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Statherian
Statherian
Statherian
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Statherian
1800 – 1600 Ma
Map of Earth during the Statherian, c. 1740 Ma[citation needed]
Chronology
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Paleoproterozoic
Mp
Orosirian
Statherian
Calymmian
←
Beginning of the Boring Billion
←
Rafatazmia evolves, Chuanlinggou Formation preserves oldest macroscopic eukaryotes
←
Events of the Statherian Period.
Vertical axis scale: Millions of years ago
Etymology
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitPeriod
Stratigraphic unitSystem
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionDefined chronometrically
Lower GSSA ratified1990[1]
Upper boundary definitionDefined chronometrically
Upper GSSA ratified1990[1]

The Statherian Period ( /stəˈθɪəriən/; Ancient Greek: σταθερός, romanized: statherós, meaning "stable, firm") is the final geologic period in the Paleoproterozoic Era and lasted from 1800 Mya to 1600 Mya (million years ago). Instead of being based on stratigraphy, these dates are defined chronometrically.[2][3]

The period was characterized on most continents by either new platforms or final cratonization of fold belts. Oxygen levels were 10% to 20% of current values.[4]

Rafatazmia, controversially[5] claimed to be present in Statherian beds in India, may be the oldest known confirmably eukaryotic fossil organism.[6]

By the beginning of the Statherian, the supercontinent Columbia had assembled.[7]

Approximately 1.7 billion years ago, natural nuclear fission reactors were generating power in what is now Oklo, Gabon.[8]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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Statherian

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from Grokipedia
The Statherian Period (1,800–1,600 million years ago) is the fourth and final period of the within the Eon, marking a time of relative tectonic stability following intense orogenic activity in preceding periods. During the Statherian, Earth's continents underwent widespread cratonization, with many ancient fold belts achieving final stabilization to form the cores of modern , and nearly all continental blocks collided to assemble the supercontinent Columbia (also known as ). Recent paleomagnetic studies as of 2025 confirm this assembly through data from cratons like and , highlighting asynchronous craton stabilizations and dynamic reconfiguration around 1.7 billion years ago. Biologically, the period saw the emergence and early diversification of eukaryotic life, with molecular and fossil evidence pointing to the origin of complex nucleated cells sometime between 1.8 and 1.6 billion years ago, including the oldest known multicellular eukaryotes preserved in the ~1.642-billion-year-old Chuanlinggou Formation of . Atmospheric oxygen levels, building on the earlier , continued to rise gradually, supporting the metabolic demands of these early eukaryotes while banded iron formations largely ceased due to depleted oceanic iron. Geologically, the Statherian is defined chronometrically rather than by a global stratotype section, reflecting its identification through of volcanic and intrusive rocks across cratons, with notable dyke swarms and post-orogenic recording the period's tectonic repose. This era of calm, lasting approximately 200 million years, set the stage for the by establishing a more unified continental configuration that influenced subsequent cycles.

Definition and Etymology

Name Origin

The name Statherian is derived from the adjective statherós (σταθερός), meaning "stable" or "firm." This etymological choice underscores the geological character of the period, marked by widespread stabilization across protocontinents and a relative quiescence in tectonic processes, in contrast to the preceding Period's prominent orogenic activity. The term was introduced as part of a systematic subdivision of the timescale, reflecting broader trends of enhanced lithospheric rigidity during the . It was formally ratified by the in 1990 through the efforts of its Subcommission on Precambrian , which aimed to standardize chronostratigraphic units for the Eonothem using chronometric definitions. This adoption occurred amid revisions to the global geologic time scale in the late , promoting consistency in nomenclature for international geological correlation.

Temporal Boundaries

The Statherian Period encompasses the interval from 1800 to 1600 million years ago (Ma), representing the concluding division of the Era within the Supereon. This timeframe initiates at the close of the Period, following intense orogenic activity and reflecting a phase of crustal stabilization in the aftermath of the (GOE), which had elevated atmospheric oxygen levels earlier in the . The period concludes at 1600 Ma, marking the onset of the Period and the broader Era, characterized by a shift toward more uniform continental platforms and reduced tectonic volatility. Unlike boundaries, which often rely on biostratigraphic markers and designated Global Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs), chronostratigraphic units like the Statherian are delimited by Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages (GSSAs)—fixed numerical ages derived primarily from high-precision . These GSSAs anchor the temporal framework to key igneous and volcanic layers, such as ash beds and intrusions interbedded with sedimentary sequences, enabling global correlation despite the absence of widespread index fossils. The (ICS) endorses this approach for the , where efforts to establish formal GSSPs remain ongoing but are supplemented by chronometric definitions to ensure consistency. Boundary ages for the Statherian are calibrated using uranium-lead (U-Pb) on crystals, a robust method that exploits the mineral's resistance to alteration and its incorporation of during . For instance, the lower boundary at 1800 Ma draws from U-Pb dates on volcanic tuffs and plutonic rocks associated with late cratonization events, while the upper boundary at 1600 Ma aligns with dates from intrusions signaling the transition to rifting. This technique, refined through thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), achieves precisions often below 1% relative uncertainty, providing a reliable backbone for the timescale. Uncertainties in these boundary definitions stem largely from the sparse biostratigraphic record in the , where microbial mats and chemical sediments offer limited correlation potential compared to faunas. Dating relies heavily on the availability of datable zircon-bearing rocks, which may not be uniformly preserved globally, leading to potential revisions as new outcrops are analyzed; for example, decay constant errors in U-Pb systems introduce fuzziness of several million years at scales. Nonetheless, ongoing integrations of U-Pb data with isotopic and paleomagnetic records continue to refine these limits, underscoring the Statherian's role as a pivotal of geological equilibrium.

Geological Context

Position in Geologic Time Scale

The Statherian Period is classified as the fourth and final period of the Era (2500–1600 Ma), which forms the initial era of the Proterozoic Eon (2500–541 Ma) within the Supereon. This era encompasses the time following the Archean Eon and precedes the Eon, marking a phase of Earth's history dominated by chronostratigraphic divisions rather than biostratigraphic ones due to sparse fossil records. The Statherian is preceded by the (2050–1800 Ma) and followed by the (1600–1400 Ma), the opening period of the subsequent . These boundaries were ratified by the (ICS) in 1990 using Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages (GSSAs), as formal Global Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) are not applicable for units. As a interval, the Statherian has no formal stages, reflecting the era's reliance on over for subdivision, in contrast to the Eon's finer-grained, fossil-based stages. The ICS maintains this structure in its latest chronostratigraphic (version 2024/12), which integrates updated geochronological data from high-precision U-Pb zircon but preserves the Statherian's established temporal framework without boundary revisions as of 2025.

Stratigraphic Subdivisions

The Statherian Period (1800–1600 Ma) lacks formal stratigraphic subdivisions defined by Global Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs), as its boundaries are established chronometrically based on rather than specific rock sections. Instead, informal subdivisions into early (1800–1750 Ma), middle (1750–1700 Ma), and late (1700–1600 Ma) phases are used, primarily guided by episodes of , , and tectonic stability observed in lithostratigraphic records across cratons. These divisions reflect a progression from initial post-orogenic stabilization and intrusions in the early phase to more widespread platform and rifting in the middle and late phases. Key lithostratigraphic units in the Statherian include stable platform sediments deposited in intracratonic basins, such as the Seosan Group in the southwestern Korean Peninsula, which consists of meta-arkosic sandstones and quartzites overlying basement rocks and recording detrital ages around 1.87 Ga. Equivalent formations occur in other cratonic basins, like the Ruyang Group in the , featuring shallow-marine carbonates and siliciclastics that indicate prolonged subsidence under stable continental conditions. These units are characterized by low-energy depositional environments, with minimal tectonic disturbance, highlighting the period's namesake stability. Global correlation of Statherian strata relies on chemostratigraphic tools, such as carbon isotope excursions in carbonate sequences from and basins associated with supercontinent Columbia, which help identify synchronous depositional events across cratons. Paleomagnetic data from dykes and intrusions further aid correlation by reconstructing paleopositions, as seen in matching apparent paths between the and North Australian Craton during the middle to late phases. The stratigraphic record of the Statherian is incomplete in many regions due to extensive following tectonic uplift and high-grade , which has obscured or destroyed original sedimentary sequences in orogenic belts and exposed cratons. For instance, pre-Dismal Lakes Group in northwestern recycled older strata, creating significant unconformities that complicate precise temporal alignments.

Paleogeography

Supercontinent Columbia

The Columbia, also known as , underwent its final assembly phase during the Statherian Period, approximately 1750–1600 Ma, through the collision and accretion of major cratonic blocks including , , and Amazonia. This second stage of assembly followed an initial phase around 2.0–1.8 Ga and involved intermediate- to high-temperature/pressure associated with continental collisions, forming a stable core that integrated these and cratons. Paleomagnetic data indicate that Columbia occupied a near-equatorial position during this time, with stable core regions centered around the Laurentia-Baltica-Amazonia nexus, facilitating prolonged tectonic quiescence. Evidence for the geodynamic evolution of Columbia includes widespread dyke swarms dated to around 1790 Ma, such as those in the (e.g., Colider volcanics) and Rio de la Plata Craton, which signal early rifting precursors shortly after assembly. These events, part of a global 1.79–1.75 Ga pulse, reflect activity that tested the supercontinent's integrity without leading to immediate breakup, instead contributing to intracratonic stabilization. Recent 2025 paleomagnetic analyses of ca. 1.70 Ga dykes from the and correlations with confirm phases of increased stability in Columbia during the Statherian, characterized by minimal latitudinal drift and reduced rates as the transitioned to a more rigid configuration. This stability is evidenced by aligned apparent polar wander paths among key cratons, suggesting a decline in collisional and a shift toward intraplate processes that persisted until fragmentation around 1.45 Ga.

Orogenic Events

The concluding phases of the Svecofennian Orogeny, around 1750 Ma, in the Fennoscandian region featured widespread intrusions and high-grade that consolidated the . These late-stage processes involved anatectic s formed between 1.82 and 1.77 Ga in south-central , reflecting post-collisional crustal reworking and thermal peaks at approximately 1750 Ma. In , the Ruker Orogeny extended from 2000 to 1700 Ma, with its peak activity during the Statherian Period, leading to the development of extensive fold belts in the Ruker Province of the Prince Charles Mountains. This event involved polyphase deformation of sedimentary sequences, including tight folding and low- to medium-grade , as evidenced by structural analyses of the Ruker Group. The Penokean and Wopmay Orogenies in , active from approximately 1880 to 1830 Ma, were characterized by faulting and associated foreland along the margins of the Superior and Slave cratons. In the Penokean belt, northward ing of the Pembine-Wausau arc terrane onto the Archean craton at around 1850 Ma triggered basin subsidence and clastic in a foreland setting. Similarly, the Wopmay Orogeny included major faults that truncated fabrics and facilitated sedimentary deposition in adjacent basins during its terminal phases. These orogenic episodes played a key role in the assembly of the supercontinent Columbia. By the late Statherian, they marked a transition to cratonic stabilization across multiple continents, signaling the decline of widespread collisional and the onset of more rigid continental interiors.

Paleoenvironment

Climate and Atmosphere

Following the , atmospheric oxygen levels during the Statherian period stabilized at low but persistent concentrations, estimated at 0.002–0.08% of present atmospheric levels (PAL), which facilitated the initiation of widespread oxidative of continental rocks. This oxygenation threshold, though modest, supported the oxidation of iron and in surface environments, marking a shift from the predominantly reducing conditions of earlier history. The Statherian climate served as a precursor to the "Boring Billion," characterized by mild and equable conditions globally, with atmospheric CO₂ levels ranging from 1,700 to 20,600 ppm (6–73 times preindustrial values), maintained in part through enhanced silicate weathering that regulated greenhouse gas concentrations. Absent major glaciations—unlike the intense Huronian ice ages of the earlier Paleoproterozoic—this period featured stable temperatures, with no evidence of widespread ice sheets despite the formation and stability of the supercontinent Columbia. The position of Columbia, with extensive continental interiors, likely contributed to regionally variable but overall temperate conditions. Paleosol records from this interval provide direct evidence of increasing , particularly in continental interiors, where hyperarid soils developed even near the paleoequator, indicating cool temperate regimes with limited . These , such as those in the Ruyang Group of (dated 1.75–1.56 Ga), exhibit features like minerals and oxidation profiles consistent with dry, oxidizing surface conditions that promoted mineral alteration without significant fluvial activity.

Oceanic and Sedimentary Conditions

During the Statherian Period, widespread shallow marine platforms developed along the margins of emerging cratons, characterized by mixed and clastic sedimentation. These platforms supported the deposition of siliciclastic rocks transitioning into stable sequences, as evidenced by oolitic and stromatolitic limestones in regions like northwestern , where paralic environments evolved into low-energy subtidal settings. In the Yanliao region of , coastal to shallow-marine clastic deposits overlay basement, reflecting stable shelf conditions conducive to extensive sedimentation. Sea-level stability, facilitated by overall cratonization, promoted the accumulation of thick, continuous shelf sequences across these platforms, with minimal disruptions from major fluctuations. Banded iron formations, prominent in earlier Paleoproterozoic oceans, significantly tapered off during the Statherian as marine iron concentrations declined below thresholds for their , marking a shift toward more oxygenated waters. This transition is recorded in the replacement of iron-rich sediments by , which indicate oxidized conditions where ferric iron stained continental and marginal marine deposits. These reflect the influence of atmospheric oxidation on marine , enhancing the preservation of oxidized minerals in shallow settings. On continents, rift basins hosted fluvial and lacustrine deposits, with alluvial fans and river systems infilling intracontinental structures like the Terra Vermelha Group in the Central Espinhaço Range of . These environments featured mature clastic sediments deposited in braided fluvial channels and lake basins, indicating episodic freshwater input and from uplifted margins. Early soil development is evident in Statherian paleosols, such as those in the Ruyang Group of , where iron- and manganese-fixing microbial activity contributed to profiles and base consumption, signaling the onset of pedogenic processes in stable lowlands.

Biological Developments

Emergence of Eukaryotes

The earliest direct fossil evidence for eukaryotes in the Statherian period comes from the Changzhougou Formation in , dated to approximately 1800 Ma, where diverse acritarchs exhibit complex wall structures, excystment structures, and sizes up to 216 μm, consistent with unicellular eukaryotic protists. These microfossils, including sphaeromorphs and fusiform forms, demonstrate morphological differentiation and suggest moderate diversification of early eukaryotes by the late . Additionally, macroscopic fossils like Grypania spiralis, redated to around 1870 Ma in the Negaunee Iron-Formation, , represent coiled, ribbon-like structures interpreted as photosynthetic eukaryotic , providing evidence of larger, possibly multicellular forms. Further evidence for eukaryotic diversification includes multicellular fossils from the overlying Chuanlinggou Formation (~1.635 Ga), such as Qingshania magnifica, which preserve cellular structures indicative of early multicellularity in eukaryotes. These findings, from the late Statherian, highlight the progression from unicellular to simple multicellular forms, though complex multicellularity and metazoans remained absent. The leading hypothesis for eukaryogenesis posits that eukaryotes arose through endosymbiosis, specifically the acquisition of an alphaproteobacterial that became the , enabling aerobic respiration and cellular complexity. This event is estimated to have occurred around 1800–1700 Ma, shortly before the diversification of major eukaryotic lineages, based on phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial genes and fossil constraints. The integration of the not only provided energy efficiency but also facilitated the of larger cell sizes and phagotrophy, key innovations distinguishing eukaryotes from prokaryotes. Molecular clock analyses using multigene datasets place the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA) in the mid-Statherian, between 1866 and 1679 Ma, marking the point when core eukaryotic features—such as the nucleus, cytoskeleton, and endomembrane system—were established in a common lineage. These estimates align with the fossil record and indicate rapid divergence of eukaryotic supergroups shortly after LECA. Environmental factors, particularly the gradual rise in atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels during the Statherian, likely triggered this transition by favoring aerobic metabolism and reducing oxidative stress on early mitochondrial hosts. The oxidizing atmosphere supported the metabolic demands of complex cells, linking geological changes to biological innovation.

Microbial Life and Fossils

During the Statherian Period (1800–1600 Ma), microbial life was dominated by prokaryotic communities, primarily and other photosynthetic , as evidenced by widespread and microbially induced (MISS). , layered accretionary structures formed by the trapping and binding of sediments within cyanobacterial mats, are prominent in shallow marine and marginal settings, such as those in the Earaheedy Group of , dated to approximately 1.65 Ga. These include forms like Ephyaltes edingunnensis and Eucapsiphora leakensis, which exhibit conical and branching morphologies indicative of photosynthetic mat growth in oxygenated, shallow-water environments. Complementing these, MISS such as roll-up structures, mat chips, and wrinkle marks appear in fine- to coarse-grained sandstones of the Ruyang Group in (1749–1561 Ma), reflecting the biostabilization and deformation of microbial mats by physical processes like wave action and . These features underscore the ecological role of cyanobacterial communities in stabilizing sediments and contributing to early oxygen production. Organic-walled microfossils, including acritarch-like forms, and bacterial biomarkers preserved in shales provide insights into microbial diversity in increasingly oxygenated marine waters. In the 1.73 Ga Wollogorang Formation of the McArthur Basin, , carbonaceous shales contain aryl isoprenoids (C14–C19 homologues), biomarkers derived from phototrophic prokaryotes such as and sulfur bacteria (Chlorobiaceae and Chromatiaceae), signaling a diverse bacterial assemblage adapted to stratified, sulfidic conditions below the . These prokaryotic signatures, absent steranes indicative of eukaryotes, highlight the prevalence of unicellular photosynthetic in neritic settings. Acritarchs, though rare and often ambiguous in affinity during this interval, occur in undetermined assemblages alongside these biomarkers, suggesting modest diversification of organic-walled microbes in oxygenated shelf environments. Evidence for early terrestrial colonization emerges from paleosols, where microbial crusts facilitated and . In the Ruyang Group's alluvial and coastal paleosols, iron- and manganese-fixing produced and vesicular textures, while sulfur-oxidizing formed desert roses, indicating active prokaryotic communities in subaerial settings under an oxidizing atmosphere with CO₂ levels of 6–73 present atmospheric levels (PAL). These crusts, likely involving , stabilized regoliths and hint at the incipient spread of microbial life onto landmasses, enhancing nutrient cycling without metazoan influence. Throughout the Statherian, prokaryotic life dominated, with unicellular and simple early multicellular eukaryotic forms emerging but remaining minor components of the ; photosynthetic organisms drove , and no trace of metazoans appeared in the fossil record.

References

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