs—through educational programs, annual QuiltCon conferences, and community challenges that encourage innovation. Informal variants, such as meetups originating in the late , have proliferated globally in the 21st century, attracting participants for , , and related crafts alongside casual conversation. These groups, often organized via platforms like or social media, foster social bonds and skill exchange without formal structure, reflecting a casual evolution from historical sewing circles. Recent trends indicate renewed interest in these gatherings amid economic pressures, with enrollment surges in classes for practical purposes like garment repair noted as of 2025.

Integration with Activism and Therapy

In modern sewing circles, activism manifests through "craftivism," a practice blending creation with for social and political causes, allowing participants to produce protest banners, quilts, and garments that raise awareness on issues such as , racial equity, and . For instance, the Sewing Academy, which operates workshops for youth from underserved communities, integrates sewing skills with discussions on systemic inequities, enabling participants to design s that embody activist messages like those addressing family separations at borders. Similarly, groups inspired by artists like Aram Han Sifuentes repurpose sewing gatherings to craft voting-themed installations and flags, transforming domestic needlework into public symbols of empowerment and resistance. These adaptations build on the communal structure of traditional circles but emphasize output directed toward tangible political action, such as displaying quilts at events like QuiltCon to highlight topics including police violence and refugee crises. Therapeutically, sewing circles leverage the rhythmic, focused nature of stitching to support , particularly in group settings that combine individual with social connection. A scoping review of 22 studies in the Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Services concluded that needlecraft activities, often conducted in communal formats, yield positive effects on by lowering , enhancing emotional regulation, and mitigating symptoms of anxiety and depression through repetitive hand movements akin to . from crafts-based intervention trials, including those analyzed in a 2025 systematic review, indicates modest but consistent improvements in psychological outcomes for participants in structured groups, attributed to the dual benefits of cognitive engagement and that counteract isolation. Contemporary examples include community crafting sessions in programs, where shared projects foster resilience; for example, informal circles during the era provided stress relief via online collaboration, with participants reporting reduced multitasking-induced anxiety through the tactile demands of . This integration underscores causal links between the activity's sensory feedback—such as the feel of fabric and thread—and responses that promote calm, though benefits vary by individual commitment and .

Criticisms and Debates

Reinforcement of Traditional Gender Roles

Sewing circles historically channeled women's communal activities into tasks aligned with domestic responsibilities, such as producing clothing and household linens, which reinforced the societal expectation that women's primary roles centered on family provision and homemaking. In the 19th century, these gatherings, often organized through churches or communities, involved women in spinning, weaving, and sewing all family garments, embedding these skills as essential feminine duties within the early American economy. This focus on productive domestic labor limited women's engagement in broader economic or public spheres, perpetuating gender segregation by framing sewing proficiency as a marker of virtuous femininity rather than a pathway to independent livelihoods. Critics contend that such circles, by prioritizing thrift and creativity within the home, discouraged women's pursuit of formal employment or outside traditional bounds, particularly during periods of industrial change from 1890 to 1930 when served as a cultural refuge for outdated ideals amid modernization. Educational curricula further entrenched this by integrating into programs by the early 1900s, positioning it as preparation for marital and maternal roles; by the 1960s, it was deemed indispensable for equipping women for domestic life, sidelining alternatives that might challenge normative divisions. Even charitable sewing efforts, like those in 19th-century where women created and sold items for church funds, tied social participation to supportive rather than leadership positions, reinforcing to male-dominated institutions. In mid-20th century contexts, such as 1950s , home persisted as a feminine practice emphasizing budgetary necessity and household creativity, yet it often confined women to unpaid labor that mirrored factory work without economic , thus sustaining domesticity as the core of female identity. This pattern drew feminist scrutiny for upholding binaries where women's value derived from nurturing and maintenance roles, potentially stifling individual agency in favor of collective reinforcement of patriarchal structures.

Perceptions of Superficiality and Gossip

Sewing circles have long been stereotyped as forums for idle gossip and superficial discourse, particularly in historical accounts portraying women's gatherings as distractions from more substantive pursuits. This view frames the sewing activity itself as secondary to the conversational element, with participants allegedly prioritizing personal anecdotes and neighborhood rumors over productive labor. For instance, 19th-century literature and diaries often depicted such meetings as chaotic social events leaving "confusion and disorder" in their wake, implying unproductive chatter dominated proceedings. Academic analyses of women's networks confirm gossip was routinely exchanged in sewing circles alongside quilting parties and parlors, reinforcing the association with informal, non-intellectual exchange. Critics, including those in religious and cultural contexts, have derided sewing circles for fostering "idle " as a gendered linked to , contrasting it with virtuous charity work. In early 20th-century American Catholic plays, for example, sewing circle scenes highlighted the tension between communal and the perceived moral pitfalls of unchecked talk among women. Such perceptions undervalued the circles' role in social cohesion, dismissing women's verbal interactions as trivial compared to male-dominated public discourse, while ignoring how shared narratives could transmit practical or alerts. This stereotype persists in modern cultural commentary, where sewing circles are likened to other female-centric crafts stereotyped as "gossipy" outlets for unproductive bonding, echoing broader dismissals of domestic crafts as devalued labor. Scholarly examinations of craft activism note how sewing circles were relegated to "trivial" status, their social dimensions seen as or peripheral to serious endeavor. Despite evidence that these gatherings facilitated essential relational maintenance—such as or information —the enduring image prioritizes superficiality, often rooted in patriarchal devaluation of women's informal networks rather than empirical assessment of their content or outcomes.

Feminist Reinterpretations

Feminist scholars have reinterpreted historical sewing circles as covert arenas for political discourse and resistance, transforming perceptions of domestic needlework from passive female labor into subversive acts of solidarity. In the antebellum United States, groups such as the Rochester Ladies' Anti-Slavery Sewing Society, established in 1851, combined sewing fundraisers with abolitionist advocacy, producing garments for enslaved people while discussing strategies to support figures like . Similarly, during the , colonial spinning and sewing bees served as organized protests against British textile imports, enabling women to contribute to economic boycotts under the guise of communal craft. These reinterpretations emphasize how restricted public roles compelled women to leverage private gatherings for ideological exchange, challenging narratives of sewing solely as apolitical homemaking. Contemporary feminist analyses extend this view to pedagogical and activist frameworks, positing sewing circles as models for "sociopolitical stitching" that foster . For instance, examinations of 19th-century and Hopedale sewing circles highlight their roles in charitable production intertwined with religious reform and community aid, which scholars frame as proto-feminist networks for mutual support amid patriarchal constraints. Third-wave feminists, in particular, reclaim imagery to reconcile domesticity with , using stitches to encode themes of agency and critique gender hierarchies, as seen in artistic projects that repurpose historical motifs for modern protest banners and quilts. This pedagogy draws on empirical records of wartime circles, where women during conflicts like produced items for soldiers while sustaining morale and informal networks, reimagined today as deliberate resistance to marginalization. Critics within feminist discourse, however, caution against over-romanticizing these spaces, noting that many circles reinforced class and racial divides even as they enabled limited autonomy. Empirical studies underscore that while abolitionist sewing groups advanced anti-slavery causes—raising funds through sales of sewn goods—their membership often excluded working-class or non-white women, limiting broader inclusivity. Nonetheless, proponents argue that such reinterpretations validate needlework's dual potential for conformity and subversion, evidenced by persistent modern adaptations in activist quilting that encode messages of dissent, as in feminist protest quilts deployed since the 1970s to visualize demands for equality. This dual lens reflects causal dynamics where material production facilitated intangible gains in collective efficacy, grounded in verifiable historical participation rather than idealized projections.

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  47. https://peppermintmag.com/how-to-find-a-sewing-community/
  48. https://www.themodernquiltguild.com/about-us/who-we-are
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  75. https://www.normanrea.com/blog/womens-work-as-protest-the-history-of-feminist-protest-quilts
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