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Canvas-sided sukkah on a roof, topped with palm branches and bamboo s'chach
Sukkah with walls made of cardboard signs in Oakland, California

A sukkah or succah (/ˈsʊkə/; Hebrew: סוכה [suˈka]; plural, סוכות [suˈkot] sukkot or sukkos or sukkoth, often translated as "booth") is a temporary hut constructed for use during the week-long Jewish festival of Sukkot. It is topped with branches and often well decorated with autumnal, harvest or Judaic themes.

The book of Vayikra (Leviticus) describes it as a symbolic wilderness shelter, commemorating the time God provided for the Israelites in the wilderness they inhabited after they were freed from slavery in Egypt.[1] It is common for Jews to eat, sleep and otherwise spend time in the sukkah. In Judaism, Sukkot is considered a joyous occasion and is referred to in Hebrew as Z'man Simchateinu (the time of our rejoicing), and the sukkah itself symbolizes the fragility and transience of life and one's dependence on God.[2]

Associated activities

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A street-side sukkah in Paris, France

The halakha requires eating and traditionally sleeping in the sukkah. However, Jews are not expected to remain in the sukkah if they would be very uncomfortable there.[3] For this reason, Jews living at northern latitudes will generally not sleep in the sukkah due to the low temperatures of autumn nights. Some Jews in these locales will spend some time in the sukkah eating and relaxing but go indoors to sleep.

When rain falls on the sukkah, one is not required to stay inside. The Mishna in Sukkah 28b compares rain falling on a sukkah to a master who receives a drink from his servant and then throws it back in the servant's face. The analogy is that through the rainfall, God is showing displeasure with the performance of the mitzvah by not allowing the Jews to fulfill their obligation of sitting in the sukkah.[4]

In Israel and other temperate climates (such as Florida, Australia, Texas, and Southern California), observant Jews will often conduct all their eating, studying, and sleeping activities in the sukkah. Many Jews will not eat or drink anything outside the sukkah. Others will drink or eat fruit outside the sukkah.

In Israel, it is a common practice for hotels, restaurants, snack shops, and outdoor tourist attractions (such as zoos) to provide a Kosher sukkah for customers to dine in.

All Lubavitcher Hasidim[5] and some Belzer Hasidim[6] (especially outside Israel) do not sleep in the sukkah due to its intrinsic holiness. Though the halakha does not obligate one to eat or sleep in the sukkah if it is raining, Lubavitcher Hasidim will still eat there.

A popular social activity which involves people visiting each other's Sukkot has become known as "Sukkah hopping". Food is laid out so that participants will be able to recite the various required blessings.[7]

Structure

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Sukkot on graded apartment balconies in Jerusalem
Porch sukkot in Bnei Brak

According to halakha, a sukkah is a structure consisting of a roof made of organic material which has been disconnected from the ground for the purpose of the commandment (the s'chach). A sukkah must have three walls. It should be at least three feet tall, and be positioned so that all or part of its roof is open to the sky. (Only the part which is under the sky is kosher.) Most authorities require its floor area to be at least 16 square cubits.

In practice, the walls of a sukkah can be constructed from any material that will withstand a normally anticipated terrestrial wind. If the material is not rigid and therefore will sway in the wind, the sukkah is not kosher (Talmud, Sukkah 24b). Accordingly, there is a discussion among contemporary halakhic authorities whether canvas may be used for walls: Some, such as R. Ovadiah Yosef (Shu"t Yechaveh Da'at 3:46) hold that even the slightest degree of swaying in the wind will disqualify the sukkah walls, and thus canvas cannot realistically be employed. Others, such as the Chazon Ish, permit motion to and fro of less than three handbreadths, thereby facilitating the usage of canvas walls which are anchored at all sides. The specific details of what constitutes a wall, the minimum and maximum wall heights, whether there can be spaces between the walls and the roof, and the exact material required for the s'chach (roofing) can be found in various exegetical texts.

A sukkah can be built on the ground or on an open porch or balcony. Indeed, many observant Jews who design their home's porch or deck will do so in a fashion that aligns with their sukkah-building needs. Portable sukkot made of a collapsible metal frame and cloth walls have recently become available for those who have little space, or for those who are traveling (in order to have a place to eat one's meals).

Roof covering

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The roof covering, known as s'chach (Hebrew: סכך), must consist of something that grew from the earth but is currently disconnected from it. Palm leaves, bamboo sticks, pine branches, wood and the like can all be used for s'chach, unless they were processed previously for a different use.[8]

Jewish Family in a Sukkah
Jewish family in a sukkah

There must be enough s'chach that inside the sukkah there should be more shade than sun. However, there should ideally be sufficient gaps between the pieces of s'chach so that one can see the sun or stars.

Decorations

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Many people hang decorations such as streamers, shiny ornaments, and pictures from the interior walls and ceiling beams of a sukkah. Fresh, dried or plastic fruit—including etrogs and the seven species for which Israel is praised (wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates; see Deuteronomy 8:8)—are popular decorations.

Some families also line the interior walls with white sheeting, in order to recall the "Clouds of Glory" that surrounded the Jewish nation during their wanderings in the desert. The Chabad custom is not to decorate the sukkah, as the sukkah itself is considered to be an object of beauty.[9]

  • 19th century sukkah from Austria with a painting of Jerusalem - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme
    19th century sukkah from Austria with a painting of Jerusalem - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme
  • Different types of kosher s'chach serve as roofs for sukkot: woven bamboo mats (far left and right); palm leaves (center).
    Different types of kosher s'chach serve as roofs for sukkot: woven bamboo mats (far left and right); palm leaves (center).
  • Safra Square Sukkah, Jerusalem, 2009
    Safra Square Sukkah, Jerusalem, 2009
  • 1657 engraving
  • 1740 illumination.
  • 1699 engraving
  • "Scheunenviertel", Berlin, 1933

Associated prayers

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Blessing

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According to Jewish law, one must recite the following blessing when using the sukkah. The blessing is normally recited after the blessing made on food, such as on bread or cake:

Hebrew Transliteration English
ברוך אתה ה' א‑לוהינו, מלך העולם, אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו לישב בסכה.‎
 Barukh ata Adonai E-loheinu, melekh ha'olam, asher kid'shanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu leishev ba'sukah. Blessed are You, LORD our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to dwell in the sukkah.

Ushpizin

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A Sukkot Prayer- Seder Ushpizin
A Sukkot Prayer- Seder Ushpizin

During the holiday, some Jews recite the ushpizin prayer which symbolizes the welcoming of seven "exalted guests" into the sukkah. These ushpizin, or guests, represent the seven shepherds of Israel: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, Joseph and David. According to tradition, each night a different guest is invited into the sukkah followed by the other six. Each of the ushpizin parallels the spiritual focus of the day on which they visit.

In Chabad tradition, an additional set of corresponding "chasidic" ushpizin enter the sukkah, beginning with the Baal Shem Tov and the Maggid of Mezeritch and continuing with the consecutive rebbes of the Chabad Hasidic dynasty.[10]

Notable examples

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Drive-through

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In 2010, Bet Shira Congregation in Miami, Florida, erected a tent as a drive-through Sukkah, dubbed "McBet Shira Sukkah", in the parking lot of the synagogue.[11][12][13]

Sukkah City

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Sukkah City was a public art and architecture competition planned for New York City's Union Square Park. The winning design was chosen as the City Sukkah, to stand, starting on September 22, 2010, for the requisite seven days of the harvest holiday. A committee of art critics and celebrated architects selected the 12 finalists from a field of entries.[14]

Pedi-Sukkah

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Pedi-Sukkahs see the normally stationary build of a Sukkah placed on the back of a mobile vehicle, usually a 3-wheeled bicycle.[15] The pedi-Sukkah was introduced by Levi Duchman in 2009[16] and has since spread to at least 15 states and 5 countries.[17]

Samaritan sukkahs

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A Samaritan sukkah at Kiryat Luza, Mount Gerizim

In Samaritanism, sukkahs are built indoors using fruit instead of wood. According to Samaritan historian Benyamim Tsedaka, Samaritans initially constructed sukkahs outside of their homes, as Jews do. However, during the Byzantine period, the Samaritans faced persecutions and began to construct them inside instead. This custom has remained ever since.[18]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sukkah

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from Grokipedia
A sukkah (Hebrew: סֻכָּה, plural: sukkot) is a temporary outdoor booth or constructed by as a central observance during the seven-day festival of , fulfilling the biblical commandment to "dwell in booths seven days" as described in Leviticus 23:42. This structure serves as a primary dwelling place for eating, sleeping, and other activities during the holiday, symbolizing the fragile shelters used by the during their 40-year journey through the desert after from . The significance of the sukkah is rooted in both historical and spiritual interpretations outlined in Jewish tradition. Biblically, it commemorates the divine protection afforded to the , interpreted by some rabbinic authorities like as the "Clouds of Glory" that shielded them in the wilderness, while others, such as , view it as a reminder of the actual temporary booths they built for shelter (, Sukkah 11b). This observance underscores themes of humility, gratitude, and dependence on God, transforming everyday activities within the sukkah—such as meals—into sacred acts of (commandment). Additionally, the sukkah fosters a sense of unity and peace, evoking the rabbinic vision of a future Messianic era where the Jewish people will gather together in one sukkah. Construction of a sukkah follows specific halakhic (Jewish legal) guidelines to ensure kosher validity, typically beginning after and completed before the holiday starts on the 15th of . The structure must be built outdoors under an open sky, with a minimum size of approximately 7 handbreadths (about 22.4 inches) square and 10 handbreadths (about 32 inches) high, though it can reach up to 20 cubits (around 30 feet) in height ( Sukkah 1:1; , 634:1). It requires at least three walls—two full and one partial—made from any sturdy, non-swaying material like wood or fabric that can withstand ordinary , while the roof, known as sechach, consists of raw matter such as branches, bamboo, or reeds that provide more shade than sun but allow visibility of the stars ( Sukkah 6b, 9b–10a). Sukkahs are often decorated with fruits, plants, and artwork, and during the , Jews invite symbolic "guests" called ushpizin—biblical figures like Abraham—through (, Leviticus 103b).

Historical and Religious Context

Etymology and Terminology

The word sukkah (Hebrew: סֻכָּה) derives from the tri-literal root s-k-k (ס-כ-ך), which means "to cover," "to screen," or "to weave a protection," reflecting the structure's partial roofing intended to provide shade while allowing visibility of the stars. This etymology is rooted in ancient , where the verb sāḵaḵ (Strong's H5526) implies entwining branches or materials to form a barrier against the elements. The noun form sukkah (Strong's H5521) specifically denotes a , , or temporary constructed from interwoven boughs. Biblical attestations of the term appear in several passages, most prominently in Leviticus 23:42, which commands: "You shall live in booths [sukkot] for seven days," linking the practice to the Israelites' wilderness wanderings after the Exodus. Other references, such as in Genesis 33:17 and Jonah 4:5, describe sukkah-like structures as rudimentary enclosures for livestock or personal refuge, underscoring their transient nature. In post-biblical Jewish literature, the terminology evolved within rabbinic texts to emphasize the sukkah as a mandated temporary dwelling during the festival of Sukkot. The Babylonian Talmud dedicates an entire tractate, simply titled Sukkah, to its halakhic requirements, interpreting the booth as a symbol of impermanence and divine protection, where one must "go out from your permanent dwellings and live in a temporary dwelling" (Sukkah 2a). This usage solidified the term's association with ritual observance, distinguishing it from everyday shelters. Across languages, transliterations and translations vary while retaining the concept of a booth or . In English, it is commonly rendered as "sukkah" or "succah." Spanish-speaking Jewish communities use "sucá," evoking the Hebrew pronunciation. In German, the term is "Laubhütte," literally "foliage ," highlighting the natural roofing material. These variations appear in liturgical and cultural contexts tied to celebrations.

Biblical Origins

The biblical commandment to dwell in sukkot originates in the , where it forms part of the instructions for observing the festival of . Leviticus 23:39-43 directs the , after gathering the of the land in the seventh month, to celebrate for seven days by taking the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook, and to rejoice before the ; specifically, all citizens in are to dwell in sukkot for seven days, as a reminder that their ancestors dwelt in sukkot when God brought them out of the land of Egypt. This ordinance underscores the festival's role in commemorating the ' temporary shelters during the forty-year wilderness wanderings following , evoking a period of divine provision and vulnerability. Complementing this historical dimension, the presents Sukkot as an agricultural celebration tied to the . Deuteronomy 16:13-15 commands that after bringing in the produce from the and the wine vat, the shall keep the for seven days, rejoicing with family, servants, and the , , , and , in the place that the Lord chooses. This portrayal emphasizes joy and inclusivity as central to the festival, framing it as a time of for the land's bounty while implicitly connecting to the broader covenantal themes of divine favor. Traditional exegesis of Leviticus 23:42-43 interprets the term "sukkot" in multiple ways, including as the ananei kavod, or clouds of glory, that enveloped and protected the Israelites during their desert journey, symbolizing God's miraculous sheltering presence. This understanding draws on the verse's phrasing that God "made [the Israelites] dwell in sukkot," implying a supernatural act akin to other Exodus miracles. Rabbinic sources expand briefly on these verses to elaborate the protective symbolism.

Rabbinic Interpretations and Significance

Rabbinic interpretations of the sukkah, building upon the biblical commandment to dwell in booths during Sukkot (Leviticus 23:42-43), delve deeply into its symbolic layers as elaborated in the Mishnah and Gemara of Tractate Sukkah. A central debate in Talmud Sukkah 11b contrasts Rabbi Akiva's view that the sukkot were actual physical booths constructed by the Israelites in the wilderness, symbolizing humility and the transience of human life amid vulnerability, with Rabbi Eliezer's interpretation that they represented the clouds of glory (ananei hakavod) that enveloped and protected the people, evoking divine shelter and intimacy with God. These Talmudic discussions further tie the sukkah to agricultural gratitude, as Sukkot commemorates the harvest's bounty while reminding participants of dependence on divine providence for sustenance, much like the wilderness reliance on manna. Medieval commentators expanded these ideas, with (1040–1105) on Leviticus 23:43 explaining the sukkah as a reminder of the ' temporary and fragile dwellings in the desert, underscoring the precariousness of human existence and the need for constant reliance on God's protection rather than permanent structures. This interpretation reinforces the sukkah's role in fostering awareness of life's impermanence, encouraging by contrasting the booth's instability with the solidity of one's home. In broader Jewish theology, the sukkah embodies themes of transience akin to those reflected upon during , prompting contemplation of mortality and ethical living, while simultaneously promoting joy as the festival of ingathering, enhanced by the rituals of the and that express gratitude for abundance. This dual emphasis on fragility and celebration highlights the sukkah's function in balancing solemn remembrance of divine intervention with exuberant , integrating personal vulnerability with communal rejoicing.

Design and Construction

Structural Requirements

The structural requirements for a sukkah are governed by Jewish law () as outlined in the and codified in the , ensuring the booth is temporary, enclosed, and suitable for dwelling during the festival. These guidelines emphasize minimal dimensions to accommodate human habitation, proper enclosure for validity, and overall stability to withstand typical environmental conditions. The minimum dimensions of a kosher sukkah are at least seven tefachim (handbreadths, approximately 22 inches) in length and width, providing an area of 7x7 tefachim, and a of at least ten tefachim (about 32 inches) from the floor to the bottom of the roof covering. Note that the exact length of a tefach varies by halachic authority, typically between 8–10 cm (3.15–3.94 inches), influencing the precise dimensions. This size ensures sufficient space for at least one person to sit and fulfill the of dwelling in the sukkah, as smaller structures are deemed invalid. The maximum height is limited to 20 amot (approximately 30-40 feet, depending on the measurement of an ama), beyond which the sukkah loses its temporary character and becomes unsuitable. A valid sukkah requires at least three to create an enclosed , with each wall measuring at least seven tefachim in length to align with the minimum area. The walls may be constructed from any material that provides a stable , such as wood, , or metal sheets, provided they are not made from items disqualified for the covering and do not convey permanence to the overall structure. The fourth side may remain open as an entrance, though some authorities recommend a partial wall of at least one tefach for enhanced validity. Walls must extend within three tefachim of the ground and align closely with the to maintain the . For stability, the sukkah must be sturdy enough to resist typical winds without collapsing, and the entire structure should not sway more than three tefachim during normal conditions, as excessive movement renders it invalid per Talmudic standards. Materials like loosely hanging curtains that sway even slightly are unfit for walls, though reinforcements such as poles spaced no more than three tefachim apart may be used under the lavud (proximity) principle in certain customs. Regarding kosher status, the structure must be positioned without overhangs from buildings or trees that could block direct exposure, ensuring the covering can provide more shade than ; areas where direct sunlight exceeds shade are invalid for use. Additionally, while heavy rain may allow one to temporarily leave the sukkah, excessive leakage through the beyond what is typical for valid covering can compromise its habitability and kosher integrity during the festival.

Roof Covering (Schach)

The roof covering of a sukkah, known as schach (or sechach), must consist of detached vegetable matter that grew from the ground and is not susceptible to impurity, ensuring it remains a temporary, natural structure as mandated by Jewish law. According to the , valid schach includes materials like branches, reeds, or poles laid loosely without ties or artificial supports, as bundling them with ropes or processing them renders the covering invalid. This requirement derives from the biblical command to dwell in made from agricultural byproducts, emphasizing impermanence and connection to the . For the schach to be kosher, it must provide more shade than sunlight during the day while allowing some light and stars to be visible at night, typically achieved by ensuring at least 50% coverage without excessive density that blocks rain or celestial views. Gaps between schach pieces are permitted but cannot exceed three tefachim (approximately 9-10 inches or 24 cm) in any direction, as larger voids—such as a 3x3 tefachim square—disqualify that section of the roof under the principle of lavud (continuity), where smaller gaps are considered connected. The Talmud elaborates that the overall arrangement must prioritize shade over sun, invalidating setups where sunlight dominates. Invalid schach includes any edible items (e.g., fruits or grains), manufactured products (e.g., plastic sheeting, metal sheets, or woven mats), or materials altered post-harvest through human intervention, such as hides, boards wider than four tefachim, or items prone to impurity like or tools. Living branches still attached to the ground or those with foul odors are also prohibited, as are coverings placed passively (e.g., hay left to dry) rather than intentionally for the sukkah. These rules, codified in the (Orach Chaim 629:1), prevent the sukkah from resembling a permanent . In practice, schach is sourced from natural, untreated materials like boughs, corn stalks, palm fronds, or certified mats, often laid perpendicular to the sukkah's beams for stability without invalid supports like wires or strings. Builders ensure proper placement by starting from the edges and working inward, verifying coverage visually or with a light test to confirm shade predominance, and selecting durable options that withstand wind without shriveling during the holiday. Reusable materials like are popular for their longevity and ease of storage, provided they meet kosher certification standards from rabbinic authorities.

Walls, Decorations, and Furnishings

The walls of a sukkah must form an enclosure that provides stability and shade, with flexible material options permitted under halacha. They can be constructed from , panels, waterproof fabrics supported by metal frames, or even pre-existing structures like a house exterior, as long as they remain sturdy and do not sway in an ordinary wind. Halachic guidelines require the walls to be at least 32 inches (about 80 cm) high and no taller than 30 feet (about 9 meters), with a minimum of two full walls and a partial third wall extending at least 3.2 inches (about 8 cm) to ensure proper enclosure. Gaps between wall segments are allowed if they do not exceed 9.6 inches (about 24 cm), and in Sephardic practice, materials emitting foul odors, drying out easily, or permitting excessive sunlight are discouraged to maintain comfort and validity. Reed mats or canvas sheets are common choices for partial walls, provided they meet stability thresholds and do not constitute an invalid temporary shelter. Decorations enhance the sukkah's festive joy without compromising its structural integrity, often evoking themes of and divine protection. Many Jewish communities hang fresh fruits, colorful artwork, posters, or strings of lights from the walls or beams, as beautifying the is encouraged in halachic sources. These items must be placed such that they do not cover the schach or block more than four handbreadths (about 32 cm) of the roof's view, and Sephardic customs permit using non-holiday decorations or produce from the year if designated for use. However, certain groups, including some traditions, avoid decorations altogether, viewing the sukkah's simplicity as sufficient for fulfilling the commandment. Furnishings in the sukkah support the requirement to dwell comfortably, turning the temporary structure into a livable space for . Tables, chairs, and are typically arranged inside for meals and rest, with the sukkah needing to be large enough to fit a person's head, most of their body, and a table to accommodate these. A dedicated table for meals symbolizes the festival's theme of abundance, reflecting Sukkot's origins and the biblical command to rejoice. Beds or raised furniture must not exceed ten handbreadths (about 80 cm) in height to avoid creating an intervening roof that invalidates the space below. Carpets or other movable items gain the sukkah's sanctity if explicitly designated for use within it during .

Observance and Rituals

Building and Timing

The construction of a sukkah traditionally commences immediately following , on the eleventh of , as Jewish law emphasizes prompt engagement in the to transition from to celebration. This timing underscores the sukkah's role in fostering joy after the solemnity of the High Holidays, with many communities beginning assembly as early as the night after . The structure is completed before the holiday begins on the fifteenth of , ensuring readiness before nightfall on the first evening, when observance starts. The building process involves a methodical assembly that adheres to halachic guidelines, often undertaken as a or communal endeavor, symbolizing the preparation of a temporary to welcome and hospitality during the . The sukkah must remain standing and intact throughout the seven days of , from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of , during which it serves as the primary space for meals and activities. Outside of , where an additional day is observed, the structure is maintained for eight days, with disassembly occurring only after and on the twenty-second and twenty-third of , respectively, to honor the full holiday period.

Dwelling Practices

The of yeshivah b'sukkah requires to dwell in the sukkah for the seven days of , encompassing eating, sleeping, and spending leisure time within its walls to fulfill the biblical commandment of temporary residence. This obligation prioritizes sleeping in the sukkah when weather permits, as it represents the core of "dwelling" akin to one's primary home, with eating considered secondary but still mandatory for all substantial meals. Throughout the festival, individuals are encouraged to relax, converse, and host guests in the sukkah to emulate everyday home life, thereby achieving the spiritual aim of reliving the ' protected wandering. Exemptions from full observance apply in cases of discomfort or health risks, such as that renders the sukkah uninhabitable, where one may eat or sleep indoors without penalty; even a light drizzle exempts sleeping, though eating should resume in the sukkah once conditions improve. Women are generally exempt from the , as it is a time-bound positive commandment, though many participate voluntarily to derive merit; similarly, those experiencing significant physical discomfort (mitzta'er), such as from or illness, may adjust by eating in the sukkah while sleeping indoors. These provisions ensure the practice remains feasible and aligned with the Torah's intent for joyful observance rather than hardship. Customs emphasize comprehensive use of the sukkah for all meals, including the over wine on festival nights and traditional Sukkot foods like stuffed cabbage or , to maximize fulfillment of the dwelling . Children are encouraged to participate from around age five or six, the age of chinukh (education in mitzvot), by eating meals and spending time in the sukkah, fostering early awareness of the holiday without imposing full obligation. This practice is spiritually enhanced by the tradition, where symbolic biblical patriarchs are invited nightly as ethereal guests.

Prayers and Blessings

The primary blessing associated with the sukkah is the leishev ba-sukkah recitation, which affirms the of dwelling in the temporary structure during . The full text is: Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu Melech ha-olam, asher kid'shanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu leishev ba-sukkah. This blessing is recited upon first entering the sukkah each day and before consuming bread or having a meal within it, connecting the act of residence to the divine commandment. It is not repeated if one briefly leaves and returns during the same meal but must be said again after the meal concludes. During Sukkot, key holiday prayers integrate with sukkah observance, often conducted within the structure when feasible. The full Hallel—a series of psalms of praise—is recited daily after the morning service (shacharit), typically while holding the arba minim (four species), and it is customary to perform this in the sukkah. The additional Musaf service, marking the festival's sacrificial themes, follows and is likewise held in the sukkah by many communities. On weekdays (excluding Shabbat), the Hoshanot processions occur after Hallel or Musaf, involving congregants circling the Torah reading table while reciting penitential supplications with the arba minim in hand; these are also ideally performed in the sukkah to enhance the festival's immersive quality. Additional recitations during Sukkot explicitly reference the holiday and sukkah in daily liturgy. The Ya'aleh V'Yavo insertion is added to the Amidah (standing prayer) in all services on Chol HaMoed Sukkot, petitioning divine remembrance of the festival and its joys. Similarly, in Birkat HaMazon (grace after meals), Ya'aleh V'Yavo is included before the blessing Boneh Yerushalayim, along with a line invoking restoration of "the fallen sukkah of David," tying the meal—often eaten in the sukkah—to the broader themes of redemption and shelter. If omitted from Birkat HaMazon on a festival day, the grace need not be repeated, unlike in the Amidah.

Ushpizin Tradition

The Ushpizin tradition, a mystical Kabbalistic custom observed during the festival of Sukkot, originates in the Zohar, the foundational text of Jewish mysticism composed in the 13th century. The term "ushpizin," Aramaic for "guests," refers to seven biblical figures regarded as the spiritual shepherds of Israel who symbolically visit the sukkah each night of the holiday. These guests are Abraham (associated with chesed, or lovingkindness), Isaac (gevurah, restraint), Jacob (tiferet, harmony), Moses (netzach, endurance), Aaron (hod, humility), Joseph (yesod, foundation), and David (malchut, sovereignty), with each presiding over a successive night. In practice, participants recite a brief invitation upon entering the sukkah each evening, calling upon the by name to join the meal and infusing the space with their . A special seat or place is reserved for these ethereal guests, symbolizing hospitality and openness, while the host strives to emulate the presiding figure's attributes—for instance, Abraham's benevolence on the first night through acts of generosity toward physical visitors. This ritual draws on the Zohar's teaching that the descend from the heavenly realms to dwell with humanity in the sukkah, fostering a connection between the physical and spiritual worlds. Modern variations of the tradition, particularly in egalitarian and feminist Jewish communities, expand the ushpizin to include the biblical matriarchs and prophetesses, such as , , , Hannah, Avigail, , and , often recited alongside or in place of the traditional lineup. These adaptations, developed in the late , aim to honor female role models and integrate women's spiritual legacies into the , emphasizing themes of inclusion and diverse . Through the practice, participants seek spiritual elevation by aligning with these archetypal qualities, transforming the sukkah into a space of and communal joy during .

Variations and Adaptations

Jewish Community Differences

Among Jewish communities, practices surrounding the sukkah exhibit notable variations in aesthetics, materials, and rituals, though the core halakhic requirements remain uniform across traditions, as established in rabbinic texts like the . often adhere to stricter interpretations regarding the schach, preferring unfinished wood, bamboo poles, or similar minimally processed natural materials to ensure compliance with rules against artificial enhancements. Decorations in Ashkenazi sukkahs are typically elaborate, featuring handmade paper chains, fruits like apples and grapes, and foliage to evoke the harvest theme. The invitation is recited in , drawing from Kabbalistic sources, with an emphasis on the seven biblical patriarchs as spiritual guests each night. Sephardic and Mizrahi communities tend toward more flexible schach materials, such as palm fronds or reeds, which are readily available in their historical regions and provide adequate shade while aligning with halakhic standards. Sukkah meals incorporate regional foods, including stuffed vegetables (mehshi), rice pilafs, and herb-infused dishes, reflecting local culinary influences and the holiday's agricultural roots. Sephardic customs include leaving a special chair for the , similar to the Elijah chair at . Some modern egalitarian traditions extend the ushpizin by including matriarchs, adding a layer of inclusivity to the ritual. Other groups, such as , utilize wheat stalks for schach, tying into local agricultural practices. Chabad-Lubavitch places particular emphasis on constructing outdoor public sukkahs to facilitate community outreach, hosting events like mobile sukkahs and open meals to invite broader participation during the holiday. These aesthetic and timing differences—such as variations in decoration timing or meal emphases—highlight while preserving the mitzvah's essential uniformity.

Samaritan Sukkahs

In the Samaritan tradition, —known as the Festival of Booths or the Pilgrimage Feast—is observed for seven days beginning the night after , in accordance with their version of the , which emphasizes the biblical commandment to dwell in temporary structures during this harvest period. This observance forms the third and final pilgrimage of the year to , the central sacred site for , where families construct sukkot near their homes or communal areas in the vicinity of (ancient ). Unlike practices in other traditions, Samaritan sukkot are built to commemorate the joy of the harvest and the divine provision, drawing from shared biblical roots in narrative while focusing on simplicity and direct scriptural adherence. Samaritan sukkot feature a straightforward , typically consisting of a reusable metal frame measuring 2 to 4 square meters, erected indoors for protection and practicality, often supporting up to 350 kilograms of natural coverings. The roof is adorned with the mentioned in the —citrons, palm branches, thick-leaved boughs (such as myrtle), and willows—arranged to form a lush, fruit-laden canopy that symbolizes the rather than the wilderness wanderings. There are no elaborate rules for the walls, which are minimal or absent, allowing participants to sit beside rather than directly under the structure, and the booths lack the decorative or furnishing complexities found in other interpretations, prioritizing an unadorned reenactment of biblical impermanence. These communal setups, especially the high priest's sukkah, are tied to , where branches are gathered during ascents to . Culturally, sukkot integrate deeply into Feast, serving as spaces for family meals, songs, and prayers that reinforce community bonds and gratitude for abundance, without additional rituals like inviting symbolic guests. The observance culminates in extended services on , including nighttime prayers and bonfires on to recall historical events such as its recapture, emphasizing collective pilgrimage over individual dwelling. This practice, preserved through generations despite historical challenges, highlights the ' distinct ethnoreligious identity centered on .

Modern and Notable Examples

In response to the need for accessible observance, particularly for those with mobility challenges or during periods of economic hardship following the , drive-through sukkahs emerged as an innovative adaptation in urban Jewish communities. These structures allow participants to remain in their vehicles while fulfilling the of dwelling in a sukkah, often featuring a covered lane where blessings over the can be recited and meals distributed. The first documented drive-through sukkah was constructed in 2009 by Bet Shira Congregation in Miami, Florida, enabling safe and convenient participation without exiting the car. Similar setups proliferated in cities like and , with Har Zion Temple in , hosting one in 2014 that accommodated families in SUVs, emphasizing inclusivity for the elderly and disabled. The 2010 Sukkah City competition in exemplified creative architectural responses to urban constraints, inviting over 600 international entrants to design modular, temporary sukkahs compliant with halachic requirements while addressing modern spatial limitations. Organized by Union Square Awards and the Sukkah City initiative, the event culminated in 12 winning designs erected in Union Square Park, showcasing innovative forms such as lattice frameworks and tensile structures that blended tradition with contemporary aesthetics. Entries drew inspiration from parametric and fluid architectures, reminiscent of styles pioneered by figures like , though none were directly submitted by her firm. This competition highlighted sukkahs as platforms for architectural experimentation, influencing subsequent urban installations worldwide. Portable innovations like the pedi-sukkah have enabled observance for travelers and in densely populated areas, attaching a compact sukkah frame to a or pedicab for mobility. In 2010, of the Upper East Side in introduced a pedi-sukkah, allowing Uriel Vigler to pedal through streets, inviting passersby to enter the wheeled booth for blessings and snacks during . By 2013, variations spread to and , where Nosson Potash adapted a tricycle model to visit parks and schools, accommodating up to two people inside while meeting kosher construction standards with schach. Eco-sukkahs further adapt principles, utilizing recycled materials like reclaimed wood and biodegradable coverings to minimize environmental impact; for instance, designs in Sukkah City incorporated grass roofs and inflatable elements from upcycled tires, promoting a "green" interpretation of the holiday's themes of transience and nature. In , massive communal sukkahs underscore public engagement, with Jerusalem's annual installation in Safra Square recognized as the world's largest, spanning 800 square meters and seating 650 people since its in the early 2000s. Constructed by the , this open-air structure hosts meals, performances, and educational events, fostering community amid the city's historic landscape. Interfaith adaptations extend sukkahs beyond Jewish contexts, as seen in Chicago's 2023 Sukkah Design Festival, where a Black-led church and collaborated on a shared sukkah to address historical dialogues on and . Similarly, events in have integrated into interreligious gatherings, emphasizing hospitality and unity across faiths.

References

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