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The Solomonic column, also called barley-sugar column, is a helical column, characterized by a spiraling twisting shaft like a corkscrew. It is not associated with a specific classical order, although most examples have Corinthian or Composite capitals. But it may be crowned with any design, for example, making a Roman Doric solomonic or Ionic solomonic column.[1]

Perhaps originating in the Near East, it is a feature of Late Roman architecture, which was revived in Baroque architecture, especially in the Spanish and Portuguese-speaking worlds. Two sets of columns, both in the very prestigious setting of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, were probably important in the wide diffusion of the style. The first were relatively small, and given by Constantine the Great in the 4th century. These were soon believed to have come from the Temple in Jerusalem, hence the style's naming after the biblical Solomon. The second set are those of Bernini's St. Peter's Baldacchino, finished in 1633.

Etymology and origin

[edit]
The so-called Ludovisi column, a possible forebear dated on stylistic grounds to the Flavian dynasty
At right, two of the Solomonic columns brought to Rome by Constantine, in their present-day location on a pier in St. Peter's Basilica. In the foreground at left is part of Bernini's Baldacchino, inspired by the original columns.

Unlike the classical example of Trajan's Column of ancient Rome, which has a turned shaft decorated with a single continuous helical band of low-reliefs depicting Trajan's military might in battle, the twisted column is known to be an eastern motif taken into Byzantine architecture and decoration. Twist-fluted columns were a feature of some eastern architecture of Late Antiquity.

In the 4th century, Constantine the Great brought a set of columns to Rome and gave them to the original St. Peter's Basilica for reuse in the high altar and presbytery; The Donation of Constantine, a painting from Raphael's workshop, shows these columns in their original location. According to tradition, these columns came from the "Temple of Solomon", even though Solomon's temple was the First Temple, built in the 10th century BC and destroyed in 586 BC, not the Second Temple, destroyed in 70 AD. These columns, now considered to have been made in the 2nd century AD,[2] became known as "Solomonic". In actuality, the columns probably came from neither temple. Constantine is recorded as having brought them de Grecias i.e., from Greece, and they are archaeologically documented as having been cut from Greek marble.[2] A small number of Roman examples of similar columns are known. All that can firmly be said is that they are early and, because they have no Christian iconography in the carving and their early date (before the construction of elaborate churches), are presumably reused from some non-church building.[2] The columns have distinct sections that alternate from ridged to smooth with sculpted grape leaves.

Some of these columns remained on the altar until the old structure of St. Peter's was torn down in the 16th century. While removed from the altar, eight of these columns remain part of the structure of St. Peter's. Two columns were placed below the pendentives on each of the four piers beneath the dome. Another column can now be observed up close in the St. Peter's Treasury Museum. Other columns from this set of twelve have been lost over the course of time.

If these columns really were from one of the Temples in Jerusalem, the spiral pattern may have represented the oak tree which was the first Ark of the Covenant, mentioned in Joshua 24:26.[3] These columns have sections of twist-fluting alternating with wide bands of foliated reliefs.

From Byzantine examples, the Solomonic column passed to Western Romanesque architecture. In Romanesque architecture some columns also featured spiraling elements twisted round each other like hawser. Such variety adding life to an arcade is combined with Cosmatesque spiralling inlays in the cloister of St. John Lateran. These arcades were prominent in Rome and may have influenced the baroque Solomonic column.

In Baroque architecture

[edit]
Bernini's baldacchino in St. Peter's Basilica.

The Solomonic column was revived as a feature of Baroque architecture. The twisted S-curve shaft gives energy and dynamism to the traditional column form which fits these qualities that are characteristically Baroque.

Easily the best-known Solomonic columns are the colossal bronze Composite columns by Bernini in his Baldacchino at St. Peter's Basilica. The construction of the baldachin, actually a ciborium, which was finished in 1633, required that the original ones of Constantine be moved.

During the succeeding century, Solomonic columns were commonly used in altars, furniture, and other parts of design. Sculpted vines were sometimes carved into the spiralling cavetto of the twisting columns, or made of metal, such as gilt bronze. In an ecclesiastical context such ornament may be read as symbolic of the wine used in the Eucharist.

Raphael and workshop, "Healing of the Lame Man," one of the Raphael Cartoons for a tapestry of Peter healing the lame man (Acts 3). The Solomonic columns in St Peter's Basilica used as models for the columns of the Jewish Temple

In the 16th century Raphael depicted these columns in his tapestry cartoon The Healing of the Lame at the Beautiful Gate, and Anthony Blunt noticed them in Bagnocavallo's Circumcision at the Louvre and in some Roman altars, such as one in Santo Spirito in Sassia, but their full-scale use in actual architecture was rare: Giulio Romano employed a version as half-columns decoratively[4] superimposed against a wall in the Cortile della Cavallerizza of the Palazzo Ducale, Mantua (1538-39).[5]

Solomonic Columns on the Baroque façade of Basilica of Nuestra Señora de la Merced in Lima built in 1614

Peter Paul Rubens employed Solomonic columns in tapestry designs, ca 1626 [1], where he provided a variant of an Ionic capital for the columns as Raphael had done, and rusticated and Solomonic columns appear in the architecture of his paintings with such consistency and in such variety that Anthony Blunt thought it would be pointless to give a complete list.[5]

The columns became popular in Catholic Europe including southern Germany. The Solomonic column spread to Spain at about the same time as Bernini was making his new columns, and from Spain to Spanish colonies in the Americas, where the salomónica was often used in churches as an indispensable element of the Churrigueresque style. The design was most infrequently used in Britain, the south porch of St Mary the Virgin, Oxford, being the only exterior example found by Robert Durman,[3] and was still rare in English interior design, an example noted by Durman is the funerary monument for Helena, Lady Gorges (died 1635) at Salisbury perhaps the sole use.

After 1660, such twist-turned columns became a familiar feature in the legs of French, Dutch and English furniture, and on the glazed doors that protected the dials of late 17th- and early 18th-century bracket and longcase clocks. English collectors and dealers sometimes call these twist-turned members "barley sugar twists" after the type of sweet traditionally sold in this shape.

[edit]
  • Solomonic columns applied with gilded vines on a side altar in former Jesuits' church in Poznań (Poland)
    Solomonic columns applied with gilded vines on a side altar in former Jesuits' church in Poznań (Poland)
  • Solomonic columns and other fanciful variants in the cloister of St John Lateran, Rome, early 13th century
    Solomonic columns and other fanciful variants in the cloister of St John Lateran, Rome, early 13th century
  • Pompey in the Temple of Jerusalem by Jean Fouquet, 1470–1475
    Pompey in the Temple of Jerusalem by Jean Fouquet, 1470–1475
  • Raphael's workshop's Donation of Constantine shows St. Peter's Solomonic columns in their original location in front of the altar in the old basilica
    Raphael's workshop's Donation of Constantine shows St. Peter's Solomonic columns in their original location in front of the altar in the old basilica
  • Papal throne from the cloister of St. John Lateran
    Papal throne from the cloister of St. John Lateran
  • Renaissance design of a candlestick in form of an Ionic Solomonic column, circa 1530-1546
    Renaissance design of a candlestick in form of an Ionic Solomonic column, circa 1530-1546
  • Renaissance door to the staircase of the Hôtel d'Assézat, Toulouse (France), 1555-1556.
    Renaissance door to the staircase of the Hôtel d'Assézat, Toulouse (France), 1555-1556.
  • Print by François Boucher, in which appears a pair of Solomonic columns with Ionic capitals
    Print by François Boucher, in which appears a pair of Solomonic columns with Ionic capitals

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Solomonic column

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A Solomonic column is a helical architectural element distinguished by its shaft, which spirals or twists continuously around the central axis in a corkscrew-like manner, often evoking the texture of barley sugar or a coiled vine.[1] This form typically pairs with classical capitals, such as Ionic or Corinthian, and bases, while the twisting fluting provides both structural support and ornate decoration in buildings.[1] Named for the fabled columns of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem as described in biblical accounts, the style symbolizes divine architecture and heavenly ascent, blending aesthetic intricacy with symbolic depth.[2] The origins of the Solomonic column lie in late Roman and early Christian architecture, where spiral columns were imported to Rome around 333 AD by Emperor Constantine I from sites near Jerusalem or Constantinople to adorn the original St. Peter's Basilica over the tomb of Saint Peter.[2] These ancient columns, dating to the second century AD and possibly influenced by Greco-Roman precedents such as the Serpent Column (also known as Columna de las Serpientes), a 5th-century BC bronze monument from the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi consisting of three intertwined snakes, erected after the Battle of Plataea (479 BC) to support a golden tripod, and relocated to Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 324 AD, were believed to replicate the sacred pillars Jachin and Boaz from Solomon's Temple, though archaeological evidence links their design more directly to pagan and Hellenistic traditions adapted for Christian use.[3] While frequently cited as an ancient helical precursor due to its twisted form, the Solomonic column style itself developed much later and has no direct presence in ancient Delphi.[4] By the fourth century, they appeared in key Christian sites, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, signifying continuity between Old Testament temple worship and the new faith.[1] Revived during the Renaissance and reaching prominence in the Baroque era, Solomonic columns became a hallmark of elaborate ecclesiastical design, particularly in Italy and its colonial extensions.[5] Architects like Gian Lorenzo Bernini incorporated them into the bronze Baldacchino of St. Peter's Basilica (completed 1634), where four massive twisted columns rise to support a canopy, drawing on Constantine's originals preserved nearby and disseminating the motif through engravings and treatises by figures such as Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1562).[2] This revival extended to Jesuit missions in the Americas and Asia, as seen in the Chiquitos reductions of Bolivia (late 17th to 18th centuries), where they served as both structural "tree trunks" and emblems of Heavenly Jerusalem, facilitating cultural inculturation.[5] Beyond churches, the style influenced Romanesque, Byzantine, Moorish, and even secular furniture and clocks in Europe from the 16th century onward, underscoring its versatility and enduring prestige.[1]

Definition and Characteristics

Physical Description

The Solomonic column features a helical twisting shaft that spirals upward in a continuous corkscrew or barley-sugar form, distinguishing it from straight-shafted classical columns. This twist is often enhanced by spiral fluting divided into compartments, typically with six crests or swellings per side following geometric proportions such as those outlined by Vignola, involving 48 vertical divisions and an 8-point circular pattern.[6] The base is usually an extended pedestal with elements like compressed volute scrolls, while the capital employs ornate composite or Ionic forms adapted to the spiral, incorporating acanthus leaves, vine motifs, or foliage that wrap around the twisting shaft. Decorative elements include relief carvings of grape vines, athletic putti, or alternating fluted and foliated sections, often in four compartments per shaft (two with spiral fluting and two with carved details).[6][7] Historical examples are commonly constructed from marble or bronze, with heights ranging from approximately 14.8 feet in early marble instances to 20 meters in larger bronze structures, maintaining proportions akin to modified classical orders such as a height-to-width ratio of about 11:1 to 12:1. Surface texturing via fluting or relief emphasizes the helical motion, using materials like grey veined or colored marbles for added visual depth.[6][8]

Distinction from Other Columns

The Solomonic column stands apart from the classical orders—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—primarily through its helical, twisting shaft, which imparts a sense of dynamic torsion and visual movement, contrasting with the straight, fluted or smooth shafts of classical designs that prioritize unyielding verticality and structural simplicity.[1][9] In classical architecture, Doric columns feature sturdy, unadorned proportions without bases, Ionic columns incorporate volute capitals on slimmer shafts, and Corinthian columns add ornate acanthus-leaf detailing, all emphasizing proportion and load distribution over ornamentation; the Solomonic form, however, integrates the twist as a core decorative element, often paired with Corinthian or Ionic capitals to heighten its dramatic effect.[9] Unlike ancient helical columns such as those on Trajan's Column in Rome (c. 113 AD), which employ a continuous spiral frieze for narrative reliefs depicting historical events without twisting the shaft itself, Solomonic columns focus on the shaft's uniform spiral as a purely aesthetic feature, evoking fluidity rather than storytelling.[1][3] Functionally, Solomonic columns diverge from straight classical types by serving more as emphatic supports for baldachins, altars, or canopies in sacred spaces, where their torsion draws the eye upward for symbolic emphasis rather than fulfilling primary load-bearing roles in entablatures or porticos.[1] While capable of structural contribution, their elaborate form often renders them secondary to hidden reinforcements in later applications, prioritizing visual and ritual impact over utilitarian strength.[9] The Solomonic column evolved from earlier twisted designs in Byzantine architecture, such as spirally fluted columns in early Christian basilicas, but distinguishes itself through more pronounced, uniform spirals devoid of figural narratives or irregular fluting, refining the twist into a consistent helical motif for enhanced decorative coherence.[9][3]

Historical Origins

Biblical and Ancient Roots

The biblical foundations of the Solomonic column trace to the description of the two bronze pillars, Jachin and Boaz, erected at the entrance to Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem around the 10th century BCE. According to 1 Kings 7:15-22, these pillars stood 18 cubits high (approximately 8 meters), each cast as a single piece of hollow bronze with a thickness of four fingers, topped by elaborate capitals featuring lily-work, chains, and pomegranates arranged in rows.[10] Similarly, 2 Chronicles 3:15-17 details their placement before the temple porch, one on the right and one on the left, emphasizing their role as monumental markers rather than structural supports.[11] These accounts portray the pillars as straight and cylindrical, with decorative elements evoking natural forms like lilies and fruits, but without any indication of twisting or helical shafts.[12] Archaeological investigations have yielded no direct evidence of these pillars or any twisted columns from Solomon's Temple, as the site's location on the Temple Mount has restricted excavations, and the structure was destroyed in 586 BCE without leaving identifiable remains.[13] However, comparative studies suggest possible influences from Phoenician and Egyptian temple architecture, given that the biblical narrative credits the pillars' craftsmanship to Hiram of Tyre, a Phoenician artisan skilled in bronze work.[12] Archaeological parallels include Iron Age temples like Ain Dara in Syria, which features twin column bases at the entrance similar to descriptions of Jachin and Boaz, indicating a regional tradition of monumental pillars in sacred architecture.[12] In the 1st century CE, the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus provided an early post-biblical interpretation in his Antiquities of the Jews, closely following the scriptural details but elaborating on the capitals' lily-work as interwoven with small palms and network resembling natural foliage.[14] This embellishment evoked palm trunks and vine patterns, contributing to later legendary associations of the pillars with organic forms, though Josephus himself described the shafts as straight brass cylinders without helical twists.[15] While the biblical accounts and early interpretations describe the pillars as straight shafts without helical elements, an ancient monument frequently cited as a precursor to the twisted design of the Solomonic column is the Serpent Column (also known as the Plataean Tripod) from Delphi. This 5th-century BC bronze helical monument, formed by three intertwined snakes and originally supporting a golden tripod, was created to commemorate the Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC and dedicated at the Sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi. The column exemplifies Greco-Roman traditions of spiral monumental columns and was relocated to Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 324 AD, potentially influencing later beliefs associating such forms with Solomon's Temple.[16][17]

Medieval Interpretations

During the medieval period, the Solomonic column was reinterpreted in Christian art and architecture primarily through traditions linking twisted or spiral columns to relics purportedly originating from Solomon's Temple, symbolizing divine wisdom and the continuity between the Old and New Testaments. This association stemmed from early Christian legends that persisted into the Middle Ages, particularly regarding the spiral columns incorporated into Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which were believed to have been transported from Jerusalem by Emperor Constantine in the 4th century as Temple artifacts. These columns, used to support a canopy over St. Peter's tomb, influenced medieval views of the Solomonic form as a sacred motif evoking the Temple's grandeur and theological significance.[6] Relic veneration played a key role in this reinterpretation, with several European churches claiming to possess fragments or columns from Solomon's Temple, spurring imitative designs and devotional practices. In Rome, the Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano housed what were believed to be Temple relics during the Middle Ages, attracting both Jewish and Christian pilgrims who viewed them as tangible links to biblical history. Similarly, in Venice, the Columns of San Marco and San Todaro in the Piazzetta, erected in the 12th century, were seen as evoking the biblical pillars Jachin and Boaz from Solomon's Temple porch, reinforcing their symbolic role in civic and religious identity. These claimed artifacts inspired decorative elements in church portals and screens, though full helical forms remained rare.[18][19] In medieval manuscripts and illuminations, depictions of the Temple often featured columns with subtle twists or ornamental spirals to symbolize spiritual ascent and divine order, as seen in 13th-century works like the Bible moralisée, where Solomon's Temple illustrations paralleled Christian typology. This artistic convention bridged biblical descriptions of Jachin and Boaz—straight bronze pillars marking the Temple entrance—with emerging helical motifs interpreted as metaphors for the twisting path to salvation. As architecture transitioned from Romanesque solidity to Gothic lightness around the 12th century, rare helical flourishes appeared in choir screens and portals, serving as subtle nods to Solomonic heritage without dominating structural forms.[20]

Revival and Evolution

Renaissance Period

The revival of the Solomonic column during the Renaissance began in early 16th-century Italy, where architects sought to integrate ancient and medieval forms into modern sacred architecture. Donato Bramante played a pivotal role in the early construction of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1506. The twisted columns preserved from the Constantinian basilica—relics believed to originate from Solomon's Temple—remained in place under a temporary protective structure during Bramante's work until the dome's completion in 1593.[6] This approach marked a deliberate preservation, bridging medieval interpretations of the form with classical ideals derived from texts like Vitruvius.[2] In papal commissions, the Solomonic column signified a transition from rigid classical orders to more expressive twisted designs in ecclesiastical spaces. These elements were positioned around key altars and tombs, shifting emphasis from straight columnar supports to forms evoking organic growth and spiritual elevation, thus reinforcing the basilica's role as a center of Catholic renewal.[21] The form's codification in architectural treatises further propelled its adoption. Sebastiano Serlio, in his multi-volume On Architecture (published between 1537 and 1575), illustrated and described Solomonic columns in portals and facades, presenting them as a "modern" variant inspired by antiquity and suitable for sacred contexts.[22] This theoretical framework facilitated the column's spread beyond Italy to France and Spain by the mid-16th century, where it blended with lingering Gothic motifs in styles like French Flamboyant and Spanish plateresque. In Spain, for instance, Solomonic columns appeared in ornate altarpieces and facades, such as those in Valladolid's College of San Gregorio, enhancing decorative intricacy while maintaining ties to Italian Renaissance sources.[23]

Baroque Architecture

The Baroque period (17th–18th centuries) represented the zenith of Solomonic column usage in European architecture, where their spiraling forms infused structures with movement, drama, and emotional intensity, aligning with the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation efforts to counter Protestant austerity through visually overwhelming designs.[24] These columns departed from classical restraint, emphasizing curvature and ornament to evoke divine ecstasy and spatial illusion, often integrated into altars, baldachins, and facades to heighten religious fervor.[25] A paradigmatic example is Gian Lorenzo Bernini's bronze baldachin in St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, erected from 1624 to 1633 to canopy the papal altar over Saint Peter's tomb.[26] The structure comprises four colossal Solomonic columns, each rising about 20 meters (roughly 66 feet), their shafts twisting helically with intricate carvings of olive branches, acanthus leaves, and putti, topped by gilded Corinthian capitals.[8] Bernini incorporated the Barberini family's heraldic bees into the vine-like motifs wrapping the columns, symbolizing papal patronage under Urban VIII while recycling bronze from the Pantheon's portico for authenticity and scale.[27] This monumental ensemble, gilded and crowned by volutes and a cross, not only anchors the basilica's vast interior but exemplifies Baroque fusion of sculpture, architecture, and engineering to create a sense of upward thrust toward the heavens.[26] Solomonic columns proliferated in Counter-Reformation architecture, particularly in Jesuit churches that served as models for global missionary outreach. These applications underscored the column's role in creating immersive, persuasive spaces that reinforced Catholic doctrine amid religious strife.[24] National adaptations reflected local tastes while preserving the form's dynamism: in England, Georgian-era examples appear in Christopher Wren's St. Paul's Cathedral (constructed 1675–1710), where twisted Solomonic columns in the choir and reredos scheme evoke continental influences amid post-fire reconstruction.[28] In colonial Latin America, 18th-century interpretations emerged in Mexico City's Metropolitan Cathedral, featuring Solomonic columns on the west facade's second story to blend Iberian Baroque with New World opulence.[29] Baroque innovations in fabrication enabled unprecedented sizes and details, notably bronze lost-wax casting for Bernini's baldachin columns, produced in segmented pieces, internally reinforced with concrete, and on-site assembled to achieve 20-meter heights without structural failure.[30] This technique, drawing on Renaissance precedents like Bramante's prototypes but scaled dramatically, allowed for finer reliefs—such as Bernini's floral and faunal engravings—while ensuring durability in seismic Rome.[31]

Symbolism

Theological Symbolism

In Christian theology, the twisting form of the Solomonic column evokes the divine presence associated with Solomon's Temple, where the spiral shaft symbolizes an upward connection between earth and heaven, as reinterpreted in Baroque designs like Bernini's baldacchino at St. Peter's Basilica.[32] This helical structure represents the Temple's relics repurposed for Christian worship, emphasizing the continuity of sacred space from the Old Testament era.[32] The column's design further signifies the union of the Old and New Testaments in Christian iconography, intertwining the Jewish law exemplified by Solomon with the teachings of Christ.[32] By adapting the Solomonic form for altars and ciboria, it underscores the transformation of Temple symbolism into a marker of apostolic authority and sacramental unity.[32] Solomonic columns frequently frame Eucharistic altars, where their spiraling vines symbolize the twisted path to salvation and the binding of branches to the true vine as described in John 15:1-5, evoking Christ's redemptive sacrifice and the life-giving elements of the Eucharist.[33] This ornamentation aligns the column with the wine of communion, reinforcing themes of spiritual nourishment and divine grace in liturgical settings.[33] In Jewish tradition, the original pillars of Solomon's Temple, Jachin and Boaz, embodied the divine presence (Shekhinah) at the sacred center.[34]

Broader Cultural Interpretations

Beyond their theological connotations as a link between heaven and earth, Solomonic columns have inspired broader cultural interpretations in art and architecture, often evoking themes of intricacy, elevation, and human aspiration. Secular adaptations emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries, where Solomonic columns appeared in architecture symbolizing enlightenment and wisdom derived from ancient Solomonic lore.[6] In English landscape parks influenced by Freemasonic principles during the Enlightenment, columns from Solomon's Temple evoked intellectual ascent and the pursuit of knowledge, often flanking temple-like structures to blend natural scenery with philosophical ideals.[35] A notable modern revival occurs in Antoni Gaudí's Sagrada Família basilica in Barcelona, construction of which began in 1882 and continues as of 2025, where helical columns form a "stone forest" that interconnects natural growth with spiritual elevation, merging Baroque torsion with organic, tree-like symbolism.[36] Gaudí's design transforms the columns into branching supports that mimic forest canopies, allowing light to filter through and symbolize the ascent from earthly roots to divine heights.[36] In 19th-century Romantic literature, architecture functioned as metaphors for structural complexity and moral or spiritual ascent, portraying it as a labyrinthine emblem of societal evolution and individual transcendence, influencing Romantic views on beauty amid turmoil.[37]

References

  1. What Is a Solomonic Column? It's All in the Twist - ThoughtCo
  2. [PDF] St. Peter's Basilica as Templum Dei - BYU ScholarsArchive
  3. Unique columns in Roman architecture - IMPERIUM ROMANUM
  4. [PDF] The Solomonic Column as a Symbolic Image of ... - Semantic Scholar
  5. [PDF] Russell Taylor, 'Solomonic columns in England - The Georgian Group
  6. Building the Picture | Place Making | The National Gallery, London
  7. Arches, Columns, and Domes: Architectural Evolution from the ...
  8. (DOC) Pillars of Jain Temple - Academia.edu
  9. Types of Columns in Architecture - Elegance in Stone - Art in Context
  10. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Kings+7%3A15-22&version=NRSVUE
  11. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2+Chronicles+3%3A15-17&version=NRSVUE
  12. The Temple of Solomon in Iron Age Context - MDPI
  13. Jerusalem's Temples: The Archaeological Evidence
  14. Phoenician Design of King Solomon's Temple - Phoenicia.org
  15. Antiquities of the Jews, Book VIII - Josephus
  16. Josephus - Antiquities VIII, building the Temple - Arnold vander Nat
  17. Symbols of Fertility and Abundance in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, Iraq
  18. Symbols of Fertility and Abundance in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, Iraq
  19. In Search of Jewish Temple Relics: the Lateran Basilica and the ...
  20. The Two Columns of the Piazzetta St. Mark in Venice
  21. Bodleian Library MS. Bodl. 270b
  22. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/st-peters-in-the-vatican/
  23. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004244405/B9789004244405_014.pdf
  24. https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/93011/899211335-MIT.pdf?sequence=2
  25. The sacred baroque in the Catholic world - Smarthistory
  26. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino (video) - Khan Academy
  27. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino, Saint Peter's - Smarthistory
  28. Papal Altar & Baldacchino - St Peter's Basilica Info
  29. https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/m/marder-bernini.html
  30. Il Gesù, Rome - Smarthistory
  31. The Holy House of Loreto, in the light of archives and archaeology
  32. 1693–97: The Choir and Morning Prayer Chapel - St Paul's Cathedral
  33. The Seventeenth Century: Great Cathedrals and the Rise of a ...
  34. Bernini's Baldacchino shines again at St. Peter's - The History Blog
  35. Barley Sugar Columns and Baroque Bling: Bernini's Baldacchino at ...
  36. Bernini at St Peter's by Irving Lavin
  37. Glossary - Solomonic column - De Ferranti
  38. Jachin and Boaz in Religious and Political Perspective
  39. The Symbolism of Masonic Columns - Scottish Rite, NMJ
  40. Masonic Signposts in the English Landscape Garden - Academia.edu
  41. Sagrada Família columns: the geometry, mechanics and materials of ...
  42. [PDF] Hugo, Hegel, and Architecture - PhilArchive
  43. The Serpent Column at Delphi
  44. The Tripod of Plataea (the Serpent Column)
  45. The Serpent Column in the Hippodrome
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