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Turbinia
Turbinia
Turbinia
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Turbinia at speed in 1897
History
United Kingdom
NameTurbinia
BuilderSir Charles Algernon Parsons
Launched2 August 1894
Out of service1927
Refit1960s
Nickname(s)"The Ocean Greyhound"
StatusMuseum ship
General characteristics
Displacement44.5 long tons (45.2 t)
Length104 ft 9 in (31.93 m)
Beam9 ft (2.7 m)
Draught3 ft (0.91 m)
Installed power
Propulsion
  • Three-stage axial-flow direct-acting Parsons steam turbine driving two 12 ft 6 in (3.81 m) outer shafts, each with three 18-inch-diameter (460 mm), 24-inch-pitch (610 mm) propellers, and one inner shaft with three propellers
  • 200 psi (1.4 MPa), 170 psi (1.2 MPa) at the turbine
Speed34.5 knots (63.9 km/h; 39.7 mph)

Turbinia is the first steam turbine-powered steamship. Built as an experimental vessel in 1894 by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons, and easily the fastest ship in the world at that time, Turbinia was demonstrated dramatically at the Spithead Navy Review in 1897 and set the standard for the next generation of steamships, the majority of which would be turbine powered. The vessel is currently located at the Discovery Museum in Newcastle upon Tyne, North East England, while her original powerplant is located at the Science Museum in London.

Development

[edit]

Charles Algernon Parsons invented the modern steam turbine in 1884, and having foreseen its potential to power ships, he set up the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in 1897.[1] To develop this, he had the experimental vessel Turbinia built in a light design of steel by the firm of Brown and Hood, based at Wallsend on Tyne[2] in the North East of England.

The Admiralty was kept informed of developments, and Turbinia was launched on 2 August 1894.[3] Despite the success of the turbine engine, initial trials with one propeller were disappointing.[4] After discovering the problem of cavitation and constructing the first cavitation tunnel, Parsons' research led to his fitting three axial-flow turbines to three shafts, each shaft in turn driving three propellers, giving a total of nine propellers.[5] In trials, this achieved a top speed of more than 34 knots (63 km/h; 39 mph), so that "the passengers aboard would be convinced beyond all doubt Turbinia was Charles Parsons' winning North Sea greyhound".

The turbines were directly driven, as geared turbines were not introduced until 1910. Even after the introduction of geared turbines, efficiency of even the largest axial steam turbines was still below 12% and Turbinia was even less efficient. Despite this, it was a dramatic improvement over predecessors.[6]

Demonstration

[edit]
Turbinia at the Spithead Navy Review, 1897

Parsons' ship turned up unannounced[7] at the Navy Review for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria at Spithead, on 26 June 1897, in front of the Prince of Wales, foreign dignitaries, and Lords of the Admiralty. As an audacious publicity stunt, Turbinia, which was much faster than any other ship at the time, raced between the two lines of navy ships and steamed up and down in front of the crowd and princes, while easily evading a navy picket boat that tried to pursue her, almost swamping it with her wake.

Photographer and cinematographer Alfred J. West took several photographs of Turbinia travelling at full speed at the review. He was subsequently invited by Sir Charles Parsons to film and photograph the vessel within the River Tyne and the adjacent North Sea; the pictures captured remain the defining image of Turbinia at speed.[8]

The damaged Turbinia lying in dry dock
Turbinia alongside RMS Mauretania

From this clear demonstration of her speed and power and after further high speed trials attended by the Admiralty, Parsons set up the Turbinia Works at Wallsend, which then constructed the engines for two prototype turbine-powered destroyers for the Navy, HMS Viper and HMS Cobra, that were launched in 1899. Both vessels were lost to accidents in 1901, but although their losses slowed the introduction of turbines, the Admiralty had been convinced. In 1900, Turbinia steamed to Paris and was shown to French officials, and then displayed at the Paris Exhibition.[4]

The first turbine-powered merchant vessel, the Clyde steamer TS King Edward, followed in 1901. The Admiralty confirmed in 1905 that all future Royal Navy vessels were to be turbine-powered, and in 1906, the first turbine-powered battleship, the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought, was launched.

Crosby incident

[edit]
Turbinia after being hit by Crosby

On 11 January 1907, Turbinia was struck and nearly cut in two by Crosby[a] – a ship being launched across-river from the south bank of the Tyne. She was repaired and steamed alongside RMS Mauretania (also a turbine-powered vessel)[2] after the launch of the great ocean liner. However, mechanical problems prevented Turbinia from accompanying Mauretania down the River Tyne to the sea.

As a museum ship

[edit]
113
100
Turbinia on display at Newcastle Discovery Museum.

The company decided to slow down the deterioration of Turbinia by lifting her out of the water in 1908, and in 1926, the directors of the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company offered the ship to the Science Museum, London.[10] Turbinia was sectioned in to two halves, the rear complete with engines and propellers, was put on display in the South Kensington museum in London, which did not have the space to accommodate the full ship. The fore section was presented in 1944 to Newcastle Corporation, and placed on display in the city's Exhibition Park. In 1959, the Science Museum removed the aft section of Turbinia from display, and by 1961, using a reconstructed centre section, Turbinia was reassembled and displayed in the Newcastle Municipal Museum of Science and Industry. In 1983, a complete reconstruction was undertaken.[11]

On 30 October 1994, 100 years after her launch, Turbinia was moved to Newcastle's Museum of Science and Engineering (later renamed the Discovery Museum) and put on display to the public in March 1996. Listed as part of the National Historic Fleet, in 2000, the vessel was the focal point of a year-long, £10.7 million redevelopment programme at the Discovery Museum. The gallery around Turbinia was the first area to be refurbished, with the main part of the work involving raising the roof by one storey to create viewing galleries on three levels.

Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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[edit]
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Turbinia

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Turbinia was the world's first steam turbine-powered vessel, built as an experimental craft in 1894 by British engineer Sir to demonstrate the potential of his revolutionary invention for marine propulsion. Measuring 31.93 meters (104 feet 9 inches) in length with a beam of 2.74 meters (9 feet) and a draft of 0.91 meters (3 feet), the ship initially featured a single radial-flow steam turbine directly driving a single propeller shaft, producing around 1,000 horsepower. The vessel's significance was dramatically showcased on June 26, 1897, during Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee at , where Turbinia—after modifications to its propulsion system including three driving three propeller shafts—unexpectedly surged through the assembled warships at speeds exceeding 34 knots—far outpacing contemporary vessels powered by reciprocating steam engines—capturing global attention and accelerating the adoption of turbine technology. This breakthrough propelled the British to integrate steam turbines into its destroyers by 1899 and influenced the design of landmark ocean liners such as the RMS Mauretania and RMS Lusitania in 1907, transforming maritime engineering and enabling higher speeds, greater , and more compact power plants for both naval and commercial applications. Parsons' innovation, patented in 1884 and first applied to , extended to marine use through the formation of the Marine Steam Turbine Company in 1894, with Turbinia serving as the pivotal proof-of-concept that revolutionized not only shipping but also global power generation systems still in use today. Designated an International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the in 1982, Turbinia is now preserved and displayed at the in , England, where it remains a testament to Parsons' enduring legacy in engineering innovation.

Background

Invention of the Steam Turbine

In 1884, , a British engineer, invented the multi-stage axial-flow while working as a partner at Clarke, Chapman and Parsons in , . This breakthrough device converted the thermal energy of pressurized steam into mechanical rotational motion through a series of blades arranged on a rotor within a cylindrical casing, marking a significant advancement over reciprocating steam engines by enabling higher speeds and greater efficiency. Parsons' design incorporated principles of both impulse and reaction stages: in impulse stages, high-velocity steam jets impinge on blades to impart momentum, while reaction stages allow steam to expand continuously across both fixed and moving blades, creating a reactive force that drives the rotor. The first prototype, approximately a 7.5 kW generator running at 18,000 rpm, demonstrated the turbine's potential for compact, high-speed power generation. Parsons initially applied the turbine to land-based electrical , where it powered dynamos for and industrial use, rapidly scaling from small prototypes to larger installations that supplanted reciprocating engines in power stations across by the early . For instance, by 1891, Parsons had developed the first condensing turbo-, which improved by exhausting steam into a condenser, allowing more complete extraction. To extend this technology to , Parsons established the Marine Steam Company in 1894, dedicated to adapting the for shipboard use by integrating it with propellers and addressing challenges like and in environments; this was later reorganized as the in 1897. Due to a legal challenge over his axial-flow patents, Parsons developed an alternative radial-flow design around 1888-1894 for marine applications. Key to the turbine's operation were its multi-stage reductions: steam at approximately 200 psi entered the high-pressure section, where it expanded to drive initial rows, then passed to intermediate-pressure stages for further expansion, and finally to low-pressure stages before exhausting into a condenser at near-vacuum conditions to maximize work extraction. This staged expansion minimized energy losses and enabled continuous power output. The overall of Parsons' design could be expressed as the η = (Work output / Heat input), achieving approximately 1.6% in the first prototype and improving to around 10-12% in early optimized configurations through careful profiling and flow , surpassing contemporary reciprocating engines.

Parsons' Vision for Marine Propulsion

In the late 1880s, Charles Parsons recognized that reciprocating steam engines, the dominant technology of the era, imposed significant limitations on ship speeds due to their inherent vibration, mechanical complexity, and inefficiency at high rotational rates. These engines, while reliable for lower speeds, struggled to deliver the power density and smoothness needed for faster vessels without excessive wear or structural stress. This insight prompted Parsons to propose adapting his multi-stage reaction —initially developed for electrical generation—to marine applications, outlining concepts for direct drive in communications to the British Admiralty around 1887–1888 and securing a for a condensing radial-flow design in 1888. Despite these early proposals, Parsons encountered substantial skepticism from the Admiralty and established shipbuilders, who doubted the 's scalability, reliability at sea, and ability to integrate with existing naval architectures without risking mechanical failure. Critics argued that the high rotational speeds of would exacerbate and inefficiencies, potentially rendering the system impractical for warships. Undeterred, Parsons decided to self-fund an experimental vessel to demonstrate the technology's viability, commissioning initial sketches and detailed proposals in late for a slender, 100-foot-long hull powered by a 1,000-horsepower driving multiple . This vision emerged amid the intensifying late 19th-century naval arms race, particularly between Britain and emerging powers like and , where faster propulsion was deemed essential for battleships and torpedo craft to maintain tactical superiority in fleet engagements. As ironclad warships evolved and colonial rivalries escalated, the demand for vessels exceeding 20 knots—beyond the practical limits of reciprocating engines—underscored the strategic imperative for innovative power plants, positioning Parsons' as a potential game-changer for British naval dominance.

Design and Construction

Technical Specifications

Turbinia measured 104 feet 9 inches (31.93 meters) in , with a beam of 9 feet (2.7 meters) and a draught of 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 meters), resulting in a displacement of 44.5 long tons. These compact dimensions contributed to its slender, high-speed hull form optimized for experimental purposes. The initial consisted of a single compound radial-flow Parsons producing approximately 1,000 indicated horsepower (ihp), driving a single shaft fitted with one fixed-pitch . Steam was supplied by a single three-drum operating at 200 psi (1.4 MPa), with a heating surface of about 1,100 square feet (102 square meters), fueled by and designed for efficient high-pressure operation in a compact stokehold. The hull was constructed entirely of steel plating, with thicknesses ranging from 3/16 inch for the main structure to 1/16 inch for the deck, emphasizing yet robust build for rapid acceleration and minimal resistance. Its shallow draught facilitated speed trials in coastal waters, while the absence of armament, cargo holds, or other utilitarian features underscored its role as an experimental dedicated solely to demonstrating . Turbinia was designed for a top speed exceeding 30 knots, leveraging the high rotational speeds of its (up to 2,000 rpm) for superior efficiency over reciprocating engines. Initial sea trials achieved around 20 knots, limited by cavitation; following significant propulsion modifications during trials, it reached a maximum recorded speed of 34.5 knots.

Building and Launch

The construction of Turbinia began in early 1894 at the Brown & Hood shipyard in Wallsend-on-Tyne, England, under the direct supervision of , who had recently formed the to advance his innovations in . The was laid by 1894, and the lightweight steel hull was completed and launched in under six months, reflecting the rapid pace driven by Parsons' team to test the novel steam turbine system. Parsons' staff, lacking prior experience, handled the and draughting in-house, coordinating with the shipyard's sheet expertise to fabricate the vessel's thin plating. A primary challenge during building was integrating the experimental radial-flow steam turbine into the slender, lightweight hull, which required precise alignment to accommodate the high rotational speeds without compromising structural . Parsons' team addressed this by custom-machining turbine components on-site, including rotors and casings tailored to the vessel's compact dimensions, ensuring compatibility with the innovative setup. These efforts highlighted the pioneering of the project, as the , experienced in but not full , adapted to produce the specialized elements needed for operation. Turbinia was launched on 2 August 1894 in a low-key without widespread publicity, attended by Parsons and members of his team. Initially referred to as the "Experimental Launch," the vessel was soon renamed Turbinia and registered as a private steam under the ownership of the . This marked the completion of the initial build phase, positioning Turbinia as a dedicated platform for demonstrating turbine-powered marine travel.

Trials and Modifications

Initial Sea Trials

The initial sea trials of Turbinia commenced on 14 November 1894 on the River Tyne near , marking the first operational tests of a steam turbine-powered vessel. Captained by Christopher John Leyland, with designer present, the trials involved a ten-man crew and emphasized evaluations of acceleration, maneuverability, and turbine reliability, conducted over measured miles to assess performance. These early runs achieved speeds of approximately 20 knots, with a recorded maximum of 19.75 knots, though performance was constrained by the single-shaft configuration and inefficiencies, including excessive slip and at high RPMs. No major mechanical breakdowns occurred during the trials, but the underwhelming results—despite the turbine's smooth operation—revealed the limitations of the initial design and underscored the necessity for subsequent refinements to realize the system's full potential.

Propulsion System Improvements

During the initial sea trials of Turbinia in 1894-1895, high rotational speeds of the single propeller led to severe cavitation, where vapor bubbles formed due to localized pressure drops below the vapor pressure of water, resulting in significant thrust loss and efficiency reduction of up to 50%. To address this, by early 1896, the vessel was retrofitted with three parallel shafts, each equipped with three propellers—yielding a total of nine propellers—driven by separate low-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and high-pressure turbines to distribute power more evenly and reduce individual loads. This configuration, with propellers of 18-inch diameter and 24-inch pitch rotating at lower speeds per shaft (around 1,750 rpm total equivalent), mitigated by keeping local pressures above the vapor threshold while maintaining high overall propulsion. The modifications were carried out at Parsons' works in , involving a redesign of the gearing system and turbine staging from the original radial-flow setup to parallel-flow turbines for balanced power delivery across the shafts, alongside minor updates to air pumps and condensers; this elevated the total indicated horsepower to approximately 2,000 ihp from the initial 1,100 ihp. Subsequent trials in late 1896 and 1897 demonstrated the effectiveness of these changes, with Turbinia achieving a sustained speed of 34.5 knots over measured runs and reduced vibration levels, confirming stable operation without significant cavitation-induced losses. The cavitation threshold is defined by the critical condition where the local pressure PP equals the vapor pressure PvP_v, often quantified via the cavitation number σ=P−Pv12ρV2,\sigma = \frac{P - P_v}{\frac{1}{2} \rho V^2}, where ρ\rho is water density and VV is flow speed; values of σ\sigma below a propeller-specific threshold trigger inception, which the smaller, multi-bladed design countered by lowering tip speeds and improving pressure recovery.

Demonstration and Impact

Spithead Naval Review

The Spithead Naval Review of 26 June 1897 commemorated Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee and featured a grand display of British naval power, with 165 warships assembled in four lines stretching over 25 miles off the coast between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. The event was reviewed by the Prince of Wales aboard the royal yacht in place of the ailing queen, attended by international dignitaries including foreign royals and admirals. Despite Admiralty opposition to unauthorized vessels entering the restricted area, Charles Parsons decided to demonstrate Turbinia uninvited as a publicity stunt to showcase the potential of steam turbine propulsion. Turbinia, a slender 103-foot vessel with a 9-foot beam and 3-foot draught, powered by three steam turbines, surged into the fleet lines at full speed, achieving approximately 34 knots while darting in and out among the anchored warships and evading pursuing patrol boats. Crewed by Parsons himself in the , assisted by two engineers, and captained by his associate Christopher J. Leyland at the , the vessel made multiple high-speed passes, weaving through lines of destroyers and outpacing every ship in the fleet, which highlighted its unprecedented agility and velocity. The dramatic intrusion caused immediate commotion among spectators and officials, embarrassing the Admiralty as their fastest vessels failed to intercept it, and drawing astonished reactions from onlookers who described the boat's maneuvers as lifelike in their swiftness. In the immediate aftermath, Parsons was formally invited by the Admiralty to conduct an official demonstration, during which Turbinia underwent measured speed trials over a one-mile course, clocking 34.5 knots and confirming its superiority over contemporary reciprocating-engine ships. This event not only validated the turbine's marine application but also prompted urgent naval interest in the technology.

Influence on Naval Technology

The success of Turbinia at the 1897 Naval Review prompted the British Admiralty to initiate contracts for experimental installations in naval vessels, marking a pivotal shift toward propulsion in the Royal . In 1899, the launched HMS Viper, the first destroyer equipped with Parsons turbines, achieving speeds of up to 36.5 knots during trials and demonstrating the technology's potential for high-speed warships. This was followed by HMS Cobra in 1900, which further validated the design despite its eventual loss in a storm. The rapid progression culminated in the revolutionary , commissioned in 1906 as the world's first all-big-gun battleship powered by Parsons direct-drive s on two shafts, enabling a top speed of 21 knots and setting the standard for future capital ships. Turbinia's demonstration accelerated international adoption of steam turbines, supplanting reciprocating engines across major navies and facilitating the construction of larger, faster fleets. The installed its first turbine propulsion in the scout cruiser USS Chester, launched in 1907, which used reaction-type steam turbines to achieve enhanced efficiency and speed over traditional systems. By 1910, had integrated Parsons-licensed turbines into capital ships like the , the first German warship with steam turbines, reaching 27.5 knots and contributing to the pre- naval . Similarly, the adopted the technology in its Kawachi-class battleships, completed in 1912 but ordered around 1910, employing Curtis steam turbines for improved propulsion reliability and speed. This global transition from reciprocating engines to turbines enabled dreadnought-era fleets to attain sustained high speeds, playing a crucial role in naval operations by allowing greater tactical mobility and endurance. The legacy of Turbinia extended far beyond its initial trials, establishing steam turbines as the dominant system until the mid-20th century's diesel and nuclear advancements. Parsons' company licensed the technology widely, leading to installations in dozens of British warships and merchant vessels by the early 1900s, with aggregate marine turbine power exceeding several million shaft horsepower by 1910. This proliferation not only transformed but also influenced commercial shipping, where turbines powered iconic liners like the RMS Mauretania, underscoring their role in enabling the era's transatlantic speed records and global trade expansion.

Later Career

Operational Demonstrations

Following its dramatic appearance at the 1897 Naval Review, Turbinia was repurposed for promotional demonstrations to highlight the practical advantages of propulsion. In , the vessel undertook an arduous voyage up the River to participate in the Exposition Universelle in , where it performed high-speed runs to demonstrate reliability under challenging inland waterway conditions. These exhibitions impressed French naval officials and engineers, underscoring the technology's versatility beyond open-sea trials. Based on the River Tyne, Turbinia served as a high-speed demonstration craft through the early 1900s, conducting speed runs to showcase performance for invited guests, including engineers and dignitaries interested in advancements. This routine role continued until around 1906, with minor modifications implemented to enhance operational stability, notably the 1902 replacement of its triple propellers per shaft with single 28-inch diameter screws, which improved efficiency and handling during demonstrations. Turbinia's active demonstration career drew to a close in 1907 following a mechanical failure of its air pump, which prevented it from fully accompanying the RMS Mauretania during her sea trials from the Tyne to the Mersey. This incident marked a transition to semi-retirement, with the vessel laid up by 1908.

Crosby Collision

On 11 January 1907, Turbinia was moored at on the River Tyne when it was struck broadside by the 2,500-ton Crosby, a vessel being launched from Robert Stephenson's on the . The force of the impact nearly severed Turbinia in two, pushing it onto the shore and inflicting severe structural damage to its lightweight hull, though no lives were lost. Turbinia was promptly towed to a nearby drydock for assessment and repair at the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company's facility. The extensive work required several months to complete, restoring the vessel to operational condition by late September 1907. In the aftermath, on 20 September 1907, the repaired Turbinia made a short powered run alongside the newly launched RMS during its trials on the Tyne, serving as a temporary public display of the pioneering ship. However, persistent mechanical issues during this outing underscored Turbinia's inherent fragility as an experimental prototype, limiting its further active service.

Preservation

Transition to Museum Status

Following the severe damage sustained in the Crosby collision of January 1907, which nearly bisected the vessel aft of the wheelhouse, Turbinia underwent repairs but her wooden hull continued to deteriorate rapidly while moored on the River Tyne. To halt further decay, after repairs, the vessel was placed in dry storage near the Parsons works. The aftermost 45-foot section, including the turbines and propeller shafts, was donated to the in in 1926 for preservation and display, as the full vessel was too large for their facilities. The forward section remained in storage at the Parsons works in Newcastle, while other components such as the and were kept in secure locations amid increasing recognition of Turbinia's pioneering role in . As historical interest in steam turbine technology grew during the , preservation efforts intensified; in 1944, the forward section, boiler, and superstructure elements were formally transferred to Newcastle Corporation for inclusion in their planned Municipal Museum of Science and . This marked the vessel's official transition to public ownership and care as a national engineering artifact, with the sections stored pending reassembly. By the early , Turbinia was widely acknowledged for its transformative impact on naval propulsion, setting the stage for its reunification and partial display in Newcastle later that decade.

Restoration and Current Display

Following its reassembly by 1961 at the original Museum of Science and in Exhibition Park, Newcastle, which involved reconstructing a center section to reunite the vessel's fore and aft parts, Turbinia underwent a major restoration starting in 1983 under the auspices of Tyne & Wear Museums. This extensive project, lasting over a decade, aimed to return the ship to its 1897 configuration, including structural reinforcements, hull refinishing to original specifications, and overall stabilization to preserve its integrity as an engineering artifact. After completion, Turbinia was transported to the newly opened in on October 30, 1994, and placed on static display in March 1996 within a dedicated space highlighting its historical role. In 2000, Turbinia was added to the . As of November 2025, Turbinia remains a centerpiece exhibit in the Discovery Museum's main hall, housed in a purpose-built gallery that emphasizes the evolution of technology through contextual displays and educational materials. The vessel, measuring 32 meters in length, is preserved in non-operational condition, with routine conservation efforts ensuring its long-term stability, though no major overhauls have been documented since the early 2000s redevelopment of the museum. As of November 2024, the managing organization rebranded to North East Museums, with no changes to the display. The exhibit draws significant , contributing to the museum's annual attendance of approximately 315,000 visitors in 2019-20. Turbinia's preservation underscores its enduring legacy, recognized as an ASME International Historical Mechanical Engineering Landmark in May 1982 for pioneering turbine-driven propulsion. While no specific post-2023 conservation initiatives are publicly detailed, the ship's static presentation continues to educate on maritime innovation without reported structural concerns.

References

  1. https://www.maritimefoundation.uk/publications/maritime-2023/sir-charles-parsons-and-the-birth-of-the-steam-turbine/
  2. https://www.northeastmuseums.org.uk/discoverymuseum/whats-on/turbinia
  3. https://www.asme.org/about-asme/engineering-history/landmarks/73-turbinia
  4. https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co51109/parsons-steam-turbine-generator-1884
  5. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1243/PIME_PROC_1994_208_032_02
  6. https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Parsons_Marine_Steam_Turbine_Co
  7. https://www.turbomachinerymag.com/view/how-modern-steam-turbines-came-to-be
  8. https://alliedpg.com/latest-articles/history-of-steam-turbines/
  9. https://www.asme.org/wwwasmeorg/media/resourcefiles/aboutasme/who%20we%20are/engineering%20history/landmarks/73-turbinia-1897.pdf
  10. https://www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php/Charles_Algernon_Parsons
  11. https://www.nationalhistoricships.org.uk/register/138/turbinia
  12. https://www.torp.esrc.unimelb.edu.au/biogs/E000137b.htm
  13. https://co-curate.ncl.ac.uk/resources/view/80188/
  14. https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Turbinia
  15. https://www.tynebuiltships.co.uk/T-Ships/turbinia1894.html
  16. https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Christopher_John_Leyland
  17. https://steammain.com/turbinia-and-the-steam-turbine/
  18. http://www.houseofdavid.ca/parsons.htm
  19. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/cavitation-number
  20. https://www.rct.uk/collection/405260/the-naval-review-at-spithead-26-june-1897
  21. https://rshg.org.uk/2008/06/the-fleet-reviews-at-spithead/
  22. https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/3663073
  23. https://blog.twmuseums.org.uk/turbinia-at-speed-but-whos-on-the-conning-tower-2/
  24. https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-turbine-ship
  25. https://naval-encyclopedia.com/ww1/uk/hms-dreadnought.php
  26. https://scholarship.law.gwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=12&article=1001&context=history_gov_contracting&type=additional
  27. https://www.turbomachinerymag.com/view/the-golden-age-of-steam-ships
  28. https://naval-encyclopedia.com/ww1/japan/kawachi-class-battleships.php
  29. https://learncheme.com/wp-content/uploads/Prausnitz/OldandNewChemicalProcesses/ImprovementsWWIIBattleShips.pdf
  30. https://www.worldnavalships.com/forums/thread.php?threadid=11314&page=3
  31. https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/people/cp137567/turbinia
  32. https://www.flickr.com/photos/twm_news/5425199870
  33. https://www.bluebird-electric.net/bluebird_history/Turbinia_Steam_Turbine_Boat.htm
  34. https://www.cruiseshipodyssey.com/turbinia-1894-1927-parsons-marine-steam-turbine-company-ltd/
  35. https://museumships.us/united-kingdom/turbinia
  36. https://co-curate.ncl.ac.uk/turbinia/
  37. https://www.northeastmuseums.org.uk/discoverymuseum/about
  38. https://www.northeastmuseums.org.uk/files/359811-impact-report-2019-20-web.pdf
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