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Yoūsuf (Yūsuf) Shāh Chak (Persian: یُوسُفْ شاہ چک) was the fourth Sultan of Kashmir from the Chak dynasty from 1578 to 1579 and then from 1580 to 1586. Yousuf succeeded his father, Ali Shah Chak, who crowned Yousuf before he died. Yousuf defeated all other contenders for the throne, including his uncle Abdal Chak,[1] and ascended the throne in 1578.[2][3]

Key Information

Yousuf belonged to the Chak Dynasty. The Chaks were originally Dards(Kashmiris from Gilgit region) who settled in Kashmir in the early 14th century.[4] Most Chaks converted to the Shia branch of Islam from Hinduism. Many during Yousuf's period retained Hindu names such as Shankar, Bhat, Pandu Chak, etc. Yousuf ruled Kashmir for 5 years and 6 months, from 1578 till 1579 and from 1580 till 1586.[5] Yousuf was exiled for a year and 9 months as the rebels occupied his throne after defeating him in the battle of Eidgah.[6][7] Yousuf was a ferocious fighter, he fought for his people but he lost the respect of his subjects and ministers because of his deficiencies in administration and authority.[8] Nonetheless, Yousuf was said to have ruled justly and to have had a great sense of justice that made him much different than his predecessors.[9] He not only ruled the valley and hills of Kashmir, but also received tributes from Ladakh, Baltistan and the hill states of Jammu.

Background and early life

[edit]

Yousuf Shah Chak was born in 1545 to Ali Shah Chak, a brother of Ghazi Shah Chak, the Wazīr i Azam (Prime Minister) of the Shah Mirs and later a Sultan himself.[10][11] Yousuf ruled Kashmir for 8 years with an interregnum of 1 year and 11 months when his throne was occupied by rebels. Even though he led a life of luxury and ease, Yousuf reputedly always cared for the welfare of his subjects. He went against the rebels and defeated them. Wishing to secure his throne, he agreed to the superiority of Emperor Akbar, which in the end led to his own dismissal.[12]

Not much is known about Yousuf's early life. He was born during the reign of Nazuk Shah.[13] Kashmir at that time was under the influence of the Mughals with Mirza Haidar Dughlat as the Governor and the de facto ruler.[14][15] When Yousuf came of age, he accompanied his uncle on his campaigns and in his journey to the throne. After both of his uncles' reigns, his father ascended the throne in 1570 and appointed Yousuf as his heir apparent the same year.[10]

In 1572, on the advice of Muhammad Bhat, Yousuf assassinated his uncle Aiba Khan, who was a contender to the throne, and then went away to Sopore in the fear of his father. The murder angered his father Ali Shah, who ordered his brother Abdal Chak to capture and bring Yousuf in front of him.[10] Abdal Chak went aggressively against Yousuf, considering the throne for himself after Ali Shah, but with the help of Sayyid Mubarak, the former Wazīr i Azam of Ali Shah, both the parties came to an agreement that reconciled the father and son.[16]

First reign (1578–1579)

[edit]
Modern-day depiction of Yousuf Shah Chak

Yousuf was crowned Sultan by his father and predecessor Ali Shah Chak before he died in December 1578.[17][18] Yousuf appointed Muhammad Bhat as his Wazīr i Azam.[19] Shortly after he ascended the throne, civil unrest started to rise led by Yousuf's uncle Abdal Chak who wanted the throne for himself.[20]

Yousuf and Abdal Chak

[edit]

Before the funeral of Ali Shah, Abdal Chak started a campaign to contest for the throne. Sayyid Mubarak tried to restrain Abdal Chak from these activities by sending Baba Khalil to him. Later he visited him and requested him to attend the funeral with the rest of the royal family,[20] but this was in vain because Abdal Chak couldn't forgive Yousuf for assassinating Aiba Khan. Before returning to the court of Yousuf, Sayyid Mubarak warned Abdal Chak that Yousuf was in a much better position than him.[21][22] Yousuf, on the advice of Sayyid Mubarak and the other nobles, started to organise his army. On the other hand, Abdal Chak also arranged his forces for retaliation.[23]

Abdal Chak and his forces first encountered the advance guard of Yousuf's army led by Muhammad Khan at Nauhatta. Abdal Chak was wounded after being hit by a bullet. While both sides incurred heavy losses, Muhammad Khan was reinforced by Sayyid Mubarak with 2000 horses. After a fierce fight, Abdal Chak was finally killed by Sayyid Mubarak himself[24] and Yousuf, after being ensured that Abdal Chak has been killed, came forward from the rear guard and proclaimed victory while rest of Abdal Chak's broken army ran in disgrace pursued by Yousuf's men.[25] Yousuf forbade Abdal Chak's burial but he was secretly buried by some Sayyids against the Sultan's orders. After Ali Shah's funeral, Yousuf Shah was officially crowned Sultan on the next day.[26][27]

Rebellion by the nobles and abdication

[edit]

After over 2 months of Yousuf's rule in the valley, another rebellion rose to threaten his rule, this time led by a minister in his cabinet, Abdal Bhat, who had been a contender for the office of the Wazīr i Azam but had been declined in favor of Muhammad Bhat.[19] Abdal Bhat convinced the majority of the nobles and ministers who were unsatisfied with Yousuf over negligence in the civil and administrative services while he spent time in the presence of women and alcohol with music and a company of poets.[28] Abdal Bhat proposed Sayyid Mubarak as Sultan after getting Yousuf deposed. Sayyid Mubarak, reluctant at first, agreed because Yousuf was unwilling to cooperate in peace talks even after Sayyid's efforts for reconciliation through the office of Baba Khalil; he joined the rebels.[29]

Even though his senior ministers like Naji Malik warned him to send a more experienced and observant commander, Yousuf sent a force under Muhammad Khan against the rebels in Eidgah, Srinagar.[30] After a ferocious clash between the two sides, Muhammad Khan was killed with 300 of his men. This spread terror among the rest of the army, which then disintegrated.[31][32]

Abdication and retreat to Thanna

[edit]

After this crushing defeat, Yousuf was joined by the defeated army, some joined the rebels, while the rest were arrested.[31] According to Baharistan i Shahi, Yousuf's position was so weak that if Sayyid Mubarak made an ambush against Yousuf, he would have been caught but Sayyid Mubarak abstained from this. Seeing the deranged differences between Sayyid and his own strength, Yousuf sent Mulla Hasan Aswad to Sayyid to ask for forgiveness. Sayyid immediately forgave him.[33]

There are two theories on why Yousuf retreated to Thanna. The first one, narrated by Baharistan i Shahi, explains that Sayyid told Yousuf to leave Kashmir as he'll be recalled after three months. Yousuf, reacting to this, retreated to Thanna and waited for his return.[34][35] The second theory says that Yousuf and his army was too weak to fight Sayyid who was more capable and strong with the help of the nobles.[36] This theory is backed by the fact that Sayyid never had a magnanimous attitude towards Yousuf and would never forgive him over his indecent acts. Regardless of the theories, Yousuf retreated to Thanna leaving his Sultanate and authority in the hands of Sayyid Mubarak and Abdal Bhat.[36]

Attempt for the throne

[edit]

When the nobles became dissatisfied with Sayyid after he asserted his own authority rather than being dominated by them, they rebelled and asked Yousuf to return.[37] Yousuf agreed and left Thanna but when he reached Barbal, Sayyid sent him his peace negotiators to which Yousuf sent his sons Yakub and Ibrahim with Mulla Hasan Aswad and Daud Mir.[36] With this great initiative, he readied himself to visit Sayyid himself but Abdal Bhat, who now led the rebellious faction, was on a different page. He was unhappy because of the sudden advancements between the two sides and started to hatch a plot that would end in his favour. Abdal told Yousuf not to believe in Sayyid's words as he can be traitorous. Yousuf agreed, broke off all the ties with Sayyid, and called his negotiators back.[38] Sayyid attacked Yousuf and, with no help from the nobles who gave him their words, was forced to retreat to Thanna again.[39]

Abdal Bhat continued his deceptive plans and made Sayyid Mubarak abdicate in November 1579.[40] He made Lohar Khan, the son of Shankar Chak and a cousin of Yousuf, the Sultan and appointed himself as the Wazīr i Azam.[41] He also threw the insolent nobles in prison and sent a message to Yousuf not to enter Srinagar ever again.[42]

Return to the throne

[edit]

With the message received, Yousuf became highly annoyed at how his nobles had always favoured their own benefits rather than working for the Sultanate and the public.[43] He knew he alone cannot defeat the rebels and departed from Thanna reaching Lahore to gain the aid of the Mughals. He met Raja Man Singh and Mirza Yusuf Khan, who took him to Agra and was presented to Emperor Akbar in January 1580.[44] Akbar agreed to help Yousuf firmly and ordered Raja Man Singh and Mirza Yusuf Khan to help Yousuf regain his throne.[45] They proceeded to Lahore and raised an army of Mughals. When Muhammad Bhat, his former Wazīr i Azam, heard of this, he joined him at Lahore, leaving his force of 1000 men at Behlolpur. Both Yousuf and Muhammad decided not to command the Mughal army into Kashmir as they would be unpopular and would take over the administration.[46]

Yousuf borrowed some money from the Lahori merchants and with 800 of the men, marched to Behlolpur.[47] Raising another body of 3000 men there with the help of some nobles, Yousuf turned towards Bhimber and after conquering the south-west territories set out towards Nowshera and Rajauri. Both of the cities were easily taken in possession.[43] The Raja of Rajauri, Raja Mast Wali Khan, gave him the command of his vanguard and with this, Yousuf moved again towards Thanna.[47] This time, Lohar Khan sent Yusuf Khan, the son of Husain Shah Chak and the cousin of Yousuf, with Nazuk Bhat, the son of Abdal Bhat. When Yousuf reached the village of Sidau, Yusuf Khan seized Nazuk Bhat and himself entered the services of Yousuf while his army became disintegrated.[48][49] Chiefs and nobles like Shams Duni, Malik Hasan and many others panicked and joined Yousuf at Thanna.[50][51]

Clashes in Sopore

[edit]

Lohar Khan now despatched Haidar Chak, whom he stationed at Hirpora thinking that Yousuf and his army will cross the Pir Panjal route.[52] Still, in reality Yousuf left a small batch behind and left for Poonch and through the Toshamaidan Pass entered Kashmir.[53] He defeated Lohar's forces at Chira Har and then at Sopore. While crossing the Jhelum river, he destroyed the Sopore bridge and occupied the entire country beyond it.[54][55] Lohar Khan released Ali Chak to gain his support[56] and called all of his forces back to Srinagar including Haidar Chak who was at Hirpora and set out with a large army towards Sopore but when he saw the bridge razed to ground, he tried to cross it with the means of boats. Still, he was unsuccessful as there was an equally better resistance from the other side of the bank.[57]

After this descent move, Lohar detached a faction of 2000 men under Haidar Chak and ordered him to attack Yousuf through the Khuyahom Pass while he stayed back to watch the enemy's movement.[58][59] Meanwhile, he sent a message to Yousuf through Baba Khalil that he'll be attacked from the rear and the front and will be left with no other choice but to run away, so he should immediately withdraw from his position and move back. In return, he would be given the jagir of Dachun Khovur.[60][61] This, for a moment, disheartened Yousuf as he was numerically inferior to the opposition but Hasan Malik encouraged him and guaranteed him victory.[53]

Final ambush against Lohar Khan

[edit]

In the early morning of 8 November 1580, Yousuf crossed the Jhelum river and made a surprise attack on the enemy.[62] For retaliation, Lohar Khan sent Ali Bhat with 2000 of his men but was beaten back and defeated.[63] Yousuf's army then marched towards Abdal Bhat, who, after a fierce clash, was killed.[64] Lohar Khan, seeing this, retreated to Brathana (Budgam) and after facing defeat again retreated to Srinagar. Yousuf entered Srinagar without much resistance and proclaimed himself Sultan after 1 year and 11 months in exile[65] and also appointed Muhammad Bhat as his Wazīr i Azam.[62]

Second reign (1580–1586)

[edit]

After assembling his power over the Sultanate, Yousuf ordered the arrest of Lohar Khan, his brother Muhammad Khan and Hasan Chak.[62] Lohar Khan was found in the house of Qazi Musa, the Qazi of Sopore while Muhammad Khan was discovered in Baramula and Hasan Chak was seized from Mamosa in Bangil Pargana.[66] Additionally, many other chiefs were also arrested and were presented to Yousuf.[67] Yousuf was utterly unhappy with them on how they joined Lohar Khan even though he and his father bestowed them with great favours. He issued the orders to blind Lohar Khan, Muhammad Khan and Hasan Chak,[68] some had their limbs removed while the others were executed. The soldiers and the villagers who joined Lohar Khan were pardoned.[69]

Painting of Yousuf Shah Chak on a Horse

Campaign against the rest of the rebels

[edit]

Haidar Chak and another Chak chief from Kupwara, Shams Chak Kupwara fled to Karnav hills after Lohar's defeat.[70] Haidar advised Shams not to stay there for long as Yousuf will soon find out about their whereabouts and will despatch a strong force against them which they'll not be able to resist.[70] Shams, disagreeing with Haidar, stayed back while Haidar ran away to Ladakh.[71] Yousuf, after some time, sent a force against the rebels through the Karnav hills just as Haidar predicted.[72] Seeing this, Shams left Karnav and occupied the fort of Firuz in Pakhli but due to his cruelties in the garrison, the soldiers and chiefs made a request to Lohar for a raid and capture Shams.[73] Lohar did accordingly and led siege to the fort, occupying it shortly after. Shams surrendered and was taken to Yousuf who had him blinded.[74]

Yousuf Shah and the Gyalpo (King) of Ladakh

[edit]

In early 1581, Yousuf's cousin Shams Khan Chak, Alam Sher Magre and other nobles started planning to overthrow Yousuf's authority. Still, Yousuf was alerted and arrested the nobles, who were later imprisoned.[75] Alarmed by the advancements, Habib Khan Chak, another noble from the royal family, escaped to the hills where he met with Haidar Chak.[76] Both of them agreed on taking the help of the then Gyalpo of Ladakh Tsewang Namgyal.[77] The Gyalpo secured them the aid of about 4000 horses. Hearing of this, Yousuf sent an army against them, which the rebels couldn't resist as there was no unity between them.[70] The Ladakhi forces withdrew and the rebels either panicked and ran away or surrendered to Yousuf's forces. Haidar Chak went away to Kishtwar while Habib Chak made his way towards Srinagar secretly after finding no routes to escape anywhere else.[78] Habib didn't stop there as he started to make trouble in Srinagar but was found and seized in the village of Sonawar near Takht i Sulaiman.[79] Other nobles like Yusuf Khan and his brothers were seized as well and on the orders of Yousuf, had their limbs removed while Habib was blinded.[80]

After the revolt led by the nobles, Yousuf had to deal with his Wazīr i Azam Muhammad Bhat. Muhammad Bhat had a grudge against Shams Duni and wanted to punish him. Still, Yousuf opposed him.[78] Muhammad Bhat decided to assassinate him with the help of Yusuf Khan but the plot was discovered and Muhammad Bhat fled but was found and imprisoned with some of his followers while the rest escaped to Haidar Chak who was at that time in Kishtwar.[81]

Yousuf Shah and Haidar Chak

[edit]

Yakub Shah, Yousuf's son, deserted the royal chamber and escaped to Kishtwar with Aiba Khan Bhat, the son of Abdal Bhat. However, Mulla Hasan Aswad brought him back on the orders of Yousuf but Aiba Bhat remained with Haidar Chak.[82] Other than Aiba Bhat, Shams Chak also joined Haidar Chak after escaping from the prison when Yousuf was away in Lar.[83][84] This made Yousuf worried and in 1582 he despatched Sher Ali Bhat and Naji Malik with a large army against Haidar Chak in Kishtwar. Sher Ali was killed and Naji Malik was captured in a night attack.[85] This defeat highly favoured the rebels as they further organised their army.

Meanwhile, Yousuf departed with a much larger army and gave Yakub the command of the advanceguard to crush the rebels. However, the rebels made a counterattack and defeated Yakub's men who joined the main army.[78] Even though the majority of the soldiers stepped back, Yakub continued to resist with the rest of the army and after a severe engagement, defeated and routed the rebels.[86] Haidar Chak, along with Shams Chak and Aiba Bhat, fled while Yousuf came to the front and declared victory. He also rewarded Ibrahim and Abul Maali with Khilaats and Jagirs for their courage and bravery.[87] Shams Chak and Aiba Bhat later started peace negotiations with Yousuf who forgave them and granted them Jagirs on the advice of the Raja of Kishtwar.[88]

Haidar, on the other hand, refused to surrender and went to Lahore, receiving the protection of Raja Man Singh, who gave him the Jagir of Bhimber.[89] Yousuf sent Khwaja Qasim to counteract the actions of Haidar but returned unsuccessful. Raja Man Singh, who was angry on Yousuf for not commanding the Mughal troops in Kashmir during the civil war, favoured Haidar for the seat of Sultan and also to strengthen the Mughal sovereignty in Kashmir through a local pawn.[90]

Mughal ambassadors to Kashmir

[edit]

Akbar sent Mirza Tahir and Salih Aqil as Mughal ambassadors to Kashmir from Jalalabad when he was returning from Kabul in late 1581. Yousuf received the ambassadors in Baramulla and as a mark of respect, brought them back to Srinagar.[76] The ambassadors delivered the imperial command that Yousuf was not keeping the royal court aware of the matters in Kashmir and Yousuf should also pay personal homage to the Emperor immediately if he's free of any internal dispute.[91] Yousuf discussed the matter with his ministers. They advised Yousuf to leave the life of ease and luxury and prepare for resistance as Akbar is anxious to annex Kashmir[92] but Yousuf paid no attention to their advice and sent precious gifts and his youngest son Haidar Khan with Mirza Tahir and Salih Aqil[93][94] but these expressions of loyalty didn't satisfy Akbar who sent back Haidar after a year along with Yaqub Sarfi,[95] who was told to represent Akbar's order in the presence Yousuf that he should proceed to the royal court at once or else an army will be sent against him to conquer his land.[96]

Shortly after, Timur Beg was despatched by Raja Man Singh as the Mughal ambassador to Kashmir with the same order.[97] This frightened Yousuf with the repeated summons and sent his eldest son Yakub with Timur Beg.[98][99] Yakub was presented to Akbar on 9 February 1585.[100] Instead of expressing his approval, Akbar was displeased that Yousuf has evaded his orders not once but twice and has sent his sons who were neither fit for military service nor were ethical with their words.[99]

When Akbar left for Kabul Subah for some internal matters, he sent Hakim Ali Gilani and Baha-ud-din Kambu as his ambassadors to Kashmir on 1 October 1585 with the orders to pay homage to the Emperor as he was in Punjab this time.[101][102] Yousuf was receiving reports from his son on Akbar's plans regarding Kashmir and after these envoys consulted his counsellors and ministers who begged him to pay more attention to the public, organise his army and to focus more on resisting the upcoming invasion but Yousuf was blinded by Akbar's orders that he should visit the Emperor himself.[103][104] He was also concerned over Yakub as he was with the Mughals, who may treat him based on how Yousuf may act.[105] Not only the ministers, every person, rich or poor, old or young, were ready to resist the invasion but it helped Yousuf no more who had lost the will to resist.[106]

As the discussions progressed, Yakub secretly escaped the Mughal camp in Khawaspur and reached Srinagar before the envoys.[107][108][109] Yakub was unhappy on how Akbar treated him[110][99] but Yousuf cared no less who wanted to punish him but was stopped by the ministers.[111] Shortly After, Yousuf received Hakim Ali and Baha-ud-din at Khampur and brought them to Srinagar.[112] Both the ambassadors stayed in Srinagar for two months and failed to bring Yousuf with them as the Kashmiris forced Yousuf not to go with them even though he was mentally prepared to accompany the envoy.[113][114] The envoys left Kashmir and joined the imperial Mughal camp at Hasan Abdal on 13 December 1585.[115][76]

Encounter with the Mughals

[edit]

When Akbar heard of this report, he became highly enraged and just after a week on 20 December 1585,[112] despatched a force of about 5000 horses to invade Kashmir under the commands of Mirza Shah Rukh, Raja Bhagwant Das and Shah Quli Mahram while Haidar Chak and Yaqub Sarfi as guides.[116][117][118] The Mughal commanders wanted to invade Kashmir in early spring as the routes will be cleared of snow and also to take the Bhimber route which was much easier to ride on as the chiefs of Bhimber were slightly inclined towards the Mughals but on the orders of Akbar they moved in the harsh winter and also through the Pakhli route as Kashmiris wouldn't be expecting an invasion in the cold winter through Pakhli.[119] Akbar's assessment was proved right as the Mughal forces easily entered Kashmir.[120]

When this news entered Srinagar, the people came to Yousuf and begged him to organise a resistance as they'll be facing harsh circumstances just how they did last time against the Kashgarians when they invaded Kashmir some decades ago.[121] Yousuf, to please his subjects, organised an army for the defence of Kashmir.[122][99] He released Muhammad Bhat and Alam Sher Magre from the prison and proceeded with the latter to Baramulla and left the former in charge of the capital.[123] At Baramulla he organised three armies, Hasan Malik and Alam Sher Khan commanded the advanceguard, the right was left under Yakub and Abu'l Maali. At the same time, the left was placed under Baba Talib Isfahani and Hasan Bhat, the younger son of Muhammad Bhat. After these appointments, Yousuf proceeded to the Baramulla Pass.[124]

The Mughals and the Kashmiris met at the Buliasa Pass but both the sides were met with hostilities due to the harsh conditions, scarcity of supplies and many other circumstances.[125] Seeing this Raja Bhagwant Das sent an envoy to Yousuf which warned him that the Mughals will be supplied with heavy reinforcements and then it'll be difficult for the Kashmiris to resist anymore.[126][125] Yousuf held talks with the envoys and after a whole night of discussion was convinced that further resistance would be useless and after cheering up the inhabitants and soldiers in various villages and posts, left his camp with a few horsemen to the Mughal camp on 14 February 1586.[127][128] Betrayed by their ruler, the Kashmiris appointed his son Yakub instead of him. They continued their resistance under him.[129][130]

Treaty and violation

[edit]

Although Raja Bhagwant Das agreed with Yakub, he also held talks with Yousuf and after some time both of them signed a treaty.[131] The treaty was read as;

  • ︎The coins should be struck and the Khutba recited in the name of Emperor Akbar.[132]
  • ︎The mint, saffron cultivation, shawl manufacture and game laws would be placed under the control of three imperial officers, Khwaja Miraki, Qalandar Beg and Mulla Mazhari.[133]
  • The daughter of Mubarak Khan Gakhar would be given in marriage to Yakub.[134]
  • ︎Yousuf would be responsible for bringing Yakub to the court of Emperor Akbar.[135]

Akbar didn't approve the treaty but seeing the conditions accepted it.[136][131] Yakub and his followers, on the other hand, also rejected the treaty and had coins struck and Khutba read in Yakub's name.[137] After this treaty, Mughal forces withdrew from Kashmir and on 28 March 1586 at Attock,[138] Yousuf was placed in the presence of Akbar who, even though received him with respect, imprisoned him, violating the treaty between Yousuf and Bhagwant.[139][140]

Administration and policies

[edit]

Political government

[edit]

Even though the Sultan held the highest order of the Sultanate with executive, legislative and judicial powers in his hand, he still formed a central government to run his Sultanate effectively.[141] Yousuf thus formed a council (Majlīs e Wūzra) of his most trusted ministers and appointed them accordingly.[62]

  • ︎Wazīr i Azam (Prime Minister) was the highest official in the state and was also responsible for the civil administration. He was the constant advisor to the Sultan.[142] The Wazīr i Azam during Yousuf's reign were granted with excellent and sovereign executive and judicial powers and even led expeditions under the Sultan's orders.[62]
  • ︎Dīwan i Kul (Finance Minister) was a minister of the Sultan's council who held the economical, revenue and financial powers of the Sultanate.[143] There were many Diwan e Kul under Yousuf's reign who were appointed by Yousuf himself.
  • Qāzī'l-Quzāt or the Qāzī of Srinagar (Minister of Religious and Judicial Affairs) was responsible for the religious harmony between the Muslims and the non Muslims.[144] As Kashmiriyat prevailed over the Kashmiris at that time, Qāzī'l-Quzāt played a big role to settle quarrels between the Kashmiri Pandits and the Kashmiri Muslims. Qāzī'l-Quzāt was also in charge of the judicial matters on personal and land disputes.[145]
  • Mir Bakhshī or Sipahsālār (Military Commander) was the commander of the military department and led the Sultan's army into foreign invasion or civil wars.[146]
  • Amīr i Dar (Lord Chamberlain) had the responsibility to organise royal meetings and also made arrangements for important celebrations in the court.[147]
  • Akhūrbek (Chief Master of Horse) was an important office granted to an officer of the Royal Stable. He controlled the Royal Stable and was obliged to take care of the Royal Horses.[146]
  • Khazānchī (Lord Treasurer) functioned as the head of the Sultan's treasury, which includes the capital of taxation and management.[148]

Taxation

[edit]

Different taxation and duties have been imposed on many occasions throughout the Sultanate. Jizya (Head Tax) was realized from the non Muslims by many Sultans but Yousuf in his tenure, demolished the tax to relieve the non Muslims.[149] Zakāt (Poor Tax) was deposited from every Muslim of the working class or above.[150] 2.5% of their annual income was subtracted and added to the Royal Treasury which was later distributed in the poor and the lower class.[151] It was also given to travellers and students and was spent in providing food and shelter to the needy.[152] Kharaj and Ushr were land taxes.[153] The latter from non Muslims while the former was extracted from the Muslims.[154] Except for these, no other taxes are allowed to be imposed on the public as per the Sharia Law. Still, custom duties were taken from the subjects which came under the pretext of Zakāt.[155] Both the Muslim and Hindu merchants had to pay the custom duty tax. Yousuf also abolished taxes on artisans, cows and gardens and the Zakāt on hanjis (boatmen).[149]

Policies

[edit]

Yousuf held a moderate policy towards his subjects. Even though Yousuf was an Orthodox Shia, he deeply cared for his Sunni and Nurbakhshiya subjects. The Kashmiri Pandits were also given special status and high posts in Yousuf's government.[156] The lower class were benefited with various reliefs whether on taxes or duties. Outside of civil policies, Yousuf focused on a conservative foreign policy. He gave the hill states of Jammu much importance, especially Kishtwar, by marrying his son Yakub to the daughter of the Raja of Kishtwar.[157] Although the Baltis under Ryalfo Ali Sher Khan Anchan and Ladakhis under Gyalpo Tsewang Namgyal never established peace ties with the Kashmiris, Yousuf was eager to solve the internal disputes between both of them.[158] Yousuf most probably also had his ambassadors sent to various Indian states like Sindh ruled by Tarkhans (Muhammad Baqi Tarkhan), Kalat ruled by Qambranis (Malook Khan Qambrani), Mewar ruled by Sisodias (Pratap Singh) and Marwar ruled by Rathores (Udai Singh) just like his predecessors especially Zain ul Abidin. Yousuf sent precious gifts and presents to the Mughal Emperor Akbar and treated his ambassadors with kindness.[86]

Personal life

[edit]

Yousuf was credited with a handsome appearance and courteous personality and was fond of music and art. He sought the company of musicians and poets and took pleasure in listening to and composing poems in Persian and Kashmiri.[149] He also took great interest in women and reputedly always had a fancy cup of expensive wine and alcohol near him. Yousuf loved hearing his subjects' worries in his court and solving them himself. He promoted the welfare of the Sultanate by abolishing unnecessary taxes and granting comfort to the peasants like the hanjis (boatmen).[159]

It isn't certain on how many times Yousuf married, but he made Habba Khatoon his Queen Consort after he regained the throne in late 1580.[160] He showered Habba with love and affection and the same was returned by Habba. One day, when Yousuf was out on hunting that he heard Habba singing under a Chinar tree, he was so attracted to her soft and delicate voice and her beauty that he fell in love with her.[161] Habba also fell in love with the young prince. Habba was only 16 while Yousuf was about 25 when they married in 1570.[162] He was blessed with three sons, Ibrahim Shah Chak, Haider Khan Chak and Yakub Shah Chak. Yakub was his eldest son and succeeded him as the Sultan.[128]

After his exile, Yousuf could not adapt to Bihar's harsh heat after life in the valley of Kashmir, which had a colder climate. He also missed his Queen Habba whom he loved dearly.[159] Habba also could not live without Yousuf and reputedly wandered in the valley reading and writing poems for the love she felt that never vanished.[163]

Later life and death

[edit]

Yousuf was given in charge of Ram Das Kachwaha as a prisoner.[134] This affected Bhagwant Das, who saw this as a challenge to his honour as a Rajput.[135][164] After Akbar reached Lahore, Yousuf was placed in charge of Raja Todar Mal who imprisoned him for two and a half years.[138] In 1589, Raja Man Singh returned from Kabul and requested that Akbar release Yousuf. Accepting his request, Yousuf was released and was given a mansab of 500 horses, a rank with the salary of 2,100 to 2,500 rupees monthly, and was sent with Raja Man Singh to Bihar.[165]

Along with the separation from the love of his life Yousuf couldn't tolerate his new condition[163] and fell seriously ill. After six days of illness he died in Puri, Orissa on 22 September 1592 (14 Dhu al-Hijjah 1000 AH). He was buried in Biswak, Bihar just next to his son Yakub.[166]

Legacy

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Yousuf is regarded as the last effective ruler of Kashmir.[167][168] He is still proudly mentioned in Kashmiri literature for his love for the Sultanate and how he cared for his people, submitting his will and presenting his own throne to the Mughals without knowing that he would never get the opportunity to rule again.[169]

References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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Notes

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Yousuf Shah Chak

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Yousuf Shah Chak (died c. 1592) was the fourth and final prominent sultan of the Chak dynasty in Kashmir, reigning from 1579 to 1586 before his overthrow by Mughal forces under Emperor Akbar.
Succeeding his father Ali Shah Chak amid familial rivalries and internal rebellions, he consolidated power by defeating challengers such as his uncle Abdal Khan in battles like that at Nowhatta. His rule featured administrative efforts to stabilize the region, including the abolition of burdensome taxes like the mir bhari, the beggar system, and jizya, alongside appointing capable ministers for justice and governance. Yousuf Shah also patronized culture, notably through his marriage to the poet Habba Khatoon, whose works reflected the era's artistic expression.
Initially seeking Mughal aid to regain his throne after a brief ouster in 1580, he later resisted Akbar's expansion, leading to military confrontations where deceitful tactics facilitated his capture after the Mughals exploited clan divisions in 1585–1586. Imprisoned for over two years, he was eventually exiled to Bihar, where he died, paving the way for direct Mughal control over Kashmir and ending the Chak era. His defeat is often viewed as the terminus of Kashmir's native independence, though a brief interlude under Yaqub Shah followed before full incorporation.

Early Life and Ascension

Family and Ethnic Origins

Yousuf Shah Chak was born in 1545 as the son of Ali Shah Chak, who served as a wazir under the before ascending to the throne of from 1570 to 1578. Ali Shah was one of several brothers in the Chak family, including Ghazi Shah Chak (ruler from circa 1561 to 1563) and Hussain Shah Chak (ruler from 1563 to 1570), who collectively established the dynasty's dominance through military and administrative roles. The Chak family traced its ethnic origins to Dardic tribes native to the Gilgit-Hunza region in the northern , from where they migrated southward into during the 14th or amid the consolidation of rule. As a warrior clan, the Chaks initially resisted Mughal incursions under leaders like and , leveraging their mountainous heritage and martial traditions to secure influence as local chieftains before intermarrying with Kashmiri elites, including and families. The family adhered to Twelver , which distinguished them from the Sunni-majority population and fueled sectarian tensions, though they forged alliances across religious lines for political consolidation.

Education and Early Influences

Yousuf Shah Chak, born circa 1545 as the son of Ali Shah Chak, received his early education in the royal court of during a period of dynastic consolidation under the Chak rulers. As , he was tutored by Baba Daud Khaki, a prominent Nurbakhshiya Sufi scholar and poet appointed by his father, Sultan Ali Shah Chak (r. 1570–1578), who recognized Khaki's expertise in Islamic and . This instruction emphasized Shia theological texts, , and Sufi works aligned with the Nurbakhshiya order, to which the Chak family adhered after their conversion from in the 14th century. His upbringing was shaped by the martial ethos of the , descendants of Dardic warriors from Gilgit-Hunza who had migrated to in the early and risen through under earlier sultans. Exposure to court politics and administrative duties under his father's rule instilled practical governance skills, amid ongoing Shia-Sunni tensions and resistance against external threats, including Mughal incursions. These influences fostered a blend of religious , poetic sensibility—evident in his later compositions—and strategic acumen, though primary records on his childhood remain sparse, reflecting the era's focus on royal chronicles over personal biographies.

Rise Within the Chak Dynasty

Yousuf Shah Chak, born around 1545 as the son of Sultan Ali Shah Chak, held the position of during his father's rule from 1570 to 1578, amid the 's pattern of intense familial rivalries for power. The Chaks, originally Dardic migrants from the Gilgit-Hunza region who had risen through under earlier Shah Miri sultans, frequently saw successions contested among brothers, nephews, and cousins, with Ghazi Chak's establishment of the dynasty in 1561 setting a of violent takeovers. As heir, Yousuf navigated these dynamics, including reported involvement in eliminating potential rivals such as Aiba Khan, a claimant linked to earlier Chak branches, around 1572–1573, though primary chronicles like the Baharistan-i-Shahi emphasize the broader instability rather than isolated pre-succession acts. Ali Shah's sudden death in December 1578, caused by injuries sustained while playing polo (chogan), prompted immediate challenges to Yousuf's nominated succession, as Ali had explicitly designated his son as ruler before succumbing. Abdal Chak, Ali Shah's brother and a prominent noble with military backing, rapidly mobilized forces upon hearing of the death, aiming to seize the throne and bypass Yousuf's claim. Yousuf, leveraging loyalties among Chak adherents and local forces, confronted Abdal in the Battle of Nowhatta (in Shahr-e-Khas, Srinagar) in early 1579, decisively defeating and slaying his uncle, which eliminated the primary internal threat and solidified his control over the dynasty's core supporters. Following the victory, Yousuf proclaimed himself Badshah with the regnal title Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Yusuf Ghazi, marking his formal rise to leadership within the Chak hierarchy at approximately age 34. This ascent reflected not only martial prowess but also strategic alliances with figures like Muhammad Bhat, who aided in countering noble factions, though it exposed the dynasty's fragility, as subsequent revolts by relatives like Haider Chak underscored ongoing vulnerabilities rooted in the Chaks' tribal origins and Shia-Sunni divides within the . His consolidation relied on suppressing these kin-based oppositions, a necessity in a where administrative posts and military commands were often hereditary among Chak kin, prioritizing loyalty over merit.

First Reign (1578–1579)

Initial Ascension and Rule

Yousuf Shah Chak succeeded his father, Ali Shah Chak, as ruler of in 1578 following Ali Shah's death from injuries sustained in a polo accident at the Idgah maidan in , where a fall ruptured his intestines. Prior to his demise, Ali Shah had nominated Yousuf as his heir, facilitating a nominal transition amid the Chak dynasty's ongoing internal dynamics. The ascension faced immediate contestation from Abdal Khan, a paternal relative, prompting Yousuf to rally support from key nobles and commanders, including Sayyid Mubarak Khan, who mediated and led forces to affirm Yousuf's claim. This early consolidation underscored the fragility of Chak authority, reliant on alliances within a fractious nobility prone to factionalism. In the opening months of his first reign, extending roughly into 1579, Yousuf Shah prioritized cultural and personal inclinations over rigorous governance, earning a reputation as a music enthusiast. His marriage to Habba Khatoon, a celebrated poetess and vocalist originally named Zooni, infused the court with artistic fervor, though it drew criticism for diverting attention from administrative needs. Among initial policies, he abolished burdensome levies such as the mir bhari and jizya, seeking to ease economic pressures on subjects amid sectarian tensions. This brief phase, lasting approximately 40 days before deeper unrest, reflected a ruler more attuned to patronage than the dynasty's defensive imperatives.

Rivalry with Abdal Chak

Upon the death of his father, Ali Shah Chak, in late 1578 from injuries sustained during a match, Yousuf Shah Chak was designated as successor, prompting immediate opposition from his Abdal Chak, who mobilized forces to contest the throne. Abdal, an ambitious noble with prior influence in the Chak court, viewed Yousuf's ascension as a threat to his own claims and rallied supporters, including elements dissatisfied with Yousuf's nascent rule. This rivalry intensified existing factional tensions within the , where familial ambitions often undermined stability, as Abdal's actions reflected broader patterns of intra-dynastic strife documented in contemporary chronicles. Yusuf, bolstered by allies such as Mubarak, a influential court figure who facilitated reconciliation efforts but ultimately backed Yusuf in the succession war, prepared defenses against Abdal's advance toward . The conflict culminated in a decisive battle at Nowhatta (in Shahr-e-Khas, central ), where Yusuf's forces defeated Abdal's, resulting in Abdal's death and solidifying Yusuf's initial hold on power. This victory, though brief in stabilizing Yusuf's reign, eliminated a primary internal rival but exposed vulnerabilities exploited by subsequent noble rebellions.

Noble Rebellions and Abdication

Following his consolidation of power after the rivalry with Abdal Chak, Yousuf Shah Chak encountered a orchestrated by influential nobles, primarily Abdal Bhat, who sought to undermine his authority. Abdal Bhat, leveraging discontent among sections of the nobility, rallied support for Sayyid Mubarak Baihaqi as an alternative ruler, portraying him as a more amenable figure to restore stability amid ongoing factional strife. This uprising, erupting approximately two months into Yousuf's rule in early 1579, capitalized on lingering resentments from prior dynastic conflicts and perceived weaknesses in Yousuf's governance. The rebels, bolstered by key allies including Muhammad Bhat and other disaffected courtiers, launched coordinated attacks that forced Yousuf Shah into defensive positions, culminating in clashes near the Idgah grounds in . Despite initial resistance, Yousuf's forces were overwhelmed, leading to his deposition and flight from the capital; historical accounts describe the nobles' strategy as exploiting night-time maneuvers to seize control swiftly. Mubarak was installed as , but Bhat's influence persisted, as he soon maneuvered to have Mubarak abdicate in November 1579 in favor of Lohar Khan, Yousuf's cousin and son of Shankar Chak, to consolidate noble interests under a less contentious figure. Yousuf Shah's abdication marked the effective end of his first reign, driven by the nobles' rejection of his leadership amid fears of Mughal encroachment and internal divisions; the Chak dynasty's reliance on tribal loyalties had fostered such factionalism, rendering the vulnerable to intrigue. This highlighted the precarious balance of power in , where noble alliances often superseded familial claims, paving the way for Yousuf's subsequent and attempts at reclamation. Primary chronicles like the Baharistan-i-Shahi attribute the rebellion's success to Abdal Bhat's tactical acumen and the nobles' unified opposition, though later interpretations note underlying Shi'a-Sunni tensions exacerbated by the Chaks' Dardic-Shi'a affiliations.

Period of Exile and Return (1579–1580)

Retreat to Thanna and Alliances

Following the revolt led by Abdal Bhat in A.H. 986 (circa 1578–1579), Yusuf Shah Chak's forces suffered a decisive defeat at Idgah, prompting his retreat to Thanna in the mountainous regions, where he withdrew with his remaining treasures, equipage, and loyal troops to evade capture and regroup. Mubarak Khan, a key advisor, urged this withdrawal to prevent further bloodshed and internal collapse, temporarily assuming administrative authority alongside Abdal Bhat while Yusuf departed . In Thanna, Yusuf forged alliances with defecting nobles, fleeing soldiers, and local mountain chieftains disillusioned with the rebel factions, bolstering his depleted ranks through promises of restoration and shared governance upon reclaiming the . These pacts emphasized to the Chak lineage and opposition to Abdal Bhat's interim rule under the nominal kingship of Lohar Chak, enabling Yusuf to sustain operations amid rebel pursuits, including Haidar Chak's forces stationed along potential return routes like Hirapur. By A.H. 988 (1580), these alliances facilitated initial probes, such as skirmishes at Barthal, setting the stage for Yusuf's broader resurgence, though full reclamation required further mobilization against entrenched rebels in key valleys like Sopor. The retreat period, lasting approximately one year and nine months, underscored the fragility of Chak authority amid noble intrigues, with Yusuf's strategic forbearance preserving his claim against immediate annihilation.

Military Efforts to Reclaim the Throne

Following his in 1579 after defeats by rebellious nobles, Yousuf Shah Chak retreated to Thanna, where he regrouped loyal forces and prepared for counteroffensives against the interim rulers, including Sayyid Mubarak and Lohar Chak. From this base, he mobilized an army comprising Chak tribesmen and disaffected nobles opposed to the Sunni-dominated rebellion that had ousted him, launching incursions into proper to disrupt the usurpers' control. These efforts emphasized rapid strikes to exploit divisions among rivals, avoiding prolonged engagements until sufficient momentum was gained. Yousuf sought limited Mughal assistance from Akbar, appearing before the emperor at on January 2, 1580, and departing in August with a small contingent of auxiliary troops, though he primarily relied on indigenous support to minimize external dependencies. This hybrid force enabled initial victories, such as the defeat of Lohar Chak's detachments at Chira Har, paving the way for a decisive push northward. By November 1580, Yousuf's campaigns culminated in the rout of Lohar Chak's main army at , where his troops destroyed the bridge to sever enemy retreats and supply lines, securing control over northern and facilitating his return to . These operations highlighted Yousuf's tactical acumen in leveraging terrain and factional loyalties, with estimates suggesting his forces numbered several thousand, drawn from Chak strongholds, though exact figures remain unverified in contemporary accounts. The success restored his authority without full Mughal subjugation at that stage, as Yousuf detached from imperial units post-victory to assert independence.

Key Battles and Ambushes

In late 1580, during his campaign to reclaim the Kashmir throne from Lohar Chak, Yousuf Shah Chak employed evasive tactics to bypass enemy forces deployed at , advancing instead via an alternative route toward . This maneuver allowed him to avoid a potential ambush and position his army for a direct confrontation with Lohar's main strength. The pivotal engagement occurred in November 1580 at the Battle of , where Yousuf Shah decisively defeated Lohar Chak's forces, reportedly with limited support from Mughal auxiliaries dispatched by . The victory shattered rebel resistance, enabling Yousuf Shah's swift re-occupation of and restoration to power, though he later distanced himself from Mughal influence to assert independence. Earlier in the exile period, Yousuf faced setbacks, including a defeat at the Battle of against rebels led by Mubarak, which precipitated his initial flight from the valley. These clashes underscored his reliance on mobile warfare and alliances with local chieftains to counter superior numbers in ambushes and pitched fights.

Second Reign (1580–1586)

Consolidation Against Internal Rebels

Upon reclaiming the throne in 1580 after defeating Lohar Chak near Sopur with temporary Mughal assistance, Yusuf Shah Chak encountered persistent internal opposition from rival nobles and family members seeking to undermine his authority. Key among these were Haidar Chak and Habib Khan, who rallied support from the ruler of and launched a rebellion against Yusuf Shah's rule; their forces were decisively defeated in battle, forcing Haidar Chak to flee to while Habib Khan suffered severe punishment, including the gouging of his eyes. Shamsi Chak, aided by Haidar Malik, mounted another revolt from the fort of Bulur on the borders of Kamaraj, aiming to exploit the instability following Yusuf Shah's exile. Yusuf Shah's forces swiftly besieged the fort, capturing Shamsi Chak and his accomplices, whom he then imprisoned to neutralize the threat. Concurrently, Yusuf Shah appointed Muhammad Bhat as to bolster administrative control, but Bhat soon conspired in an plot alongside Yusuf Khan, prompting Bhat's and flight of the conspirators to the Udrasah mountains; this betrayal was uncovered and suppressed, further consolidating Yusuf Shah's grip on the nobility. To secure loyalty and stabilize his rule amid these challenges, Yusuf Shah abolished oppressive taxes such as mir-i-bahri, begar, and jizya, which had fueled discontent among subjects and nobles. He also employed harsh punitive measures against rebels, including mutilation and execution, reflecting the dynasty's reliance on coercive tactics to maintain Shia-dominated control over fractious Sunni and noble factions. These efforts temporarily quelled major uprisings, allowing Yusuf Shah to focus on governance and external diplomacy, though underlying factionalism—exacerbated by Chak family rivalries and ministerial defections—persisted until Mughal intervention in 1586.

Relations with Neighboring Rulers

During Yousuf Shah Chak's second reign, Kashmir's relations with neighboring hill state rulers were characterized by fragile ties strained by internal instability and external Mughal encroachments. Historically under Kashmiri , these outer principalities provided military levies and tribute, but loyalty wavered as Akbar's campaigns intensified. In mid-1586, as Mughal forces under Qasim Khan advanced, Mast Wali of —a key southern neighbor—submitted to Mughal authority on June 28, offering logistical support and troops in exchange for a valued at 50,000 rupees annually. This alliance undermined Kashmir's defensive posture along the Pir Panjal passes, enabling Mughal penetration. Rulers of nearby Bhimbar similarly accommodated the Mughals, though records of their specific engagements remain sparse, reflecting a pattern of opportunistic realignments among hill chieftains facing Kashmir's weakened central control. Further north and east, nominal overlordship over regions like and —conquered by earlier rulers—persisted in theory but lacked active enforcement under the Chaks, with Yousuf Shah prioritizing internal consolidation over frontier expeditions. No major diplomatic or military initiatives with these distant neighbors are documented during 1580–1586, as resources were diverted to counter noble rebellions and Mughal diplomacy. These shifting allegiances among hill rulers accelerated Kashmir's isolation, culminating in the sultanate's collapse later that year.

Diplomatic Engagements with Mughals

Following his restoration to the throne in , Yousuf Shah Chak pursued diplomatic measures to placate Mughal Emperor Akbar and avert direct imperial intervention in , amid ongoing internal instability and Mughal expansionist ambitions. He dispatched valuable gifts and tributes to the Mughal court as gestures of deference, while extending courteous reception to visiting Mughal envoys. These efforts included hosting imperial representatives with honors and returning them accompanied by reciprocal presents, aiming to foster amicable relations without conceding . Such exchanges reflected Chak's strategy of nominal acknowledgment of Mughal supremacy to buy time for consolidating power against domestic rivals. Tensions persisted, however, due to Yousuf Shah's refusal to undertake personal obeisance at Akbar's court, interpreting it as incompatible with Kashmir's independence. This stance, prioritizing local over full vassalage, ultimately provoked Akbar's ire and prompted military preparations for by 1585.

Decline and Mughal Annexation

Treaty Negotiations and Initial Agreements

In the wake of the Mughal Empire's military incursion into during the winter of 1585–1586, commanded by and other generals, Yousuf Shah Chak's defenses faltered amid harsh weather and sustained combat, leading him to seek terms of submission to avert total defeat. Negotiations commenced with Mughal representatives, culminating in Yousuf's formal meeting with on 24 February 1586 near Buliyasa, where he pledged allegiance to Emperor . The resulting preliminary agreement permitted Yousuf to retain his throne as a nominal ruler, contingent on recognizing Mughal overlordship through the striking of coins and recitation of the khutba (Friday sermon) in Akbar's name, alongside a commitment to dispatch his resistant son Yaqub Shah to the imperial court. In exchange, Mughal forces would evacuate the , easing immediate pressure on local defenses strained by cold, rain, and attrition. , facing logistical hardships for his troops, endorsed these terms to secure a swift resolution without further escalation. Implementation followed promptly: Mughal contingents withdrew from key positions in by late March 1586, temporarily stabilizing Yousuf's authority and allowing him to reaffirm control amid lingering noble opposition. Yousuf then proceeded under escort to , where he was received by on 28 March 1586; the emperor provisionally acknowledged the submission, granting Yousuf an audience and initial honors consistent with vassal status. This phase marked a fragile , predicated on Yousuf's fulfillment of obligations to forestall renewed .

Violations, Betrayals, and Final Surrender

In the wake of initial treaty negotiations, Raja , commanding Mughal forces, secured Yusuf Shah Chak's agreement to submit to in exchange for assurances of retaining nominal sovereignty over as a . On 7 April 1586, Yusuf Shah accompanied to 's court at , anticipating honorable treatment under the pact's terms. However, rejected the agreement outright, deeming it overly lenient, and immediately ordered Yusuf Shah's imprisonment, thereby violating the explicit provisions for his and restoration. This Mughal breach elicited dismay among imperial officers, including , who viewed the dishonor as a personal slight, yet proceeded unyieldingly, transferring Yusuf Shah into custody under Raja before eventual exile to , where he succumbed to illness in 1597 without release. The treachery extended beyond Yusuf Shah personally; contemporary chronicles suggest underlying tensions, including potential prior non-compliance by Yusuf Shah with informal understandings during earlier Mughal overtures, such as delays in delivering his son Yaqub Shah as a , which may have eroded trust on the imperial side. Nonetheless, the decisive betrayal lay in Akbar's repudiation, transforming a negotiated submission into outright subjugation and fueling perceptions of duplicity in Delhi's expansionist policy. Yusuf Shah's captivity precipitated defiance in Kashmir, where nobles and his son Yaqub Shah repudiated the surrender, installing Yaqub as ruler and mounting renewed resistance against advancing Mughal armies led by figures like Qasim Khan. Internal divisions exacerbated the crisis, with opportunistic nobles like Haidar Chak reportedly intriguing against Yaqub, though such claims stem from pro-Mughal accounts and warrant scrutiny for bias favoring the victors. Mughal forces exploited these fissures, culminating in Yaqub's flight and unconditional capitulation by late October 1586 following defeats at key passes, marking Kashmir's effective annexation and the Chak dynasty's end.

Immediate Aftermath and Loss of Independence

Following Yousuf Shah Chak's surrender at Buliyasa in February 1586, Mughal forces under Raja Bhagwan Das escorted him to Emperor 's court, where he was presented on 28 March 1586 at , violating prior assurances of his safe return to . Akbar initially received him but soon imprisoned Yousuf Shah until December 1587, after which he was exiled to and granted a at Biswak, where he died on 22 September 1592 during a compelled in Orissa. In the immediate vacuum of Yousuf Shah's departure, Kashmir's nobles proclaimed his son Yaqub Shah Chak as in February 1586, conferring the title Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Badshah Ghazi and rejecting Mughal suzerainty. Yaqub's brief reign, lasting until October 1586, involved aggressive resistance measures, including the execution of disloyal officials like the Qazi-e-Shahr, but faced internal dissent amid ongoing Mughal pressure. Akbar responded by dispatching Qasim Khan with reinforcements on 28 June 1586 from , leading to the decisive Mughal advance through the Pass. Qasim Khan's forces entered unopposed on 6 or 15 October 1586, after which the khutba was read in 's name and coins minted bearing Mughal insignia, formalizing Kashmir's as a of the empire and ending the Chak dynasty's independence. Yaqub fled but later submitted, though sporadic resistance persisted until his full capitulation in 1589.

Governance and Policies

Political and Administrative Structure

The political and administrative framework of the under Yousuf Shah Chak (r. 1578–1579 and 1580–1586) was characterized by an , wherein the exercised centralized executive, legislative, and judicial authority, advised by a known as the Amatya Parishad or Mantra Sabha, composed primarily of nobles and landowners. This council's influence grew during Yousuf's second reign amid external pressures, including Mughal interactions, but retained traditional structures inherited from prior dynasties with minimal reforms. Key central officials included the Wazir, who served as the head of civil administration and chief advisor to the sultan; the Diwan-i-Kul, responsible for financial oversight; the Qazi, the supreme judicial authority also managing education and charitable endowments; and the Mir Adl, who adjudicated semi-magisterial disputes. Military administration fell under the Mir Bakshi, who handled recruitment, payroll, and organization of forces comprising provincial troops, feudal levies, volunteers, and a emphasizing suited to Kashmir's . Yousuf Shah Chak appointed Bhatt as during his second reign to bolster administrative efficiency, though his personal indulgence in luxury contributed to a perceived decline in oversight. Provincially, governors were dispatched to key regions such as and to enforce and maintain order, supported by stationed troops scaled to local strategic needs, ensuring central control over peripheral areas. emphasized anti-corruption measures, with precedents like severe penalties under earlier Chaks (e.g., limb for graft), and Yousuf maintained a dedicated majesty for public petitions and dispensation. Religious tolerance was a hallmark, with Shia rulers permitting freedom of despite their own sectarian leanings, though noble factions included diverse groups like Sayyids and foreign appointees. Overall, the system preserved institutional continuity but faced erosion from internal revolts and Yousuf's administrative lapses, culminating in Mughal annexation in 1586.

Taxation and Economic Management

During his second reign from 1580 to 1586, Yousuf Shah Chak implemented tax reforms aimed at alleviating burdensome levies on the populace, abolishing oppressive impositions such as mir bhari (a tax on boatmen), the begar system (forced labor), and (a poll tax on non-Muslims). These measures aligned taxation more closely with principles, limiting collections primarily to land revenue () and , while prohibiting arbitrary extras. He further exempted or reduced duties on productive assets, including gardens, , and workshops, to foster economic activity amid prior fiscal excesses under preceding rulers. Revenue administration relied on appointed subordinates who oversaw collection, ensuring systematic enforcement without the decentralized abuses common in earlier periods. Custom duties persisted on incoming goods from subjects and traders, providing supplementary while avoiding direct burdens on . These policies contributed to short-term stability by curbing discontent from over-taxation, though Kashmir's agrarian —centered on , fruits, and nascent shawl production—remained vulnerable to regional instability and limited networks. No comprehensive records detail total yields or fiscal surpluses, but the reforms reflected a pragmatic effort to legitimize rule through fiscal restraint rather than expansion.

Military Organization and Reforms

The military of the Chak dynasty under Yousuf Shah Chak (r. 1579–1586) followed a hierarchical structure inherited from prior rulers, with the sultan serving as commander-in-chief, personally leading campaigns or delegating to appointed generals. The army comprised provincial troops stationed in strategic towns, feudal levies supplied by the aristocracy, volunteers mobilized during invasions, and a standing force directly controlled by the sultan, drawn from loyal groups such as Chaks, Sayyids, and Rainas, and quartered in the capital Srinagar. The Mir Bakshi oversaw military administration, including soldier recruitment, payroll management, and maintaining registers of personnel. Frontier garrisons, such as those at forts like Biru, Manar, Andarkot, and Chiraodar Nagam, were commanded by nayaks to defend against incursions. Cavalry formed a core element, adapted to Kashmir's terrain with local ponies supplemented by imported horses from and , equipped with steel caparisons; relied on traditional arms including spears, maces, bows and arrows, and swords, while weapons saw limited use even in the later Chak period. Soldiers typically wore coats of for protection. During Yousuf Shah's first brief reign (1578–1579), neglect contributed to internal instability and territorial losses, but his restored rule from 1580 emphasized administrative order, including reliance on Mughal troop reinforcements provided by to bolster defenses against rebels and external threats. Yousuf Shah introduced reforms aimed at curbing abuses, notably prohibiting soldiers from extracting unpaid labor (begar) from peasants, a departure from predecessors' practices that had strained rural economies and . He also abolished the beggar system, which encompassed forced levies on civilians for support, alongside other taxes like Mir Bhari and , to foster stability and potentially improve troop morale by reducing reliance on exploitative . These measures prioritized fiscal relief over expansive , reflecting the dynasty's defensive posture amid sectarian divisions and Mughal pressures, though they did not prevent ultimate defeat by superior imperial forces in 1586.

Cultural Patronage and Personal Interests

Support for Poetry and Arts

Yousuf Shah Chak actively patronized during his rule over from 1579 to 1586, elevating the status of Kashmiri literary traditions through his personal engagement and courtly support. His marriage to , a prominent 16th-century poetess known for her vakhs (lyrical verses) expressing themes of love, longing, and nature, exemplified this commitment; he admired her literary skill and promoted her compositions, which blended folk elements with Sufi influences. Their union integrated into royal life, with Habba Khatoon's works gaining prominence under his encouragement, including verses inspired by their romance and the Kashmiri landscape. In the realm of performing arts, Chak and Habba Khatoon served as patrons of Sufiana Mausiqi, Kashmir's classical music tradition rooted in Sufi mysticism and Persian influences, where they supported musicians and enhanced the form's repertoire during their time together. This patronage extended to broader cultural initiatives, such as the establishment of —translated as "meadow of flowers"—as a site discovered and developed by the royal couple, symbolizing an appreciation for natural beauty that resonated with poetic and artistic motifs in Kashmiri expression. Chak's court functioned as a center for artists and literati, fostering an environment that preserved and advanced indigenous creative practices amid the Chak dynasty's Shia-oriented rule.

Architectural Contributions

Yousuf Shah Chak commissioned a vast terraced featuring thirteen levels, extending from Fatah Kadal to Dal Hasan Yar in , planted with diverse flowers and fruit trees and incorporating fountains and water channels. This landscape project reflected the Chak emphasis on integrating with , drawing on Kashmir's tradition of elevated gardens that harnessed local topography and water sources for aesthetic and functional purposes. While specific attributions to Yousuf are noted in historical narratives, broader efforts included bridges such as Habba Kadal, constructed during the era and named after his consort , underscoring the period's advancements in infrastructure amid political turbulence.

Intellectual and Religious Stance

Yousuf Shah Chak adhered to , consistent with the Chak dynasty's identity as the first Shia ruling house in northern , which actively propagated this faith through state patronage, public rituals like Eid-i-Ghadir celebrations, and cultural propagation methods such as manaqibkhwan songs during their tenure from 1554 to 1586. His father's under Ali Shah Chak (1567–1578) and the dynasty's origins reinforced this affiliation, though internal Chak divisions and opposition from the Sunni-majority population led to sectarian strife, including executions of critics under earlier rulers like Ghazi Chak. Yousuf's own rule from 1579 to 1586 exhibited relative liberalism compared to successors like Yaqub Shah, who imposed stricter Shia enforcements and taxes like jizyah on non-Shias, suggesting a pragmatic approach amid Kashmir's mixed religious landscape. Despite these tensions, cross-sectarian cultural exchanges occurred, as evidenced by Sunni poets composing panegyrics in praise of Yousuf as a Shia sultan, highlighting moments of reconciliation in Kashmir's historically fluid Shia-Sunni relations. On the intellectual front, Yousuf demonstrated a personal affinity for Sufi mysticism and poetry, traditions that blended devotional spirituality with literary expression in 16th-century Kashmir. He composed his own verses (kalam), which he recited at Mughal emperor Akbar's court in Delhi on April 7, 1587, during negotiations to avert invasion, reflecting an aesthetic and introspective worldview oriented toward artistic patronage and spiritual themes rather than polemical theology. This stance aligned with broader Sufi influences in the region, which emphasized esoteric knowledge and tolerance, though primary records of his philosophical writings remain sparse.

Personal Life and Relationships

Family Dynamics and Heirs

Yousuf Shah Chak designated his eldest son, Shah Chak, as , dispatching him on critical diplomatic missions, including negotiations with Mughal Emperor to avert invasion. succeeded his father in 1586 amid escalating Mughal pressures, assuming the throne under wartime conditions as Yousuf was imprisoned and later exiled. This transition reflected a deliberate grooming for leadership, with leveraging familial military resources to mount initial resistance against the Mughals. Historical accounts record Yousuf's other sons, including Ibrahim and Haidar, who actively participated in defensive efforts alongside , contributing to the Chak clan's coordinated opposition to external threats. Unlike broader rivalries involving extended kin, no documented fratricidal conflicts marred Yousuf's immediate family dynamics; instead, the heirs prioritized collective defense and alliance-building, such as Yakub's strategic marriage to the daughter of Kishtwar's Raja Bahadur Singh, which aimed to secure hill state loyalties. This union, arranged amid Yousuf's rule, underscored pragmatic familial strategies to fortify Kashmir's borders. Following Yousuf's capture and to Mughal custody in 1586, family members accompanied him, sharing the hardships of displacement; their joint burial in Biswak, —including graves for kin alongside Yousuf—attests to the intertwined fate of the royal household in defeat. Yakub's brief reign ended in 1589 with Mughal conquest, scattering remaining heirs and marking the effective end of Chak dynastic continuity.

Marriage to Habba Khatoon

Yousuf Shah Chak's personal relationships, including any purported marriage to the poetess (born Zooni around 1550), remain shrouded in legend rather than corroborated by contemporary historical records. Traditional Kashmiri folklore depicts , a woman of humble origins from Chandhar village near , as having been discovered by the prince Yousuf during her youth while she sang pastoral verses in the fields; enamored, he is said to have annulled her prior to a local and wed her circa 1570, elevating her to royal status and renaming her Habba Khatoon ("beloved lady"). This narrative portrays their union as a passionate romance that influenced her vakhs (lyrical poems) on love, longing, and separation, with some traditions claiming she bore him children and served as during his second reign (1580–1586). However, no primary sources from the period, such as the Baharistan-i-Shahi or other Chak-era chronicles detailing Yousuf's life and multiple marriages, mention or substantiate this connection. Historians note the absence of any reference to her in official records of Yousuf's court, his known progeny (including sons Ibrahim, , and others from documented wives), or Mughal accounts of his exile, suggesting the story emerged later as romantic embellishment blending her authenticated poetic legacy with Yousuf's fame as Kashmir's last independent ruler. This folkloric association gained traction in 19th- and 20th-century Kashmiri literature and oral traditions, possibly to symbolize cultural resistance amid political turmoil, but lacks empirical support and has been critiqued as mythic invention unsupported by archival evidence. Habba Khatoon's verified contributions as a mystic , composing in i on themes of viraha (separation) and , stand independently of any royal ties, earning her enduring acclaim as the "Nightingale of " through manuscripts like the Habba Khatoon Bilav collection. Attributing her verses directly to a liaison with Yousuf reflects interpretive tradition rather than causal fact, as her works predate or parallel broader Sufi influences in regional without explicit biographical anchors to the .

Sectarian and Personal Conflicts

Yousuf Shah Chak ascended to power amid acute familial strife, defeating and killing his uncle Abdal Chak in the battle of Nowhatta (Shahr-e-Khas) shortly after his father Ali Shah's death in 1578, thereby securing his claim against rival pretenders within the Chak clan. This violent consolidation highlighted the dynasty's endemic power struggles, where blood ties often intertwined with ambitions for the throne, leading to betrayals and assassinations among nobles and kin. Throughout his reigns (1579 and 1580–1586), Yousuf faced repeated revolts from disloyal relatives and courtiers, undermining his administration. In 1579, Mubarak Baihaqi challenged him directly in a battle at grounds, temporarily deposing Yousuf and installing himself as ruler until Yousuf's restoration the following year. His cousin Shams Khan Chak, alongside Sher Magre and other nobles, plotted an overthrow in early 1581, prompting Yousuf to act preemptively and imprison the conspirators. Shamsi Chak, supported by Haidar Malik—a blood relative—launched a revolt from the fort of Bulur, exploiting grievances over governance and personal enmities to rally dissenters. These uprisings, often abetted by external Mughal overtures, eroded Yousuf's control and invited further intrigue. Sectarian divides exacerbated these personal feuds, as the ruling Shia branch of the Chaks clashed with the tribe's Sunni factions, including leaders like Shams Chak from the Sunni segment aligned with Nurbakhshiya Sufis. While Yousuf pursued moderation toward Sunni subjects to mitigate broader unrest—appointing figures like Sayyid Habib, a Sunni, to key roles—the legacy of prior Shia impositions under predecessors like Husain Shah fostered lingering Sunni resentment and provided fodder for rebels framing their bids as defenses of orthodoxy. Such tensions, chronicled in sources like Baharistan-i-Shahi, reveal how doctrinal rivalries within the elite amplified power contests, though Yousuf's policies aimed to balance factions without fully resolving underlying animosities.

Later Years, Exile, and Death

Imprisonment and Flight

In early 1586, as Mughal forces under Raja advanced into to suppress rebellions against Yusuf Shah Chak's rule, the sultan initially aligned with them to regain control but grew wary of their expanding influence. Seeking to negotiate terms for limited Mughal involvement, Yusuf Shah agreed to meet Bhagwan Das at the imperial camp in February 1586, under assurances of safe passage and honorable treatment. However, upon arrival, he was seized without ceremony and detained as a captive, betraying the promised diplomacy. Transported under guard, Yusuf Shah was presented to Emperor at on March 28, 1586, where expectations of dissolved into outright ; , viewing him as a potential threat to consolidation, refused to restore his and instead ordered his confinement to prevent any resurgence of Chak authority. This captivity lasted roughly one year, during which Mughal administrators fully annexed as a , installing a puppet regime and quelling resistance. Yusuf Shah's detention reflected 's strategic calculus to neutralize independent regional powers, prioritizing imperial unity over prior alliances. Released from strict confinement in December 1587, Yusuf Shah was not freed but relegated to monitored in , assigned a at for nominal sustenance while barred from political activity or return to . This arrangement, ostensibly lenient, effectively ended his agency, as Mughal oversight ensured compliance; attempts to maneuver beyond these bounds, echoing his earlier 1579 of Mughal forces at to pursue autonomous recovery of his throne, underscored a pattern of evading subordination but ultimately yielded to superior military coercion.

Final Days in Mughal Custody

After his defeat by Mughal forces under Qāẓī Muḥammad Lawkār and Qāsim Khān Chāndpūrī in 1586, Yūsuf Shāh Chak sought an audience with Emperor at , where he was instead arrested and imprisoned. He remained in captivity for approximately one year until December 1587, during which time Mughal troops under Qāsim Khān completed the conquest of . Subsequently, Akbar exiled Yūsuf Shāh to , granting him a jāgīr (land assignment) in the village of Biswak near Nalanda to sustain him under Mughal oversight, effectively maintaining him in controlled confinement rather than outright freedom. This relocation followed an initial period of stricter imprisonment, with some accounts noting a brief transfer to before the final settlement in . In exile, Yūsuf Shāh lived in relative isolation, deprived of his throne and autonomy, though provided basic provisions through the jāgīr; historical narratives describe this phase as one of diminished will and enforced submission to imperial authority. Yūsuf Shāh died in 1592 in Biswak, succumbing to the hardships of without regaining or returning to . His burial occurred locally in a modest that has since fallen into disrepair, reflecting the obscurity of his final resting place far from his homeland. No records indicate attempts at escape or significant events in his immediate final days, underscoring a period of quiet resignation under Mughal dominion.

Burial and Post-Mortem Disputes

Yusuf Shah Chak died on 23 Rabi' al-Awwal 1001 AH (corresponding to December 1592) while in Mughal custody in Orissa (present-day Odisha), and his body was transported approximately 200 kilometers to Biswak village in Nalanda district, Bihar, for burial. The burial occurred in a modest cemetery adjacent to a locality known as Kashmir Chak, reflecting the Kashmiri settlers who accompanied him in exile. The tomb, enclosed by a dilapidated boundary wall, encompasses around 10 unattended graves attributed to Chak, his family members, and associates, but the site has fallen into disrepair with overgrown weeds and structural decay reported as of 2019. In 2023, political figures including urged Bihar authorities to preserve the site as a historical relic, highlighting its neglect despite its significance as the resting place of Kashmir's last independent Muslim ruler. Post-mortem controversies primarily involve unsubstantiated local traditions claiming the adjacent grave of , Chak's consort and a noted poetess, lies there alongside his; however, historical records and recent analyses affirm her burial in Athwajan, , , debunking the Bihar association as a myth lacking primary evidence. Descendants and historians have contested exaggerated narratives of familial co-burial, emphasizing reliance on chronicles like the Baharistan-i-Shahi over folklore. No verified disputes over the body's transport or initial interment exist, though the site's ongoing deterioration underscores broader challenges in maintaining Mughal-era memorials.

Legacy and Historical Debates

Achievements in Resistance and Rule

Yusuf Shah Chak ruled Kashmir from 1579 to 1586, implementing reforms that alleviated economic burdens on the populace by abolishing the Mir Bhari tax on boatmen, the beggar system, and the Jizya. He further eliminated oppressive levies on gardens, cattle, artisans, and forced unpaid labor extracted from peasants and hanjis (boat operators), fostering greater welfare and stability. During his second tenure starting in 1580, he appointed Muhammad Bhat as chief minister and prioritized governance, establishing a formal court for dispensing justice that enhanced administrative efficacy. As a cultural patron, Yusuf Shah supported poets, scholars, and musicians, demonstrating personal expertise in music—reportedly correcting the renowned —and composing verse in Persian and Kashmiri. These initiatives contributed to a vibrant intellectual environment amid the Chak dynasty's final phase. He also quelled internal dissent decisively, suppressing a revolt by his uncle Abdul Chak through swift military action, thereby consolidating his authority over the valley. In resistance against Mughal expansion, Yusuf Shah twice repelled invading forces despite numerical disadvantages, preserving Kashmir's autonomy as the last independent Muslim ruler of the region. The pivotal confrontation occurred in 1586, when Mughal commander Qasim Khan led Akbar's campaign; Yusuf Shah mobilized local defenses, inflicting significant casualties in intense fighting before ultimate defeat due to overwhelming Mughal reinforcements. This prolonged defiance delayed annexation until February 1586, when negotiations under prompted his temporary submission, marking the end of native sovereignty.

Criticisms of Weak Leadership

Historians attribute the fall of Yousuf Chak's rule (1579–1586) partly to his to unify fractious nobles and suppress persistent internal rebellions, which eroded central authority and invited external exploitation by the Mughals. Contemporary chronicles like the Baharistan-i-Shahi describe episodes of revolt, such as the 1580 uprising led by Shamsi Chak with support from disaffected kin like Haidar , highlighting Yousuf's inability to secure loyalty among key tribal and familial factions despite military victories in suppressing them. This pattern of recurring dissent, including earlier upon his 1579 accession against rival claimants, stemmed from inadequate administrative control over a prone to intrigue, leaving the regime vulnerable during the Mughal campaigns of 1585–1586. Sectarian tensions further underscored critiques of weak governance, as Yousuf's Shia affiliation and the Chak dynasty's promotion of Shi'ism alienated the Sunni majority, fueling social divisions that undermined collective defense efforts. Incidents like the 1568–1569 quarrel between Shia commander Yusuf Aindar and Sunni cleric Kazi Habib exemplified how favoritism toward Shia elements exacerbated Sunni resentment, a dynamic that persisted into Yousuf's reign and weakened state cohesion against Akbar's forces. Mughal commanders exploited these fissures, gaining defections from Sunni nobles during the 1586 invasion, which Yousuf could not preempt through inclusive policies or decisive purges. Administrative lapses compounded these issues, with accounts portraying Yousuf as an ease-loving who neglected to restrain warring elites or mitigate Shia-Sunni feuds, resulting in a fragmented unable to mount sustained resistance. The dynasty's broader inability to forge stable alliances or manage territorial loyalties, evident in failed diplomacy and reliance on transient , reflected deficiencies that historians link to the Chak , as internal provided Mughals the opening for in 1586. While Baharistan-i-Shahi, likely from a Sunni-leaning perspective, amplifies such portrayals, the empirical outcome—Mughal subjugation after initial repulses—validates claims of governance failures in fostering unity.

Myths, Controversies, and Modern Views

One prominent myth surrounding Yousuf Shah Chak involves the romanticized narrative of his relationship with , often depicted in and modern retellings as an eternal tale of love and poetic defiance against Mughal conquest, with their exchanges symbolizing cultural resistance. However, historical chronicles like the Baharistan-i-Shahi provide limited detail on Habba Khatoon, focusing instead on court intrigues and Yusuf Shah's downfall, suggesting the story's elevation serves more as a vehicle for Kashmiri identity than strict . Controversies persist over burial sites, particularly claims that Habba Khatoon's grave lies alongside Shah's in Biswak, , versus local traditions placing it in Athwajan, , fueling debates amplified by and visits asserting "historical significance" without corroborating archaeological evidence. Shah's own neglected grave in , documented as overgrown and under threat since at least 2019, underscores post-mortem disputes, with descendants alleging Mughal-era deceit in his capture and exile as a deliberate erasure of Chak legacy. In modern historiography, Yusuf Shah is dualistically viewed: as a tragic symbol of lost in Kashmiri nationalist discourse, evoking resistance against imperial overreach, yet critiqued for administrative indulgence—such as tax abolitions that precipitated fiscal decline and internal Sunni-Shia fractures—rendering his rule vulnerable to invasion rather than a of defiance. Scholars note Chak infighting, including Yusuf Shah's fratricidal ascent, as primary causal factors in the dynasty's collapse, challenging hagiographic portrayals that attribute downfall solely to Mughal aggression under in 1586. Contemporary accounts from purported descendants further contest myths of passive victimhood, emphasizing betrayals by Afghan intermediaries who handed him to Mughals after his 1586 flight, framing his until death in 1592 as a consequence of dynastic warmongering over heroic resistance.

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