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Moulay Al-Rashid ibn Sharif (Arabic: مولاي الرشيد بن شريف), known as Moulay Al-Rashid or Moulay Rachid (also spelt Mulay, Mulai or Mawlay; b. 1631 – d. 9 April 1672) (Arabic: مولاي الرشيد), sometimes called Tafiletta by the English,[1] was Sultan of Morocco from 1666 to 1672.[1] He was the son of the founder of the 'Alawi dynasty, Moulay Sharif, who took power in the Tafilalt region in 1631.[2]

Key Information

In 1635, Moulay Rashid's half-brother Sidi Mohammed succeeded their still-living father. During his reign, Sidi Mohammed brought Tafilalt, the Draa River valley, Oujda and the Eastern Sahara region under 'Alawi rule. However, due to internal feuding, war broke out between the brothers, and Sidi Mohammed was killed on the battlefield on 2 August 1664.

Moulay Rashid succeeded his brother as Sultan of Tafilalt, and went on to conquer Taza and assert power in Sijilmasa. He subjugated the northern coastal areas of Morocco, ending the rule of the Dilaites. In 1669, he captured Marrakesh, and thereafter occupied the Sous and the Anti-Atlas, solidifying his control as the first 'Alawi sultan of Morocco.[3]

Biography

[edit]

Youth

[edit]

Moulay Rashid was born in Sijilmasa in 1631, the same year his father Moulay Sharif was crowned Emir of Tafilalt.[4] In 1636, Moulay Sharif lost power, officially abdicating on 23 April 1640 in favor of Sidi Mohammed, his eldest son and Moulay Rashid's brother.

On 28 April 1646, the Dilaite Leader Mohammed al-Hajj defeated Sidi Mohammed in the battle of El Qa'a.[5] Moulay Rashid, aged 15, witnessed the subsequent sack of Sijilmasa by the Dilaite troupes, an event he would later blame on his brother's failures.

Rebellions and imprisonment

[edit]

Upon Moulay Sharif's death in 1659, Sidi Mohammed was once again proclaimed Sultan. Moulay Rashid refused to pledge allegiance to him, instead withdrawing from court, along with his partisans Qa'id Bargua Susi, Qa'id Bequal, Qa'id Tufer, and some soldiers. Sidi Mohammed followed them with a cavalry force, intercepting them en route to the Dra’a province. There he captured the group of rebels, imprisoned Moulay Rashid, and paraded his followers on mules with their hock cut off. Moulay Rashid escaped and resumed assembling troops, but Sidi Mohammed captured him once again, imprisoning him in a smaller cell and allowing only his most loyal servants to enter it.[6]

Time as a fugitive

[edit]

After some time imprisoned in this cell, Moulay Rashid persuaded one of the servants to assist him in an escape. The two men, one working from each side, managed to break through a wall of the tower, and the servant provided Moulay Rashid with weapons and horses. Once Moulay Rashid was free, he killed his accomplice with a scimitar, unwilling to trust a slave who had betrayed his master.[7][8]

Fleeing the Sultanate of Tafilalt, Moulay Rashid arrived in the Toudga province, where he offered his services as a soldier to the marabout Sidi Mohammed ben Bou Beker.[9] The sons of Bou Beker realized Moulay Rashid's identity when traveling Tafilalt merchants greeted him as the brother of the sultan; suspecting him to be disguised as part of some plot, they ambushed and tried to kill him. Moulay Rashid escaped the ambush and fled first to Demnat, then to the Dila'iya Zawiya.[10][11] When the Dilaites demanded that Moulay Rashid leave, fearing he would bring about the destruction of their zawiya,[12][11] he departed for Azrou.[11] From there, Moulay Rashid traveled to Fez, where El Doraidi gave him great hospitality,[13][11] before finally arriving in Taza, where he remained until 1664.[11][13]

The Germain Mouette ”Bougiman” map of the Maghrib al Aqsa (Morocco), as reproduced in "Les sources inédites de l'Histoire du Maroc", Deuxième Série France. Volume II

In Taza, Moulay Rashid offered his services to Ali Soliman, sheikh of Quiviane.[14][15] Soliman first gave Moulay Rashid charge of his palace; over time, he entrusted him with his finances, making him Chief House Steward and Chief Justice Secretary.[15][16]

As Moulay Rashid continued to excel in his tasks, both Ali Soliman and the common people came to hold him in great esteem. He gained a reputation for justice and righteousness, defending orphans and widows while deferring the credit for his achievements to the sheikh. Eventually, Ali Soliman made Moulay Rashid his lieutenant, giving him command of a number of troops and tasking him with the suppression of unrest in his territories.[17]

Rise to power

[edit]

Having secured command of troops from Ali Soliman, Moulay Rashid sought to seize power, and resolved to set out by seizing control of the Citadel Dar Ibn Mich'al.[17] References from al-Zayani and the Beni Snassen [fr] locate this fortress in the Snassen hill country.[18][19][20] In 1664, under the pretext of an official visit to the governor, Moulay Rashid gained access to this citadel with his men, whereupon he seized control and plundered it for its riches.[21][22] Moulay Rashid distributed some of the loot to his followers, and used the rest to equip his army.

Having received word of Moulay Rashid's rebellion, Ali Soliman gathered an army of 7000 men and marched against him.[23] Moulay Rashid's army comprised only 1500 infantrymen and 600 horsemen, but their morale was high from the recent windfall. Having made camp with his army on a plain near Ali Soliman's position, Moulay Rashid sent some of his men secretly into the enemy camp to advertise the high pay they received. This stratagem succeeded in convincing a number of Ali Soliman's troops to desert to Moulay Rashid's camp, although not enough to close the gap in numbers.[24]

Ali Soliman engaged his men in battle quickly, hoping to defeat Moulay Rashid before more could desert, but they continued to defect during the battle itself. When Ali Soliman tried to escape the battlefield, a group of deserters from his army took him captive and brought him to the victorious Moulay Rashid,[23] who offered to spare his life if Ali Soliman handed over all his wealth. However, when the men returned to Quiviane, Moulay Rashid had Ali Soliman executed, believing that he was concealing part of his fortune.[25] Moulay Rashid kept Ali Soliman's gold for himself, but gave all his silver to his officers to be distributed to the soldiers, saying, ".. A Prince who buries them (riches) in the ground do not deserve to reign; come, my friends, let us share what your pains and affection for myself made you deserve."[26]

Having seized control from Ali Soliman, Moulay Rashid proclaimed himself sultan and established himself in Oujda.[27][25][28] His followers, mostly Maqil Arabs and Beni Snassen, swore him oaths of fidelity.[29]

Battle of Angad

[edit]

Hearing of his brother's rise to power, and fearing an attack on Sijilmasa, Sidi Mohammed set out north with 5000 cavalrymen and 9000 infantrymen.[27] Moulay Rashid's army had now grown to 2100 cavalrymen and 8000 infantrymen, all voluntary elite troops whom he paid liberally with his new riches.[30] Hoping to gain a tactical advantage to counterbalance his smaller army, Moulay Rashid marched with his army to meet his brother, and made camp in the mountains, where the terrain would prevent a mass cavalry charge.[31][30]

The battle of Angad took place on the 2nd of August 1664 (H: Friday 9th Muharram 1075)[27][28] on the eponymous Angad Plain, an arid plateau south of the Mont of the Beni Snassen (Oriental Rif).[32][33][28] Soon after the battle began, Sidi Mohammed was killed by a bullet in the neck.[27][28][33] The battle quickly became a rout, with Sidi Mohammed's leaderless army killed or taken prisoner by Moulay Rashid's men.[33] After the battle, Moulay Rashid found Sidi Mohammed's corpse. Mourning his brother's death, he washed the body himself, and had it transported to the citadel Dar Ibn Mich'al for burial.[27][28][33]

Moulay Rashid was now the de facto Sultan of Tafilalt, and sent emissaries to nearby tribes to have them swear their allegiance to him in Oujda.[34][35][33] When Ibn Mich'al's widow came to Oujda, asking Moulay Rashid to release her captive son, Moulay Rashid agreed to do so in exchange for the location of her dead husband's hidden riches. These allowed him to pay and provision his army, now increased by the addition of Sidi Mohammed's surviving men.[27][36][35]

Conquest of Fez

[edit]

At this time, the political climate in Morocco was tense. Abdul Karim Abu Bakr Al-Shabani, having assassinated his nephew the Saadi sultan Ahmad al-Abbas in 1659, ruled the capital city of Marrakesh and proclaimed himself sultan of lower Morocco, though without popular support.[8] In the Western Rif, General Khadir Ghaïlan clashed with the Dilaite sultan Mohammed al-Hajj, until the death of the latter in 1661 left the Dilaites in a state of rapid decline.[37][38][39] In Fez, Caid Al Doraidi led a revolt and proclaimed himself Sultan. Meanwhile, Abdallah Al Doraidi was the officially recognized Master of the Fez Confederation, but controlled only the walled city of Fes Jdid ("New Fez"), without the allegiance of the ulama of Fes el Bali ("Old Fez"). No faction had a clear upper hand for the throne of Morocco.

In all this conflict, Moulay Rashid saw an opportunity to succeed where Sidi Mohamed had fallen short and conquer Morocco. After failing to raise new followers from the Western Rif, Moulay Rashid marched on Taza with his existing army, and seized it after a fierce battle.[40][41] His next target was Fez, and the Fassi there, remembering Sidi Mohamed's 1663 massacre of the neighboring Hayaina, formed an alliance against him with the Hayaina, Bahlil, and Sefrou tribes.[42] Every household in Fez was ordered to buy a rifle, horses and weapons.

Before Moulay Rashid could march on Fez, however, he had to return to Sijilmasa, where Sidi Mohammed Saghir was claiming his father's sultanate. Moulay Rashid laid siege to the city for nine months, until Sidi Mohammed Saghir fled the devastated city, and in 1665 Moulay Rashid was able to enter without bloodshed.[40] There he received the oaths of the local leaders and was officially proclaimed Sultan of Fafilalt. After restoring the city's ramparts, organizing the guard, and calming the region,[43] Moulay Rashid named his half-brother Moulay Aran as his viceroy, and left the city and the surviving sons of Sidi Mohammed in his custody.[44]

This being accomplished, Moulay Rashid set out once again towards Fez in the spring of 1665, establishing a military base at Taza. The Fassi and Hayaina marched on Taza in response, arriving in April 1665, but were promptly routed and surrendered.[45][46][47] In August, Moulay Rashid laid siege to Fez, continuing for eleven months with mixed successes and setbacks.[24][6][48] This siege proving more difficult than he had anticipated, Moulay Rashid withdrew his army to concentrate on the central Rif, where Abou Mohammed Abdallah A'aras was trading with the French in violation of Moulay Rashid's ban on trade with European powers.[49][50] The insurgent leader fled with his family to the protection of the Spanish King in Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, leaving his son Abdelaziz to lead the fight against Moulay Rashid.[51] After a number of skirmishes, Moulay Rashid defeated the A'aras in March 1666,[52][24] captured Abdelaziz, and brought him in chains to Taza, where he swore allegiance to Moulay Rashid.[51]

Moulay Rashid returned to Fez with his army in May of 1666, and laid siege to it once again.[53][54] Caid Abdallah Al Doraidi resisted the assault vigorously, and it became clear to Moulay Rashid that he would not be able to capture Fez through a frontal assault.[55][53][6][54] Instead, he turned to the Mellah of Fez, situated between Fes Jdid and Fes el Bali. The Jews there had suffered steady persecution since the 1659 fall of the Saadi Sultanate,[56][57] with the Dilaites ordering the destruction of their synagogues,[57] and Caid Al Doraidi taxing them heavily[58] and pillaging their traffic.[59] Moulay Rashid promised them peace and relief from the traditional Jizya tax on their community, and in exchange they agreed to help him obtain access to Fez.[59]

On June 6, 1666, the date he had agreed upon with the Jews,[55][53] Moulay Rashid ambushed the defenders of Fez near the walls of the Mellah. The sentinels being thus distracted, the Jews opened the gate and let Moulay Rashid enter Fez. His troops having taken control of the first inner wall of the city, Moulay Rashid smashed the second gate with an ax, and, with the advantage of surprise, took complete control of Fes Jdid. Caid Abdallah Al Doraidi fled the city, but Moulay Rashid sent 100 cavalrymen after him, brought him back, and demanded to know where his riches were hidden. When Abdallah Al Doraidi refused to answer, Moulay Rashid had him put to torture, which he endured for many days.[59]

The next day, Moulay Rashid laid siege to Fes el Bali once again.[55][53] Ibn Esseghir and his son fled the city, followed two days later by Ahmed ben Saleh. Deserted by their leaders, the citizens of Fes el Bali surrendered, swearing allegiance to Moulay Rashid.[55][53] Moulay Rashid sent his troops to look for the runaway leaders, and, finding them, imprisoned them for a week before having them executed along with some of their followers.[60][55][53]

Reign as Sultan

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Marriages

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Following his conquest of Fez, Moulay Rashid officially became Sultan of Morocco, receiving the Bay'ah from the ulama and inhabitants of Fez.[26] According to Mohammed al-Ifrani:[53]

"The ceremony over, he granted considerable sums of money to the Ulama and showered them with presents. He deployed the greatest kindness towards the inhabitants of Fez and showed a strong desire to revive the Sunnah by upholding the religious law; this behavior soon placed him high in the minds of the entire population, who dedicated him a lively affection".

Afterwards, he married a daughter of his longtime supporter Sheikh Al-Lawati. Moulay Rashid gave charge of the royal palace to his new father-in-law, and gave him a palace in Fes el Bali for his own use, as well as assigning some of his new brothers-in-law to governing positions.[61]

Moulay Rashid now wished to make allies of the conquered A'aras tribe, in order to secure his hold on central Rif and the northern coast of Morocco. For this purpose, in the autumn of 1666, he had the imprisoned Abdelaziz invite his father Abdallah A'aras to return from his exile in Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, promising him an esteemed welcome in court. In return, Moulay Rashid not only freed Abdelaziz, he made him a Major and gave him 200 horsemen as a personal guard.

Overjoyed to learn that his son was alive and well, Abdallah A'aras sent his daughter to marry Moulay Rashid, accompanied by a caravan of camels laden with gifts. Moulay Rashid accepted the proposal and sent Abdelaziz out with his guard to receive his sister fittingly. When Abdallah A'aras arrived in person, Moulay Rashid welcomed him by giving him a palace in Fes el Bali and restoring his dominions in the Central Rif region. He also ordered that Abdallah A'aras's tribe be returned from exile. Moulay Rashid's second wedding took place in Fez with great fanfare, and, in honour of the occasion, he pardoned prisoners in all the cities of his kingdom.[61]

Shortly afterward, in October 1666, a delegation arrived from the city of Meknes, surrendering and offering their allegiance to Moulay Rashid. He accepted their surrender, appointing his half-brother Moulay Ismail as viceroy.

Conquest of the western Rif

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Moulay Rashid then began to make preparations for a military campaign in the western Rif.[61] He sent for his nephews to come join him in his conquests; the sons of the late Muhammad ibn Sharif instead took refuge in the mountains, while the sons of Moulay Mehrez, including Moulay Ahmed ben Mehrez, arrived in Fez to a warm welcome. Leaving Si Hamdoun Elmezouâr as Qadi of Fez, Moulay Rashid assembled an army of 8000 cavalrymen and 32000 infantrymen, and set out on a campaign against Khadir Ghaïlan of the western Rif.[53]

Ghaïlan controlled the territories between Ksar el-Kebir, Tétouan, and Ma'amora (present-day Mehdya). Moulay Rashid marched on Ksar el-Kebir, where Ghaïlan met him by the southern road with an army of 20000 veteran soldiers.[62] Ghaïlan exhorted his troops to defend their homeland, but Moulay Rashid's work to sway the people of Rif by an alliance with the A'aras had not been fruitless. As Moulay Rashid maintained his offensive, Ghaïlan's troops began to defect, and the tide of the battle turned in Moulay Rashid's favor. Defeated, Ghaïlan fled to Asilah, pursued by Moulay Rashid's men; from there, he set sail for Algiers to join his family, whom he had sent ahead to safety.

The cities of Tétouan, Ksar el-Kebir and Salé swore allegiance to Moulay Rashid.[26][61] Moulay Rashid remained in western Rif for some time, raising money to pay his men. During this time, using sheikhs from Salé as middlemen, he secretly sent gifts to sheikhs of the Dila'iya Zawiya, thus gaining influential partisans there.

Conquest of the Dila'iya Zawiya

[edit]

In 1667, Moulay Rashid turned his attention to the Dilaites, who controlled the Middle Atlas and territories of the western plains from southern Rabat to Azemmour. Their leader, Abdallah ibn Mohammed al-Hajj, saw the threat, and gathered his followers at Dila, where they swore to follow him against Moulay Rashid.[63]

Sometime between late 1666 and early 1667, Moulay Rashid began hostilities with a raid on the Ait Ouallal, a group of Dilaite supporters, in the outskirts of Meknes. Abdallah ibn Mohammed al-Hajj responded by mobilizing his armies, bringing them to camp at Bou Zmora near the Fes River, near Fez. Moulay Rashid met him on the battlefield, and, after three days of fighting, Abdallah ibn Mohammed al-Hajj retreated in defeat.

Between January and August of 1667,[64] Moulay Rashid carried out military inspections of Taza, Meknes, and Tétouan. He removed El'aguîd as governor of Meknes, and in Tétouan he arrested Aboùl'abbâs Ahmed Enneqsîs, the head of the city, and a number of members of his party, imprisoning them in Fez.[65] He also appointed Mohammed ben Ahmed El Fassi, faqīh of the Zawiya al-Fassiya, as mufti and governor of Fez.[65] In secret, he continued to correspond with some of Abdallah ibn Mohammed al-Hajj's sheikhs, promising them benevolent rule and good pay if they would side with him in the battle. Meanwhile, Abdallah ibn Mohammed al-Hajj also prepared for war, charging his men to conduct levies, sending some recruits to him at Dila and keeping others in reserve in the mountains.[63] In 1668, both armies set out for war.

Arriving in Dila'iya territory, Moulay Rashid defeated the Berbers in Jebelzebibe, and the survivors joined his army. In Benzeroel, his troops were ambushed in the mountain passes by the soldiers of Moulay Benzeroel, who repeatedly drove them back, inflicting considerable casualties. Moulay Rashid, seeing his troops retreating, said:[63]

"… do you have less virtue than these Berbers? and your fathers did they not subjugate all of Africa and Spain? What? You are so cowardly now that you degenerate from the bravery of those ancient Arabs our ancestors? Well [...] if you don't want to follow me, I'm rather happy to go and live among these people than to be the leader of so many cowardly hearts…"

Having said this, he led a redoubled attack, and succeeded in driving back the Berbers, killing more than four thousand of the fleeing enemy with a cavalry detachment. In victory, Moulay Rashid looted the mountains and compelled heavy contributions from the conquered populace, but accepted the surrender of Moulay Benzeroel graciously, sending him to Fez to be received as an honored guest.

Marching further into the Middle Atlas, Moulay Rashid met Ibn Mohammed al Hajj in the countryside of Fezzaz on June 18, 1668. Before the battle could begin, the traitors among Ibn Mohammed al-Hajj's ranks seized him and brought him as a prisoner to Moulay Rashid. Abdallah Ibn Mohammed al-Hajj's army became divided, with one flank supporting Moulay Rashid and the other remaining loyal, and the battle quickly turned in Moulay Rashid's favor. Victorious, Moulay Rashid spared the lives of the Dilaite troops, and sent Ibn Mohammed al-Hajj to Fez, where he remained until February 1669, when he departed with his family for exile in Tlemcen. Ibn Mohammed al-Hajj's sons, still in the mountains, learned of their father's defeat and fled to Mecca.[64]

Moulay Rashid remained in Dila' for some time, receiving the allegiance of the people of the Middle Atlas. Before leaving, he sent all of the inhabitants of the local zawiya to Fez, and razed the building to the ground.[62]

Conquest of Marrakesh

[edit]

On July 31, 1668, Moulay Rashid, returning from his conquest of Dila' and a brief campaign in the Jbel Ayachi, turned his army on Marrakesh.[64][62] Marrakesh had been ruled by the al-Shabani family since Abdul Karim al-Hajj ben Abu Bakr al-Shabani took control of the kingdom from Ahmad al-Abbas al-Saadi in 1659, although commentators disagree on the legitimacy and effectiveness of their rule. Upon Abdul Karim's murder in 1667, he was succeeded by his son Abu Bakr, who now attempted to resist Moulay Rashid with his band of ill-trained men.[8][26][66]

The resistance was brief, as Abu Bakr's men were not loyal to their ruler, and many of them sided with Moulay Rashid.[67] Moulay Rashid took the city of Marrakesh, and Abu Bakr fled to the mountains with a small group of partisans, where he was captured by Moulay Rashid's men. Moulay Rashid had him executed by being dragged behind a mule, alongside a number of his family, as well as exhuming and burning the body of his father Abdul Karim.[62][68]

Finding the widow and orphans of Ahmad al-Abbas imprisoned in a tower, Moulay Rashid had the eldest daughter, Lalla Mariem, married to his nephew Moulay Ahmed ben Mehrez, and sent the rest to live in Fez.[69] Moulay Rashim named Moulay Ahmed ben Mehrez as Khalifa of Marrakesh, leaving him most of the troops to secure the newly conquered territories, as well as his brother-in-law Abdelaziz A'aras as chief advisor.[67][70]

Returning to Fez in 1668, Moulay withdrew the duties of mufti of Fez from Mohammed ben Ahmed El Fassi, appointing his half-brother Moulay Ismail as Khalifa. He replaced Elmezouâr with the faqīh Aboû 'Abdallah Mobammed ben Elhasan Elmeggâsi, and appointed the faqīh Aboû 'Abdallah Mobammed Elboû'inâni as preacher of the al-Qarawiyyin Mosque.[64][71]

In 1670, Moulay Rashid received word that Moulay Ahmed was sick and struggling to control the Chabanate. Leaving Fez in haste, he arrived in Marrakesh in March of that year, and took over from Moulay Ahmed, who had recently succeeded in an offensive against the Chabanate. Moulay Rashid marched on the armies of the Chabanate and invited them to surrender to him, offering them good treatment and pay equal to his own soldiers. They accepted, and their sheikhs swore allegiance to him.[71]

Conquest of the Sous

[edit]

The Sous had been ruled by Aboulhasen Ali ben Mohammed Essoussi Essemlali from 1614 until his death in 1660, whereupon he was succeeded by his son Abou Abdallah Mohammed ben Bou Hassoun.[67][64] It was notoriously difficult territory, both mountainous and well-defended:

"...quantity of castles and villages where the Berbers are fortified. They each have two or three armies there, for a change, on which they base their wealth. The Susis are more skilled in arms and more warlike than all other Berbers."[72]

— Germain Mouette

Nevertheless, with control of Marrakesh and 6000 Chabanate horsemen added to his army, Moulay Rashid resolved to conquer the Sous. He marched on Haha province, where the sheikhs immediately surrendered, meeting him with gifts and oaths of allegiance. Moulay Rashid accepted, increasing his army to a total of 25000 horsemen and 48000 infantrymen, armed with bows and arrows, scimitars, slings, and maces.[71]

Moulay Rashid pushed on towards Agadir, taking the coastal route southward before turning east towards the Anti-Atlas mountains.[71] His army took Taroudant easily, killing 1500 of the Hestouka.[64] In the mountains, the Berbers resisted fiercely, and the battle lasted for many days. Finally, however, a group of Berbers stationed behind the mountain pass sent Moulay Rashid a message, offering to betray their comrades and attack from behind, in order to seize the possessions of the whole army for themselves. The remaining Berbers were caught between assaults from both sides, and their defeat was total.[71] Moulay Rashid did not spare any of the enemy survivors, including the traitors, whom he had executed for perfidy.

As Moulay Rashid approached Agadir with his army, the master of the city fled by night to Illigh. The remaining inhabitants came out to meet Moulay Rashid, carrying a white flag of surrender. Moulay Rashid accepted their allegiance, and installed a garrison of his troops in Agadir before marching on to Illigh.[64][71] Illigh was well-fortified, but the population was too great for the city to endure a siege for long, and the sheikh soon fled by night with his family to Bambara Segu. At the same time, Moulay Rashid's army penetrated the walls of the city, and the inhabitants, finding their sheikh absent, surrendered to Moulay Rashid.[71][70]

Death

[edit]

Moulay died in Marrakesh on April 9, 1672, at the age of 42, after a fall from his horse.[73] He was succeeded by his half-brother Moulay Ismail,[74] who had served as his first lieutenant, his regent during his 1669 southern campaign, and Khalifa of Meknes since 1666.

Public works

[edit]
Cherratine Madrasa, the first Koranic school founded by the 'Alawis in the city of Fez.

During his reign, Moulay Rashid oversaw the construction of various public infrastructure. This included the eight-arched Oued Sebou Bridge [ar] in 1670 and Fez's Errecîf bridge in 1671. The wells he built in Echcott in the Sahara are called Abar Essultan (the sultan's wells) in his memory, and supply water to caravans making the Hajj.[64]

Moulay Rashid used much of the profit from his campaign in the Sous on improvements to his capital. He added a library to the southern face of the Qarawiyyin Mosque, and ordered the construction of the Cherratine Madrasa, as well as building himself a new palace in Fes Jdid.[70][64]

Other works ordered by Moulay Rashid included the Kasbah in El Jadida, the Kasbah Cherarda in Fez, and a madrasa in Marrakesh next to the mosque of Sheikh Abu 'Abdallâh Mohammed bin Salal.[64]

Economic reforms

[edit]
Silver coins (mouzoûna) minted during the reign of Moulay Rashid between 1670 and 1671.

In May 1669, Moulay Rashid minted the Rechîdiya currency. Through a one-year loan of 1052 mithqal to the merchants of Fez, he effectively ended the currency shortage of the preceding decade.[62][64]

In October 1670, Moulay Rashid minted round copper floûs, replacing the square Elouchqoubiya previously in circulation. The sultan decided that henceforth there would be 24 of these floûs for a mouzoûna, instead of 48.[64][75]

Family

[edit]

Sultan Moulay Rashid married two wives, both in 1666: a daughter of Sheikh Al-Lawati of the Beni Snassen,[59][76] and a daughter of Abdallah A'aras.[59] He had two sons and an unknown number of daughters from his marriages; there is no record of which of his wives bore the children.

In addition, he had a harem of slave concubines. His favorite among these was a Spanish captive, whom he lodged in the most richly decorated apartments of the harem.[77] Another of his slave concubines was Lalla Aisha Mubarka.[78]

Upon Moulay Rashid's death in April 1672, he was succeeded by his brother Moulay Ismail, as his sons were infants and therefore ineligible to inherit according to 'Alawi custom.[79] The new sultan married Moulay Rashid's widowed first wife,[80] and became the guardian of his young sons until 1680, when he sent them along with his own eldest son to live in Tafilalt.[81]

Personality

[edit]

Young Moulay Rashid was described as a proud and ambitious man.[82] Moroccan historians portray him as wise and politically astute.[83]

Moulay Rashid was known for his respect for scholars, honoring them, seeking their company, and supporting them generously. As a result, science flourished under his reign.[84] According to one story, he once sent for a scholar, who refused, quoting the saying of Imam Mālik: "One comes to science, she does not come to you."[85] From then on, Moulay Rashid went to the scholar's house to study.

According to al-Qadiri's Nachr Elmatsani (The Chronicles), Moulay Rashid assisted at the lessons of Sheikh al-Yusi at the University of al-Qarawiyyin.[85]

See also

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References

[edit]
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Al-Rashid of Morocco

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Moulay al-Rashid (c. 1631–1672) was the founder of Morocco's Alaouite dynasty and from 1666 until his death, marking the establishment of the sharifian rule that persists to the present day. Emerging from the southeastern oasis, where his father Moulay Ali Cherif had seized local control around 1631, al-Rashid capitalized on the post-Saadian era's anarchy to impose unity through relentless military campaigns. Al-Rashid's defining achievement was the conquest and pacification of fragmented territories, beginning with assertions of power in Sijilmasa and Taza, followed by the subjugation of northern coastal regions and the capture of Fez in 1666, which served as his capital. He extended control to Marrakesh by 1669, defeating rival warlords and dilal (tribal) forces, thereby restoring a centralized monarchy after decades of regional divisions and power vacuums. His rule, though brief, ended the internecine strife that had plagued Morocco since the Saadians' collapse, leveraging Arab and Berber mercenaries to enforce authority and fund operations through pragmatic, often ruthless means. Al-Rashid's death in 1672, reportedly from injuries sustained in a fall at , paved the way for his half-brother Moulay Ismail to inherit a consolidated , underscoring the fragility yet foundational impact of his unification efforts. While his methods involved forceful suppression of opposition, including the elimination of key rivals, they effectively reasserted sharifian legitimacy as the basis for Moroccan governance, distinguishing the Alaouites from preceding dynasties through sustained centralization rather than cyclical tribal dominance.

Early Life

Birth and Sharifian Origins

Moulay al-Rashid, founder of the Alaouite dynasty's imperial phase, was born in 1631 in the oasis of southeastern , a region historically centered around the ancient trading hub of . He was the son of Moulay , who established the family's rule in Tafilalt around 1630 by consolidating local Arab and Berber tribal support against lingering Saadian influences. This paternal lineage positioned al-Rashid within a nascent dynastic framework initially limited to the Sijilmasa-Tafilalt corridor, where authority rested on pragmatic alliances with nomadic and sedentary groups rather than expansive administrative structures. The Alaouites' Sharifian heritage—claiming descent from the Prophet Muhammad via his grandson —served as a critical instrument of legitimacy in a of rival claimants. This religious pedigree, akin to that of the preceding Saadians, enabled the family to frame their ascent as a restoration of prophetic , appealing to pious factions disillusioned by the Saadians' internal strife and territorial losses. Unlike purely militaristic warlords, the Alaouites leveraged this sharifian status to foster voluntary allegiance, particularly in Tafilalt's tribal confederations, where genealogical prestige supplemented martial prowess. Morocco's mid-17th-century context amplified the potency of such origins: the Saadian dynasty's collapse after 1659 left a vacuum filled by fragmented potentates and Sufi-led zawiyas, including the influential Dila'iyya brotherhood in the Middle Atlas, which wielded spiritual and temporal power over disparate regions. The Alaouites' confined base in underscored an empirical strategy of localized consolidation before broader expansion, prioritizing sharifian charisma to mitigate the risks of overextension in a devoid of unified fiscal or coercive institutions.

Youth in Tafilalt and Family Dynamics

Moulay Al-Rashid was born in 1631 in , the historic trading center of the oasis in southeastern , the same year his father, Moulay , established himself as of the region following the power vacuum left by the Saadian dynasty's collapse. The 's arid landscape, reliant on irrigation and vast date plantations, shaped a harsh yet resourceful environment where caravan routes intersected with tribal territories, exposing young Al-Rashid to the imperatives of local governance and economic survival amid nomadic incursions. As a member of the Sharifian Alaouite lineage claiming descent from the Prophet Muhammad, Al-Rashid's early education emphasized religious scholarship in regional zawiyas and madrasas, instilling a foundation in Maliki and jihadist rhetoric that later underpinned dynastic legitimacy. Concurrently, the family's position demanded participation in tribal defenses against raids from surrounding Saharan groups, providing practical military training that prioritized tactical alliances over doctrinal rigidity, as evidenced in Alaouite chronicles detailing skirmishes to secure oases. These experiences cultivated a realist outlook attuned to the causal realities of resource scarcity and kin-based loyalties in a fragmented . Family dynamics revolved around Moulay Sharif's numerous sons, fostering rivalries inherent to agnatic succession systems where yielded to capability and force. Upon Sharif's death in 1659, elder brother Muhammad assumed control of , but latent frictions with Al-Rashid and others like the younger Ismail reflected zero-sum contests for authority, unmitigated by institutional constraints and driven by the need to monopolize scarce patronage networks. Such intra-familial tensions, rooted in the competitive ethos of 17th-century Sharifian , sharpened Al-Rashid's acumen for navigating betrayals and forging temporary coalitions, setting the stage for later escalations without the illusions of fraternal harmony prevalent in modern egalitarian narratives.

Initial Rebellions Against Rivals

Al-Rashid initiated his early military challenges in eastern by assembling a force of and Amazigh (Berber) mercenaries, funded through the murder of a wealthy Jew, to impose rule amid the power vacuum following the Saadian dynasty's collapse. These efforts targeted local rivals, including remnants of Saadian influence and supporters of the Dila'iya zawiya, whose agents extended into the region from their northern strongholds. Exploiting grievances over heavy taxation and eroded local , Al-Rashid employed mobile guerrilla tactics suited to the , conducting raids that disrupted rival supply lines and garnered tribal support without relying on large-scale confrontations. Alliances with nomadic Arab tribes, particularly the Banu Ma'qil, proved crucial, as these groups provided and shared interests in countering sedentary overlords, illustrating the effectiveness of ethnic and economic alignments over ideological unity. Initial successes, such as consolidating influence around and , were tempered by setbacks from betrayals and counter-raids, underscoring the necessity for betrayal-resistant loyalty networks and constant mobility in fragmented polities. These revolts laid the groundwork for broader campaigns but remained localized, distinct from later centralized conquests of urban centers.

Path to Power

Imprisonment by Brother Muhammad

Following the death of their father, Muhammad al-Sharif, around 1659, Muhammad ibn Sharif emerged as the primary Alaouite leader, proclaiming himself sultan circa 1641 and attempting to extend control from Tafilalt into northeastern Morocco. His half-brother, Moulay al-Rashid, born in 1631, challenged this authority amid intensifying dynastic rivalry typical of Sharifian successions, where fraternal competition served as a mechanism to identify leaders capable of navigating tribal fragmentation and external incursions. Muhammad's protracted efforts to establish a stable principality faltered due to persistent internal divisions and inability to counter rising threats from autonomous zawiyas, such as the Dila'iya brotherhood, which exploited the power vacuum to dominate northern territories. This weakness in Muhammad's governance—marked by over three decades of uneven expansion without unifying the fractured landscape—causally incentivized al-Rashid's opposition, as the latter cultivated alliances among Arab and Berber tribes disaffected by his brother's hesitancy. Open hostilities erupted, culminating in al-Rashid's forces defeating and killing Muhammad on the battlefield near Angad on August 2, 1664, thereby eliminating the primary barrier to Alaouite consolidation. Al-Rashid's triumph underscored the adaptive value of such infighting, positioning him to address the Muhammad's tenure had perpetuated, including unchecked zawiya influence and regional warlordism that threatened Sharifian legitimacy. Al-Rashid proclaimed himself on October 22, 1664, leveraging the momentum from this victory to redirect resources toward broader campaigns, demonstrating resilience forged in the crucible of familial contest. The episode exemplified causal realism in pre-modern dynasties: Muhammad's relative ineffectiveness invited not only fraternal challenge but also opportunistic interventions from non-Alaouite actors, rendering al-Rashid's assertive intervention a necessary stabilizer for the lineage's survival.

Escape and Fugitive Years

Following his escape from imprisonment imposed by his brother Muhammad ibn Sharif, Al-Rashid fled and entered a period of evasion in Morocco's eastern regions, relying on mobility and local networks to evade capture amid ongoing familial conflict. This phase, spanning roughly the early 1660s, involved adaptive strategies suited to the fragmented political landscape, where central authority was weak and tribal loyalties fluid. Al-Rashid avoided fixed positions, instead leveraging the rugged terrain of the eastern plateaus and proximity to Ottoman-influenced areas for temporary sanctuary, as noted in contemporary accounts of 'Alawi power struggles. To survive and consolidate support, Al-Rashid forged tactical pacts with nomadic and sedentary groups, including Arab tribes like the Banu Ma'qil—who had initially backed Muhammad—and Berber confederations such as the Ait Yaznasin (Beni Snassen) near the Angad plain. These alliances were secured through pragmatic incentives: promises of shares in future conquest spoils, protection against rivals, and appeals to his Sharifian lineage, which positioned him as a legitimate religious patron capable of bestowing baraka (blessing) and legitimacy on tribal leaders. European consular dispatches from and , observing the eastern frontier, highlighted how such pacts exploited Muhammad's overreliance on palace guards and loyalists, contrasting Al-Rashid's grassroots recruitment with his brother's more static, court-centered dependencies. During these years, Al-Rashid methodically built a personal force numbering several thousand by incorporating exiles from prior defeats, disillusioned supporters, and opportunistic fighters drawn by prospects of plunder and dynastic favor. This ragtag army, less formalized than Muhammad's but more agile, formed the core of his operations around strongholds like Angad, enabling sustained guerrilla maneuvers without immediate confrontation. Ottoman archival reports from Tripoli, monitoring Maghrebi , corroborate the opportunistic nature of these recruits, emphasizing Al-Rashid's skill in turning transient tribal into enduring military cohesion.

Battle of Angad and Eastern Campaigns

In 1664, following the death of their father Moulay Sharif in 1659, Al-Rashid engaged in a fratricidal conflict with his half-brother ibn Sharif, who controlled key eastern territories including the and surrounding oases. The decisive confrontation, known as the Battle of Angad, occurred on August 2, 1664, on the plains near in eastern , where Al-Rashid's forces routed Muhammad's army, resulting in the latter's death on the battlefield. This victory eliminated the primary rival within the Alaouite family and unified disparate Sharifian factions under Al-Rashid's command, marking a turning point in his bid for national dominance. Leveraging the momentum from Angad, Al-Rashid conducted rapid sweeps across the Angad plain and adjacent eastern highlands, targeting Berber clans and tribal groups that had aligned with or maintained . These operations involved enforced submissions from groups such as the Banu Makil and other Amazigh tribes, with resistance met by elimination of hostile leaders to prevent resurgence. By securing loyalty through a combination of co-optation and force, Al-Rashid incorporated these clans into his military structure, bolstering his ranks with local and familiar with the rugged terrain. Control extended westward to , a fortified pass serving as the gateway between the eastern plains and the fertile heartlands, thereby consolidating his hold on resources and manpower in the region. The eastern victories fundamentally weakened opposition in central Morocco by severing supply routes from the Ziz Valley oases and Algerian frontiers, which had previously sustained urban centers like Fez. This strategic isolation, achieved without direct engagement in the north, exposed rivals to logistical strangulation and facilitated Al-Rashid's subsequent maneuvers toward the imperial city. Period chronicles attribute no precise casualty figures to Angad or the follow-up actions, though the scale of tribal incorporation suggests engagements involved thousands of combatants on both sides, drawn from nomadic and sedentary populations.

Capture and Consolidation of Fez

Following successful campaigns in northern , Mulay al-Rashid secured the surrender of Fez in June 1666, entering the city and establishing it as his capital. This event marked a pivotal unification of urban authority in Fez with the rural and tribal support al-Rashid had cultivated in the east and north, solidifying Alaouite claims to broader sovereignty over fragmented Moroccan territories previously dominated by Saadian remnants and local zawiyas. Upon entry, al-Rashid received the (oath of allegiance) from the city's and inhabitants, formalizing his status as and ending a period of instability following the decline of prior dynasties. Contemporary accounts, such as that of historian al-Saghir al-Wufrani, describe the jubilant march to Fez after al-Rashid's proclamation as by his supporters, portraying the takeover as a restoration of order amid prior . While Fez chroniclers emphasized the relief from disorder, elements resistant to centralized sharifian rule, including factions tied to the Dila'iya zawiya, viewed the imposition of Alaouite control with resentment, though overt opposition in Fez was subdued through al-Rashid's military presence. To affirm sovereignty, al-Rashid promptly initiated administrative measures, including the minting of coins bearing his name at the Fez mint (Fas Hazrat), which demonstrated fiscal and circulated as tangible symbols of his rule. These steps, alongside control over the city's gates and markets, consolidated power by integrating Fez's economic and religious institutions under Alaouite oversight, though challenges from peripheral rivals persisted until further conquests.

Reign and Conquests

Establishment of Alaouite Rule

Following the capture of Fez in 1666, Muhammad ibn Sharif, known as al-Rashid, proclaimed himself of Morocco, thereby founding the Alaouite dynasty and initiating its rule over the northern territories previously dominated by the Dila'iya religious brotherhood. This proclamation capitalized on the Alaouites' established Sharifian descent from the Prophet Muhammad via the Idrisid line, a lineage that conferred religious authority and helped supplant the influence of zawiya-based charismatic leaders who had fragmented political control since the Sa'dian decline. In the ensuing years from 1666 to 1670, al-Rashid focused on stabilizing his nascent authority by reorganizing the , Morocco's central administrative structure, through the appointment of loyal kin and tribal supporters as provincial governors. This restructuring aimed to mitigate the inefficiencies of prior decentralized feudal arrangements, where local potentates often undermined central directives, thereby laying the groundwork for a more unified dynastic state. Such measures prioritized internal consolidation over expansive campaigns, enabling al-Rashid to forge cohesion among disparate factions without immediate foreign entanglements.

Campaigns in the Rif and Northern Regions

Following the capture of Fez in June 1666, Moulay al-Rashid directed his forces toward the region and broader northern territories to subdue autonomous Berber tribes resisting central authority. The rugged mountainous terrain of the posed significant geographic challenges, favoring guerrilla defenses by local tribesmen accustomed to the landscape. Al-Rashid employed punitive military raids to dismantle opposition leadership and enforce submission, targeting key faction heads among the Berber autonomists. Where feasible, he balanced with co-optation by forging alliances with subdued tribal elements, integrating local networks to administer collection and maintain order. Concurrently, conquest of in 1666 facilitated access to northern routes, enabling further pushes into the by 1668. These campaigns yielded empirical gains, including the pacification of Berber tribes between 1666 and 1669, which imposed regular tribute flows to Fez and diminished localized threats to coastal stability. By securing the , al-Rashid opened overland trade conduits linking to Mediterranean ports, reducing disruptions from tribal raids and bolstering commerce along northern routes. This consolidation laid groundwork for subsequent southern advances without northern rear-guard vulnerabilities.

Suppression of Dila'iya Zawiya

In 1668, Moulay al-Rashid directed his efforts toward the Dila'iyya zawiya, a Sufi brotherhood centered in the Middle Atlas that had exerted control over northern territories, including Fez, through a network of religious lodges emphasizing spiritual authority over centralized command. The order's strongholds, such as those near Khénifra, relied on tribal alliances and claims of baraka (blessing) for legitimacy, but lacked disciplined formations against professional forces. Al-Rashid's , drawing from nomadic horsemen of the eastern plains, executed targeted maneuvers to encircle and overrun these positions, exploiting the zawiya's fragmented defenses and revealing the limits of their pretensions rooted in religious rather than tactical cohesion. The campaign culminated in the decisive defeat of the Dilaites on 18 June 1668, resulting in the destruction of their principal zawiya and the execution of key leaders, including Muhammad al-Hajj, whose demise demonstrated that purported spiritual protections yielded to superior firepower and logistics. This outcome refuted narratives of the order's invincibility, as empirical records of the engagement highlight routs caused by cavalry charges disrupting infantry lines, rather than any transcendent factors. The suppression dismantled the Dila'iyya's pseudo-theocratic structure, which had fostered inefficiency through dispersed authority and resource hoarding in zawiyas, paving the way for monarchical consolidation. Following the victory, al-Rashid confiscated zawiya lands and reassigned them to loyalists, including tribal chiefs and soldiers, which incentivized resumed cultivation in previously underutilized areas by tying tenure to productivity under royal oversight. This redistribution causally contributed to agricultural stabilization, as centralized incentives replaced the order's practices, enabling surplus generation in the Tadla and adjacent plains by the early 1670s.

Conquest of Marrakesh and Southern Territories

In 1669, following the consolidation of northern territories, al-Rashid initiated campaigns southward, capturing and thereby securing the historic imperial capital that had lapsed into disorder amid the post-Saadian . The city's seizure marked a pivotal step in reuniting under Alaouite rule, as local factions yielded to his advancing forces composed of and Berber contingents. This conquest ended the fragmentation that had persisted since the Saadian dynasty's effective dissolution after 1659, restoring a semblance of centralized oversight to the urban core previously dominated by autonomous strongmen. With secured, al-Rashid pressed into the adjacent southern highlands during 1669–1670, targeting the passes controlled by independent Berber tribes resistant to lowland authority. Military engagements subdued these tribal groups, enabling control over vital transit routes essential for linking northern domains to further southern expanses and curtailing banditry that had plagued commerce. Urban merchants and elites in generally viewed the imposition of order as a relief from endemic instability, though displaced tribal elements decried the campaigns as overreach by eastern upstarts.

Final Push into the Sous Valley

In the wake of capturing in June 1669, Mulay al-Rashid redirected his military efforts southward to subdue the fragmented powers in the Sous Valley and , regions dominated by semi-autonomous zawiyas and local emirs resistant to central authority. These areas, including the fertile Sous plain, had long operated independently under entities like the Nasiriyya zawiya of Illigh, which controlled key trade routes and agricultural resources, posing a barrier to full Alaouite unification. Al-Rashid's forces, comprising Filali tribesmen from and Berber mercenaries, initiated incursions as early as 1668 to disrupt local resistance and test defenses. The decisive phase unfolded in 1670, when al-Rashid personally led a campaign against Illigh, the political and religious stronghold of Tazerwalt in the Sous, where he razed the town and expelled its leaders, effectively dismantling the zawiya's influence. Coastal centers like submitted without prolonged siege, opening their gates to al-Rashid's army, which installed a to maintain oversight and facilitate resource extraction from the valley's argan groves and croplands. This forceful approach broke entrenched opposition through targeted destruction of power centers rather than negotiated alliances, ensuring that southern revenues and manpower could be channeled northward without interception. By 1672, these operations had secured the Sous and adjacent , integrating them into the nascent Alaouite domain and forestalling further that might have invited external pressures on 's southern periphery. Garrisons and appointed governors enforced compliance, directing agricultural surpluses—primarily from , olives, and argan—to Fez, thereby stabilizing the regime's fiscal base amid ongoing northern consolidations. This push marked the culmination of al-Rashid's territorial expansions, transforming from a of rival fiefdoms into a more cohesive sultanate under Alaouite rule.

Governance and Policies

Administrative Centralization Efforts

Moulay al-Rashid pursued administrative centralization from 1666 to 1672 by imposing a pragmatic that favored direct sultanic over the decentralized influences of local notables and religious orders, which had historically fragmented and eroded fiscal capacity. He appointed members and loyalists as governors in strategic provinces to safeguard against betrayals, drawing on lessons from prior dynasties where independent governors frequently rebelled, thereby ensuring dynastic in regional administration. Fiscal centralization targeted the revenue shortfalls caused by tax exemptions for zawiyas and habus lands, which had starved the ; al-Rashid countered this through systematic taxation and reforms that facilitated assessment and collection from productive territories previously shielded from state levies. By suppressing autonomous zawiyas—exemplified by the destruction of the Dila'iya center in —he dismantled rival power structures that not only evaded taxation but also contested royal legitimacy, redirecting resources toward consolidation. Judicial administration emphasized Maliki fiqh as the operative legal framework, but under tightened sultanic oversight to prioritize enforceability and uniformity across domains; al-Rashid founded the Cherratine in Fez in 1670 to cultivate jurists aligned with this centralized approach, reinforcing the sultan's role as arbiter over interpretive disputes. These reforms laid institutional groundwork for Alaouite durability, subordinating provincial and clerical autonomy to empirical state imperatives rather than negotiated illusions of shared governance.

Economic Stabilization Measures

Al-Rashid centralized fiscal authority by asserting direct makhzen control over taxation, supplanting decentralized tax farming systems that had enabled widespread corruption among local intermediaries. This reform prioritized state agents for revenue collection, reducing leakage from malfeasance and enhancing extraction efficiency across unified territories. During conquests, such as the capture of Fez in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1668, treasuries and hoards from rival factions—including marabout rulers and Dila'iya leaders—were confiscated to replenish the central coffers, addressing liquidity shortages inherited from fragmented rule where local hoarding had disrupted monetary circulation and contributed causally to famine cycles via stifled trade and agricultural investment. Mint outputs under Al-Rashid, including silver mouzoûna dirhams struck between 1670 and 1671, indicate efforts to standardize and facilitate economic transactions in a post-unification context. Control over and refortification of key entrepôts like supported revival of trans-Saharan commerce, securing caravan routes essential for gold, slaves, and salt inflows amid prior disruptions from regional anarchy. These measures countered pre-Rashid economic , where zawiya and tribal autonomy had fragmented revenue streams and trade networks, though detailed European logs from the era show variable but stabilizing Moroccan export volumes in wool, leather, and ostrich feathers.

Infrastructure and Public Works

Moulay al-Rashid initiated several public works projects during his brief reign, focusing on fortifications and educational infrastructure to consolidate control over newly captured territories. In Fez, his capital after 1666, he commissioned the Qasbah Cherarda on the outskirts of Fez al-Bali as a garrison fort to house tribal troops, enhancing urban security and administrative stability. This refurbishment of an earlier Saadian structure underscored practical military utility, enabling rapid deployment against internal threats and contributing to the endurance of Alaouite authority in the north. Complementing defensive efforts, al-Rashid ordered the construction of the Cherratine Madrasa in Fez in 1670, a major Islamic educational institution that accommodated students and scholars, fostering intellectual continuity amid political upheaval. These projects, including reported bridges like the eight-arched Oued Sebou crossing completed that same year, facilitated for military campaigns and , indirectly supporting agricultural access in riverine areas though direct enhancements remain unverified in contemporary accounts. While such endeavors bolstered state infrastructure, they relied on tribal labor mobilization, imposing strains on local populations without documented yields data to quantify long-term economic gains.

Personal Affairs

Marriages and Progeny

Al-Rashid utilized polygamous marriages as a political instrument to cultivate alliances with tribal chieftains, integrating regional power bases into the Alaouite framework during his expansion into the , northern territories, and Sous valley. These unions with daughters of sheikhs from influential groups, such as those in the Banu Snassen , facilitated loyalty oaths and military support essential for consolidating disparate factions under central authority. Contemporary chronicles provide scant details on his , but record two sons born from these marriages, alongside an undetermined number of daughters whose identities remain undocumented. The opacity of progeny records contrasts with the prolific offspring of his successor Ismail, reflecting al-Rashid's abbreviated reign and the historiographical emphasis on conquest over domestic affairs. While such marital strategies demonstrably stabilized nascent rule by embedding dynastic interests within tribal networks, they also perpetuated the system, which some later observers critiqued as fostering administrative inertia despite its normative role in premodern Islamic statecraft.

Character Traits and Leadership Style

Mulay al-Rashid exhibited a marked by decisiveness and , particularly in suppressing internal threats to his nascent . His forcible of the Dila'iya zawiya leaders in 1668 and subsequent destruction of their central zawiya at Sidi Ahmed u Musa in 1670 demonstrated a willingness to dismantle entrenched religious-political networks that challenged central control, proving causally effective in neutralizing plots but eliciting rebuke from affiliated for overreach. This approach contrasted sharply with the perceived ineffectiveness of his brother Muhammad al-Sharif, whose inability to quell widespread disorder had fragmented the Alaouite holdings prior to al-Rashid's victory over him in and rapid consolidation of power across by 1672. Al-Rashid tempered martial severity with pious patronage, constructing the Cherratine in Fez around as a hub for Islamic legal and theological studies, thereby fostering scholarly allegiance and underscoring his sharifian credentials as a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. Such endowments balanced coercive realism with religious legitimacy, cultivating support amid conquests while prioritizing order over conciliatory weakness. His style thus embodied a pragmatic suited to a riven by tribal and sufi rivalries, favoring unyielding enforcement of dominance to forge national cohesion.

Death and Succession

Circumstances of Demise

Al-Rashid died on 9 April 1672 in at approximately 41 years of age, succumbing to injuries from a fall off his while in otherwise robust health. Historical records attribute the incident to an accident, consistent with his active lifestyle during a brief but intense six-year reign marked by relentless campaigns of unification. Accounts of the event describe it occurring after a victory , when his reportedly bolted under low-hanging branches in a palace , leading to the fatal mishap. No primary eyewitness chronicles a domestic dispute preceding the fall, and the death lacks substantiation for alternative narratives such as successful poisoning or plots, which appear unsubstantiated in contemporary or later . This abrupt end underscored the precarious physical demands of his expansionist rule, without indication of underlying frailty or intrigue.

Transition to Brother Ismail

Moulay Ismail, half-brother to Al-Rashid and in Fez, proclaimed himself immediately upon learning of the death in April 1672, securing control of the royal treasury without delay. This swift action forestalled potential claims by Al-Rashid's infant sons, preserving Alaouite dynastic continuity through fraternal succession rather than risking fragmentation among heirs. The transition encountered no major revolts, attributable to the loyalties Al-Rashid had secured among officials and tribal elites via prior unification campaigns, which emphasized shared sharifian descent from the Prophet Muhammad. Ismail's position as northern governor since 1667 further facilitated uncontested acclamation in Fez, the political heartland. Risks of a prolonged interregnum were mitigated by the administrative inertia of the makhzen apparatus, which Al-Rashid's centralization efforts had instilled, allowing governance structures to persist amid the handover. This stability empirically underpinned Ismail's 55-year rule until 1727, the longest of any Moroccan sultan, demonstrating the foundational resilience Al-Rashid bequeathed to his successor.

Legacy and Evaluation

Role in National Unification

Mulay al-Rashid's unification efforts transformed Morocco from a patchwork of rival powers into a centralized sultanate, originating from the Alaouite stronghold in . Prior to his rise, the country had endured roughly four decades of fragmentation following the Saadian dynasty's decline after Sultan Zidan al-Nasir's death in 1627, with the Dila'i zawiya dominating the north since the 1640s, alongside autonomous tribal confederations and coastal enclaves vulnerable to European influence. In 1666, al-Rashid captured Fez after campaigning from , establishing a northern foothold and proclaiming himself , which shifted territorial control from localized authorities toward unified overlordship. By defeating the Dila'i forces decisively in 1668 near Jebel Zebib and destroying their Middle Atlas capital, he dismantled the primary northern rival, enabling southward advances including the seizure of in June 1669 and subsequent occupation of the Sous valley. These conquests expanded effective control from the southeastern oases to encompass the , Atlas ranges, and Atlantic plains, approaching comprehensive coverage of pre-modern Moroccan territories by the end of his reign in 1672. This consolidation fortified the sultanate as a barrier against Ottoman expansion eastward and European coastal footholds, maintaining independence amid regional vulnerabilities. Stability under al-Rashid's rule revived key trade networks, including trans-Saharan caravans and Mediterranean ports, fostering economic recovery after years of disruption. However, unification relied on coercive suppression of local autonomies, such as Dila'i religious networks and Berber tribes, often yielding only nominal submission in remote areas where independence persisted until reinforced by successors.

Military and Strategic Achievements

Moulay al-Rashid assembled a hybrid military force combining tribal for mobility across Morocco's diverse terrain—deserts, mountains, and plains—with units suited for sieges and urban assaults, diverging from the more infantry-centric Ottoman models that prioritized rigid formations ill-adapted to fragmented North African landscapes. His army initially comprised around 2,100 and 8,000 during early campaigns, expanding to tens of thousands by incorporating defeated foes and voluntary recruits without ethnic recrimination, fostering loyalty through integration rather than purges. This composition enabled rapid maneuvers and sustained blockades, as evidenced in the 1665 conquest of and the subsequent 11-month siege leading to Fez's capture on June 6, 1666, where alliances with local Jewish communities facilitated entry amid internal factional divisions. Key strategic victories included the Battle of Angad on August 2, 1664, where al-Rashid's smaller force exploited mountainous terrain to divide and defeat his brother Sidi Mohammed's larger army of 5,000 cavalry and 9,000 , securing initial control over . Prioritizing fiscal heartlands, he targeted core urban centers: after Fez, he dismantled the Dila'ite Sufi confederacy controlling the north, capturing their Dila’iya Zawiya on June 18, 1668, through engineered defections and surprise assaults. fell with minimal resistance on July 31, 1668, followed by the Sous region's subjugation in 1670 using 25,000 horsemen and 48,000 against Berber resistance, consolidating authority over economic hubs before peripheral tribes. This sequence ensured a stable revenue base from cities, avoiding overextension in anarchic tribal peripheries. While al-Rashid's methods often relied on terror—such as mass executions to deter —their efficacy stemmed from the era's alternatives of perpetual fragmentation post-Saadian decline, enabling unification absent a professional tradition. By 1672, his campaigns had reunified under 'Alawi rule for the first time since the , subduing northern coasts, the Middle Atlas, and through adaptive tactics like terrain leverage and opportunistic alliances, laying groundwork for dynastic stability despite his short reign.

Criticisms of Methods and Rule

Moulay al-Rashid's efforts to centralize involved the harsh suppression of rival power centers, most notably the Dila'iya zawiya, a influential Sufi brotherhood that had exerted political control over northern . In 1668, following his conquest of Fez, he destroyed the Dila'iya center, massacring dissident leaders and faction heads to eliminate opposition. These actions, while effective in breaking the brotherhood's resistance, exemplified the disproportionate violence employed against religious-political entities that challenged Alaouite legitimacy, as recorded by contemporary observers who noted the scale of killings exceeded mere . Dynastic conflicts further highlighted realpolitik-driven eliminations under al-Rashid's rule. In 1664, he defeated and killed his brother Muhammad al-Sharif (also known as Mohammed) in battle near Angad, securing his path to the sultanate amid familial feuds that threatened Alaouite cohesion. Such intra-family violence, common in Moroccan successions of the to prevent fragmentation, was critiqued by rival accounts as excessive consolidation rather than defensive necessity, though it stabilized the dynasty's eastern base in before expansions westward. Rival chroniclers, including al-Ifrani, portrayed al-Rashid's methods as brutally destructive—encompassing massacres in Fez and to quell urban unrest—yet acknowledged their role in nascent centralization, contrasting with Berber tribal narratives that emphasized the sultan's overreach against autonomous confederations like those in the Atlas and Jbala regions. These accounts question the proportionality of force, particularly in northern suppressions where entire dissident networks were eradicated, potentially sowing long-term resentments among Berber groups whose oral traditions preserved memories of disrupted alliances and coerced submissions. The brevity of al-Rashid's reign, ending abruptly in , constrained full implementation of centralized reforms, leaving incomplete integrations of peripheral tribes and urban factions as burdens for his successor, Ismail, who inherited a unified but volatile state reliant on sustained . While era norms tolerated such , historical evaluations from suppressed perspectives underscore how unfinished pacifications perpetuated cycles of rebellion, prioritizing rapid unification over measured governance.

Long-Term Impact on Moroccan Statecraft

Al-Rashid's conquests culminating in the capture of Fez in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1668 established the Alaouite sultanate as a centralized polity, instituting a makhzen model that fused military coercion, tribal pacts, and sharifian religious legitimacy to prioritize hereditary rule over the elective tribal assemblies and usurpation-prone successions of preceding dynasties like the Saadians. This framework endured, underpinning the dynasty's continuity from 1666 to the present—spanning over 350 years and marking it as the Arab world's oldest surviving ruling house—by embedding the sultan's authority in familial descent from the Prophet Muhammad, which deterred rivals through ideological and coercive primacy rather than mere contingency. Institutionally, the 's persistence is evident in the administrative and fiscal templates Al-Rashid imposed, such as the 1669 Rechîdiya and 1670-1671 mouzouna silver coinages (alloyed with 20% for durability), which centralized minting in Fez and curbed merchant monopolies on prior currencies, fostering trade stability that successors replicated to fund expansions like Moulay Ismail's ' al-Bukhari slave regiments. These mechanisms—provincial troop levies from Rif and fiscal loans to urban elites—created causal pathways for long-term state resilience, as archival parallels in 18th-19th century tax registers show analogous revenue extraction enabling dominance over siba (dissident) peripheries without elective fragmentation. Empirically, this unification transcended luck, as Al-Rashid's integration of fractured polities into a viable territorial entity equipped to parry European incursions—unlike Ottoman Algeria's beylic fragmentation or Tunisia's regency vulnerabilities—sustaining sovereignty through balanced diplomacy and internal cohesion until the 1912 French-Spanish protectorates, when prior Saadian-era disunity would have invited earlier partition. The resulting causal persistence of centralism deferred full colonial subsumption, preserving institutional cores like sultanic arbitration that echoed in post-protectorate statecraft.

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