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Strombus
Temporal range: Cretaceous - recent[1]
Five views of a shell of the West Indian fighting conch, Strombus pugilis, type species of the genus Strombus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Subclass: Caenogastropoda
Order: Littorinimorpha
Superfamily: Stromboidea
Family: Strombidae
Genus: Strombus
Linnaeus, 1758[2]
Type species
Strombus pugilis
Synonyms
  • Pyramis Röding, 1798
  • Strombella Schlüter, 1838

Strombus is a genus of medium to large sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Strombidae, which comprises the true conchs and their immediate relatives. The genus Strombus was named by Swedish Naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Around 50 living species were recognized, which vary in size from fairly small to very large. Six species live in the greater Caribbean region, including the queen conch, Strombus gigas (now usually known as Eustrombus gigas or Lobatus gigas or Aliger gigas), and the West Indian fighting conch, Strombus pugilis. However, since 2006, many species have been assigned to discrete genera.[3] These new genera are, however, not yet found in most textbooks and collector's guides.

Worldwide, several of the larger species are economically important as food sources; these include the endangered queen conch, which very rarely also produces a pink, gem-quality pearl.

In the geological past, a much larger number of species of Strombus existed.[4] Fossils of species within this genus have been found all over the world in sediments from Cretaceous to Quaternary (age range: 140.2 million years ago to recent).[5]

Of the living species, most are in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Many species of true conchs live on sandy bottoms among beds of sea grass in tropical waters. They eat algae and have a claw-shaped operculum.

Description

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Anatomy

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Live animal of the Florida fighting conch Strombus alatus: Note the extensible snout in the foreground, and the two stalked eyes behind it.

Like almost all shelled gastropods, conches have spirally constructed shells. Again, as is normally the case in many gastropods, this spiral shell growth is usually right-handed, but on very rare occasions it can be left-handed.

True conches have long eye stalks, with colorful ring-marked eyes at the tips. The shell has a long and narrow aperture, and a short siphonal canal, with another indentation near the anterior end called a stromboid notch. This notch is where one of the two eye stalks protrudes from the shell.

The true conch has a foot ending in a pointed, sickle-shaped, operculum, which can be dug into the substrate as part of an unusual "leaping" locomotion.

True conches grow a flared lip on their shells only upon reaching sexual maturity. This is called an alated outer lip or alation.

Conches lay eggs in long strands; the eggs are contained in twisted, gelatinous tubes.[6] Strombus moves with a leaping motion.[7]

Shell description

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Strombus shells have a flaring outer lip with a notch near the anterior end called the stromboid notch through which the animal can protrude one of its stalked eyes.[8]

Phylogeny

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Strombidae
A simplified version of the phylogeny and relationships of the Strombidae according to Simone (2005)[9]
Phylogeny and relationships of Eastern Pacific and Atlantic Strombus species, according to Latiolais et al. (2006)[3]

The phylogenetic relationships among the Strombidae have been mainly accessed in two different occasions, using two distinct methods. In a 2005 monograph, Simone proposed a cladogram (a tree of descent) based on an extensive morphoanatomical analysis of representatives of the Aporrhaidae, Strombidae, Xenophoridae, and Struthiolariidae.[9] However, according to Simone, only Strombus gracilior, Strombus alatus, and Strombus pugilis, the type species, remained within Strombus. In Simone's cladogram, these three species constituted a distinct group based on at least five synapomorphies (traits that are shared by two or more taxa and their most recent common ancestor). The remaining taxa were previously considered as subgenera, and were elevated to genus level by Simone in the end of his analysis.[9]

In a different approach, Latiolais and colleagues (2006) proposed another cladogram that attempts to show the phylogenetic relationships of 34 species within the family Strombidae. The authors analysed 31 species in the genus Strombus and three species in the allied genus Lambis. The cladogram was based on DNA sequences of both nuclear histone H3 and mitochondrial cytochrome-c oxidase I (COI) protein-coding gene regions. In this proposed phylogeny, Strombus pugilis, Strombus alatus, Strombus granulatus and Strombus gracilior are closely related and appear to share a common ancestor.[3]

Species

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This genus of sea snails used to comprise about 50 species,[10] 38 of them occurring in the Indo-Pacific region.[11] Species within the genus Strombus include:

Extinct species
Fossil shell of Strombus radix
Fossil shell of Strombus coronatus from Pliocene of Italy

Extinct species within this genus include:[5]

  • †Strombus arayaensis Landau and Marques da Silva 2010
  • †Strombus bifrons Sowerby 1850
  • †Strombus contortus Forbes 1846
  • †Strombus coronatus Defrance 1827
  • †Strombus cossmanni Dey 1961
  • †Strombus daviesi Dey 1961
  • †Strombus evergladesensis Petuch 1991
  • †Strombus floridanus Mansfield 1930
  • †Strombus glaber Martin 1879
  • †Strombus herklotsi Martin 1879
  • †Strombus inflatus Martin 1879
  • †Strombus javanus Martin 1879
  • †Strombus junghuhni Martin 1879
  • †Strombus labiatus Röding 1798
  • †Strombus lindae Petuch 1991
  • †Strombus mekranicus Vredenburg 1925
  • †Strombus proximus Sowerby 1850
  • †Strombus sedanensis Martin 1899
  • †Strombus triangulatus Martin 1879
  • †Strombus uncatus Forbes 1846
  • †Strombus urceus Linnaeus 1758
  • †Strombus vomer Röding 1798
Species brought into synonymy

See also

[edit]

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Strombus

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Strombus is a genus of marine gastropod mollusks in the family Strombidae, known as the true conchs, comprising medium to large snails with thick, spirally coiled shells featuring a flared lip in adults and a distinctive foot adapted for leaping locomotion. Currently recognized as containing three valid extant species—Strombus gracilior (Eastern Pacific fighting conch), Strombus pugilis (West Indian fighting conch), and Strombus guyanensis (a recently described species from French Guiana)—the genus has undergone significant taxonomic revision, with many former species reclassified into distinct genera such as Aliger, Laevistrombus, and Lobatus. The taxonomic history of Strombus dates to its establishment by in 1758, initially encompassing a broad array of Indo-Pacific and Atlantic strombids, but molecular and morphological studies since the 2000s have narrowed it to the aforementioned three species, all primarily distributed in the tropical western Atlantic and eastern Pacific regions. These species thrive in shallow, subtropical to tropical marine environments, typically on sandy or substrates at depths of 1–30 meters, where they graze on microalgae, seagrasses, and using a specialized for scraping. Ecologically, Strombus snails play roles as herbivores in coastal ecosystems, contributing to algal control and serving as prey for predators like octopuses, rays, and birds, while their populations are influenced by factors such as water temperature, , and substrate stability. Reproduction in Strombus involves separate sexes, with females depositing large gelatinous egg masses containing thousands of eggs that develop into planktonic veliger larvae, facilitating wide dispersal before settlement. Although the narrow modern Strombus lacks the commercial prominence of reclassified relatives like the queen conch (Aliger gigas), its species remain locally important in fisheries and shell trade across the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, facing threats from overharvesting, habitat loss, and climate change. Fossil records indicate the genus originated in the Eocene, with diverse extinct forms underscoring its evolutionary significance in caenogastropod diversification.

Taxonomy and Classification

Etymology and History

The genus name Strombus derives from the Latin strombus, which is borrowed from the Ancient Greek στρόμβος (strómbos), referring to a body that is rounded, spun, or twisted, such as a top, whirlwind, spindle, or spiral shell—aptly capturing the coiled morphology of the gastropod shells it encompasses. Carl Linnaeus formally established the genus Strombus in the tenth edition of Systema Naturae (1758), classifying it within the broad class and defining it primarily by external shell features like its large size and spiral form. This inaugural description included 13 species, among them Strombus gigas (the queen ) and Strombus pugilis (the by subsequent designation in 1956), drawn from cabinets of specimens and earlier works by conchologists such as Martin Lister. Subsequent editions of , notably the twelfth (1767), expanded the genus with additional species and refined diagnoses, incorporating illustrations and observations from sources like Peter Simon Pallas's Miscellanea Zoologica (1766). By the , as malacological studies advanced, the originally expansive Strombus was progressively subdivided; for instance, species with flared lips were reassigned to genera like Aliger or Canarium, reflecting deeper insights into anatomical and radular differences within the family. Henry Dodge's seminal 1956 review meticulously traced these Linnaean origins, clarifying species identities and historical synonymies based on type specimens in collections like the Linnaean Society of London.

Current Taxonomic Status

The genus Strombus Linnaeus, 1758, is accepted as valid within the family Strombidae Rafinesque, 1815, superfamily Stromboidea J. E. Gray, 1854, order Littorinimorpha Golikov & Starobogatov, 1975, subclass , and class . Its type species is Strombus pugilis Linnaeus, 1758, designated by subsequent selection. The genus comprises medium to large marine gastropods known as true conchs, primarily distributed in the tropical western Atlantic and eastern Pacific regions. Historically broad in scope, Strombus has undergone significant taxonomic revision based on molecular phylogenetic analyses, which revealed non-monophyly when including diverse species groups. Many former members, such as Strombus gigas (now Aliger gigas), Strombus latus (now Euprotomus aurisdianae), and Indo-Pacific taxa like Strombus urceus (now Canarium urceus), have been transferred to distinct genera to reflect evolutionary relationships. These changes emphasize clades supported by mitochondrial genome data, restricting Strombus sensu stricto to Atlantic-centered species. As of 2025, WoRMS recognizes three extant accepted under Strombus: S. gracilior G. B. Sowerby I, 1825 (Eastern Pacific); S. pugilis Linnaeus, 1758 (western Atlantic, including the junior S. alatus Gmelin, 1791, based on molecular synonymy); and the newly described S. guyanensis Massemin, Petuch & Berschauer, 2025 (). like S. pugilis worki Petuch, 1993, and forms such as S. nicaraguensis Fluck, 1905, are treated as or infraspecific variants of S. pugilis. No subgenera are currently accepted within the genus. records include approximately 25 , though these await comprehensive review.

Phylogenetic Relationships

The family , which includes the genus Strombus, is consistently recovered as monophyletic in molecular phylogenetic analyses of the superfamily Stromboidea, supported by both mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Within Stromboidea, forms a well-supported sister to other families such as Seraphsidae, with an estimated diversification originating in the Tethyan/Indo-West Pacific (IWP) region around 112 million years ago, followed by radiations in the IWP and subsequent dispersals to the Atlantic and East Pacific. These analyses, employing datasets including subunit I (COI), 16S rRNA, 28S rRNA, and genes, highlight a deep divergence within into distinct IWP and trans-Pacific lineages, reflecting biogeographic patterns driven by ancient tectonic events and ocean barriers. The genus Strombus sensu lato is paraphyletic or polyphyletic based on multiple studies, with its species distributed across several clades rather than forming a single monophyletic group. For instance, Strombus pugilis clusters closely with Aliger gigas (formerly Strombus gigas) in an Eastern Pacific/Atlantic radiation, forming a well-supported subclade (posterior probability = 1.0) distinct from IWP taxa. Similarly, other Strombus species, such as S. luhuanus (now often classified under Conomurex), nest within broader IWP assemblages alongside genera like Lambis and Harpago, indicating that traditional morphological classifications do not align with molecular topologies. This non-monophyly is evident in time-calibrated phylogenies, where Strombus lineages diverge as early as the Eocene, underscoring the need for taxonomic revisions to reflect evolutionary history. Ongoing taxonomic adjustments based on these phylogenies include synonymizing Strombus alatus with S. pugilis and reassigning species like Strombus mutabilis to Maculastrombus, while elevating subgenera such as Aliger to generic status to achieve monophyly. Genera closely related to Strombus include Euprotomus (monophyletic, sister to the Aliger/Strombus clade) and Laevistrombus (polyphyletic, merged into Dolomena), with Harpago forming a distinct monophyletic group branching near IWP Strombus species. These relationships emphasize convergent evolution in shell morphology across Strombidae, where lip flaring and siphonal canals have evolved independently in multiple lineages.

Physical Description

Soft Body Anatomy

The soft body of Strombus species, representative of the family Strombidae, comprises a head-foot complex and a visceral mass partially enclosed by the mantle, adapted for marine herbivorous life in tropical environments. The head features an elongated, snout-like used for grazing on , epiphytes, and from and surfaces, often by scraping or rotating small substrates like pebbles. Flanking the proboscis are two thin eyestalks topped with well-developed eyes for visual detection of predators and food, and a pair of sensory tentacles at their base for tactile perception. The head-foot is typically clear beige with dark brown spots. The foot is a prominent, muscular structure, long and narrow, enabling both creeping and a distinctive "hopping" or leaping locomotion unique to strombids. In this mode, the posterior end of the foot anchors via the sickle-shaped, claw-like operculum—a horny plate that thrusts into the substrate—while powerful contractions propel the body forward in leaps up to several body lengths, aiding escape from predators and navigation over uneven seabeds. The operculum is corneous with spine-like projections and also serves defensive functions by sealing the shell when retracted. During , the foot attaches to the female's shell lip for , highlighting its multifunctional role. The mantle, a thin epithelial layer surrounding the visceral mass, secretes the periostracum and calcareous shell layers through its glandular edge. It also contributes to respiration via the mantle cavity, which houses the gill (ctenidium) for oxygen exchange in shallow waters, with a pallial tentacle anterior to the anus and an osphradium with a strong middle angle. Internally, the visceral mass contains the digestive, circulatory, and reproductive organs; the digestive gland, a lobed structure of tubules lined with absorptive, secretory, and phagocytic cells, processes ingested organic matter. The circulatory system features an open hemocoel with a central heart pumping hemolymph to tissues, while the nervous system comprises interconnected ganglia typical of caenogastropods, supporting sensory integration and coordinated locomotion. The reproductive system is gonochoric, with separate sexes; females possess a capsule gland for egg mass formation, and males a prostate for spermatophore production, facilitating the deposition of gelatinous egg masses containing thousands of embryos.

Shell Morphology

The shells of Strombus species are typically solid and thickened, ranging in size from about 5–13 cm in length, with a characteristic narrow and a notched outer lip adapted for epifaunal locomotion and predator defense. These features reflect determinate growth patterns, where juvenile shells often have laterally compressed apertures that expand dramatically in adulthood to form a flared outer lip and siphonal canal, enhancing stability on sandy substrates. The spire is generally short and low, with a pointed profile formed by 5–9 whorls and well-defined sutures; the body whorl is enlarged and dominates the overall shape, often with nodulose spines on the periphery, larger on the last whorl, and subtle axial and spiral ribs for ornamentation. The aperture is long and narrow to ovate, extending nearly the length of the body whorl, with a smooth and a moderately wide umbilicus. Color patterns vary but commonly include cream to orange or salmon-pink backgrounds with brown spiral bands. A defining trait is the expanded, thickened outer , which flares outward in mature individuals and features a U-shaped stromboid notch near the anterior edge for protruding the or eyestalks, alongside a posterior notch; this provides stability for leaping. The siphonal canal is short to moderately long and open, supporting inhalant currents during feeding. Shell morphology shows high plasticity, influenced by environmental factors like substrate type and water depth, leading to variations in lip flaring and overall robustness. Across the , these adaptations balance mobility, with broad lips increasing surface contact for leaping locomotion, and protection, as selective thickening resists crushing by predators like octopuses.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The genus Strombus is restricted to tropical marine environments in the , with extant distributed across both the Western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific coasts. This distribution reflects the phylogenetic constraints following recent taxonomic revisions that limit the genus to a small number of , excluding many former Indo-Pacific members now placed in other genera such as Aliger, Laevistrombus, and Lobatus. Strombus pugilis, the type species, inhabits shallow coastal waters of the Western Atlantic, ranging from and southeastern southward through the to , typically at depths of 0–55 m on sandy or substrates. Strombus gracilior occurs along the Eastern Pacific coast, from southern , , to , including the and , in subtropical to tropical habitats at similar shallow depths. A recently described species, Strombus guyanensis, is known only from depths of 30–50 m off the coast of in the Western Atlantic, suggesting potential for broader distribution in adjacent South American waters. No species of Strombus are currently recognized in the under this genus, though the family as a whole extends globally to those regions.

Habitat Preferences

Species of the genus Strombus predominantly inhabit shallow coastal waters in tropical and subtropical regions, favoring environments that support algal growth and provide suitable substrates for foraging and shelter. These snails are commonly found on sandy or muddy bottoms, often in association with meadows, where they graze on epiphytic and . Habitat selection within these areas is influenced by factors such as substrate composition, depth, and cover. Strombus prefer well-sorted sediments with high organic content, which facilitate burrowing and support dense epiphytic communities for feeding; coarser or poorly sorted substrates are generally avoided. Depths typically range from intertidal zones to about 30 meters, though most individuals occur in waters shallower than 10 meters to optimize access to light-dependent and . Seagrass beds play a critical role in habitat preference for species such as Strombus pugilis, which are often found in areas with turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) on sandy substrates at depths up to 30 meters. Environmental conditions further refine these preferences, with optimal temperatures in the 25–30°C range supporting reproduction and activity, and salinities around 30–35 ppt; lower salinities or high can limit distribution, as observed in estuarine-influenced areas. Strombus individuals often form aggregations in these preferred microhabitats, influenced by tidal movements that expose or submerge areas, enhancing oxygen availability and reducing predation risk.

Biology and Ecology

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Strombidae, the family to which the genus Strombus belongs, exhibit gonochoristic reproduction with separate sexes and internal fertilization via a complex copulatory apparatus. Adults reach sexual maturity at sizes varying by species; for Strombus pugilis, maturity is inferred around 50–70 mm shell length (based on max ~110 mm), typically after 2–3 years. Reproductive cycles involve sequential gonad development stages—resting, developing, mature, spawning, and spent—observed in S. pugilis, with asynchronous patterns between males and females and two pulses of gametogenesis in females (peaks February–June and September–October at 60%). Similar stages occur in S. alatus and S. gracilior, though data are limited; S. alatus shows polyandry and batch spawning with one seasonal peak. Spawning in Strombus species is often protracted and influenced by environmental cues like (optimal 25–30°C). Females deposit demersal egg masses on sandy or substrates, each containing thousands of eggs; studies indicate year-round reproduction in some S. pugilis populations, with discontinuous spawning in females and constant in males. For S. alatus, captive females produce multiple egg masses annually. S. gracilior lays eggs in gelatinous strings. The life cycle begins with embryonic development within capsules, hatching as free-swimming trochophore larvae that become veligers, feeding on for 27–31 days in S. pugilis, with competence for at this stage. Larval growth averages 23–30 μm/day, with settlement rates highest (65%) under continuous light but survival lowest (13%); darkness favors survival (44%). Post-settlement, larvae metamorphose into juveniles on sand, shifting to at ~35 mm, with growth influenced by habitat. Juveniles grow rapidly, reaching maturity in 2–3 years; adults may live 5–10 years, though data vary. Dispersal is primarily larval, promoting localized populations.

Behavior and Locomotion

Strombus species are distinguished by their unique leaping locomotion, termed the "strombid leap," enabling movement across soft substrates like sand or seagrass. This hopping uses a specialized, sickle-shaped operculum to anchor in sediment, with columellar muscle contraction propelling the body forward in leaps of several centimeters. This adaptation aids foraging and predator evasion, though speed is low (~1 cm/s) due to the shell. Juveniles exhibit leaping shortly after , with efficiency increasing as the foot strengthens and operculum hardens, facilitating migration to adult . Behaviorally, Strombus are primarily nocturnal, burying in during daylight to avoid visual predators. Shell-righting involves foot extensions and operculum thrusts to upright if overturned; escape responses, like accelerated leaping, develop post-settlement. Comparative studies across strombids show variations in leap frequency tied to habitat, with sand-dwellers like S. pugilis showing robust hopping.

Diet and Interactions

Strombus species are primarily herbivorous, on macroalgae, , , and in shallow environments. S. pugilis consumes filamentous , diatoms, and substrate , while juveniles prefer epiphytic films; S. alatus feeds on diatoms and epiphytic . Their digestive includes a crystalline style producing for plant breakdown. Some incorporate deposit feeding, aiding nutrient cycling in seagrass beds. Ecologically, Strombus interacts with predators through adaptations like leaping and aggregations (up to thousands per hectare for juveniles) to dilute risk. Common predators include fish (Ocyurus chrysurus, Centropomus undecimalis), octopuses (Octopus maya), and crabs. Empty shells host commensals like cardinalfish and crabs for shelter. As grazers, Strombus controls algal overgrowth, redistributes sediments, and supports trophic levels in reef and seagrass ecosystems.

Species Diversity

Extant Species

The genus Strombus Linnaeus, 1758, encompasses three accepted extant as of 2025, a marked constriction from earlier broad classifications that included numerous taxa now transferred to genera such as Aliger, Laevistrombus, and Euprotomus based on phylogenetic and morphological evidence. This refinement highlights the genus's core definition around the and closely related forms within the family . The are distributed across the tropical western Atlantic and eastern Pacific, inhabiting shallow marine environments where they contribute to benthic ecosystems as herbivores. Strombus pugilis Linnaeus, 1758, the type species and commonly known as the fighting , ranges throughout the tropical western Atlantic from and the (including ) southward through the to . It occupies benthic habitats on sandy or seagrass-covered bottoms at depths of 0–55 m in tropical waters. The shell is solid and robust, typically reaching a total length of 13 cm, with a large body whorl, pointed , and outer featuring a single row of peripheral spines that are more pronounced on the final whorl. This species employs a planktotrophic larval stage in its development and is noted for its active foraging behavior, using an enlarged operculum to "leap" across substrates while grazing on and . Recent molecular analyses have synonymized Strombus alatus Gmelin, 1791, under S. pugilis, unifying what were once considered distinct forms based on COI gene sequencing and species delimitation methods. Strombus gracilior G. B. Sowerby I, 1825, referred to as the eastern Pacific fighting , is endemic to the eastern , extending from , , to in subtropical to tropical regions. It thrives in benthic environments, particularly sandy or muddy substrates in shallow coastal waters. The shell morphology mirrors that of S. pugilis, with a comparable and flared lip, but attains a smaller maximum size of up to 9.5 cm. Like other Strombus species, it is herbivorous, relying on algal films, and displays similar locomotor adaptations for navigating soft sediments. Its distribution reflects vicariance across the , distinguishing it from Atlantic congeners. Strombus guyanensis Massemin, Petuch & Berschauer, 2025, the most recently described species, is known from the neritic waters of the off , , at depths of 30–50 m. Its range likely extends to the Cayenne Plateau and the coast of within the Surinamian Subprovince of the Province. The species was differentiated from S. pugilis through detailed conchological examination, including shell proportions and surface ornamentation, as documented in its original description. Ecological details remain sparse due to its novelty, but it is inferred to occupy similar soft-bottom habitats and share the detritivorous or herbivorous feeding strategy typical of the genus.

Fossil Record

The genus Strombus has a fossil record spanning from the middle Eocene to the present, with the earliest confirmed occurrences in the Tethys region, reflecting an origin in tropical shallow-water environments of the ancient Tethyan Sea. The superfamily Stromboidea, which includes Strombidae, has molecular estimates placing its divergence in the Early Jurassic (approximately 199–191 million years ago), but the family's fossil record begins in the Middle Eocene (Lutetian stage, 47.8–41.2 million years ago) with taxa like Stromboconus suessi from Italy. This Eocene onset aligns with post-Cretaceous recovery following the end-Cretaceous mass extinction, during which Strombidae began replacing earlier stromboidean groups like Aporrhaidae in tropical habitats. During the Oligocene and early Miocene, Strombus species diversified in the Indo-West Pacific (IWP), the inferred ancestral range, with notable examples including Strombus (Dilatilabrum) roegli from the Oligocene of the Western Tethys, indicating adaptation to warming paleoclimates. The Miocene marked a peak in strombid diversity, driven by two major pulses of speciation around 23–17 million years ago and 9–6 million years ago, coinciding with the Miocene Climatic Optimum and expansion of tropical meadows. Fossils from this period are abundant in the IWP, such as Strombus deperditus from the Lower Miocene of the Kutch Basin () and , and new genera like Spinatus from middle to upper Miocene deposits in and , highlighting regional and morphological innovation in shell ornamentation. In the Western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific, Strombus exhibits a more recent history, with a monophyletic radiation dated to the or , facilitated by dispersal across the before its closure around 3.5 million years ago. and Pleistocene fossils, such as Persististrombus coronatus from the and various Lobatus species (formerly placed in Strombus) from the Caribbean , document this trans-isthmian expansion and subsequent isolation, contributing to modern biogeographic patterns. Overall, the fossil record of Strombus underscores a tropical origin, Miocene diversification, and Quaternary persistence amid , with over 300 species documented across Strombidae.

References

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