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Alice Recoque
Alice Recoque
Alice Recoque
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Alice Recoque (born Arnaud; 29 August 1929 – 28 January 2021) was a French computer scientist, computer engineer and computer architecture specialist.[1] She worked on the designs of mini-computers in the 1970s and led research focused on artificial intelligence.[2][3]

Key Information

Early life

[edit]

Alice Arnaud was born on 29 August 1929 in Cherchell, Algeria.[4] She finished École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles in 1954 with a title of graduate engineer.[3]

Career

[edit]

She started working at Société d'électronique et d'automatisme (SAE) in 1954. At SAE she worked on core memories of CAB1101. In 1956 Alice Recoque and Françoise Becquet started designing the mini-computer CAB 500 - the first conversational desktop computer,[5] under the direction of André Richard and François-Henri Raymond. The computer was released in 1960.[6] The CAB500 was a French low cost mini-computer, the purpose of which was to do complex, scientific calculations. She also worked on the CINA industrial computer and co-directed the CAB 1500 project, related to the Algol language machines.

The Mitra 15 minicomputer, designed by Alice Recoque and her team

After the merger of SAE and CAE, the Compagnie internationale pour l'informatique (CII) was born in 1966.[3] She continued her work at CII when she worked on designing Mitra computers. The first design, Mitra 15, launched in 1971. Both the Mitra 15 and CAB500 were commercial successes in France.She only stayed there for a few months, because some features of the project, interesting in itself, were unsuited to the needs of the CII. Moreover, the needs of the latter in the field of small computers are becoming clearer and Alice Recoque is asked to make them concrete by developing a project. The target market is that of industrial and scientific applications, aimed at completing the range of IRIS mainframe computers, which is very much oriented towards management applications.

In 1978, she took part in the meeting that founded the National Commission for Data Processing and Liberties. She expressed her concerns and the need to set up a safeguard against "the increased surveillance power of companies and States".

She led the Bull Group at CII. In 1985 the Bull Group focused on the research on highly parallel machines and artificial intelligence. This project, code-named Q0, is adopted by the company's management and will give birth to the Mitra range. Alice Recoque is appointed head of research and development for the CII's "Small Computers and Associated Systems" division and leads the Mitra 15 project through to its industrialisation.[2] During that period she helped develop the language KOOL (knowledge representation object-oriented language) with its implementation in LISP.[7]

Following the absorption of CII by Honeywell-Bull, Alice Recoque, who conducts research on massively parallel architectures, particularly on multi-microprocessors, becomes responsible for relations with research and higher education. In this capacity, in addition to the functional aspects of these relations, she participates in juries or thesis management. In 1982, she was appointed a member of the IT commission of the National Scientific Research Committee, which defines CNRS policy in this sector. She was chosen to write the chapter on computer architecture in the reference publication Techniques de l'ingénieur.

In January 1985, the Bull Group appointed her director of the "Artificial Intelligence" mission. She extended the concept, hitherto confined to aspects of computer programming, to all methods and techniques aimed at studying human behaviour in order to understand and reproduce it. During this mission, carried out in close collaboration with public research bodies such as the French National Institute for Research in Computer Science and Control (Inria), Alice Recoque, leading the strategy that mobilised more than 200 people, defined the range of products to be developed by Bull in order to propose a coherent offer in the field of artificial intelligence. These include the development of a grammar in Prolog II intended to understand writings formulated in natural language (in French), the design of the Knowledge representation Object-Oriented Language (KOOL), developed in Lisp for Bull SPS-7 machines (derived from the CNET's SM-90) and intended for the representation of knowledge, and various expert systems.

In 1989, Alice Recoque was appointed associate member of the Conseil Général des Ponts et Chaussées. In 1993 this appointment was renewed for three years.

She was a speaker at The European Association for microprocessing and microprogramming in August 1975.[8]

Alice Recoque created and taught computer structure at ISEP for many years. She also taught computer science in other schools such as the Ecole Centrale de Paris, Supélec and the Institut Catholique de Paris.

The Mitra range of computers

[edit]

The goal of the Mitra project was to compete with the new minis, such as Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-11 and Data General Nova.

This range included several models, first the Mitra 15 (Mitra 15-20 and Mitra 15–30) released in 1972; then the Mitra 125, designed by a new team in 1975, with extended addressing capabilities, and finally the Mitra 225. In total, nearly 8,000 Mitra 15s were sold, some of which were still in use at the end of the 1990s.

Appreciated for its performance, robustness and reliability, the Mitra 15 has been designed from the outset to be adaptable to a wide range of applications, thanks to an innovative firmware system. Aimed at industrial process control or scientific computing, it was quickly adapted to data transmission, whether in proprietary CII and Unidata systems or as a node in the CYCLADES Network and in secondary education (the so-called "58 high schools" experiment).

In France, the telecommunications administration has made extensive use of the Mitra family of computers: the Mitra 15 equipped the E10N4 pre-series telephone switches between 1972 and 1976, then the Mitra 125 equipped the E10N3 telephone switches from 1976 and finally the Mitra 225 equipped the E10N1 telephone switches from 1981 until the replacement in 1996 of the said computers, the last examples of which ceased to be manufactured in 1993.

Achievements

[edit]

In 1979 she received the Ordre national du Mérite - Au grade de Chevalier.[9]

In 1985 she was promoted for the Officier de l'ordre national du Mérite.[10]

In 2016 she became an honor member of Société informatique de France.[5]

In 2026, Recoque was announced as one of 72 historical women in STEM whose names have been proposed to be added to the 72 men already celebrated on the Eiffel Tower. The plan was announced by the Mayor of Paris, Anne Hidalgo following the recommendations of a committee led by Isabelle Vauglin of Femmes et Sciences and Jean-François Martins, representing the operating company which runs the Eiffel Tower.[11][12][13][14]

Controversy

[edit]

According to Pierre-Eric Mounier-Kuhn, a computer historian, the work of Alice Recoque has been slow to be recognised because little is said about engineers in France and because she is a woman, which would also explain the battle that had to be fought "to prevent Wikipedia from deleting the notice on Alice Recoque".[15]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Alice Recoque

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Alice Recoque (29 August 1929 – 28 January 2021) was a pioneering computer scientist, engineer, and renowned for her contributions to and in . Born in Algeria and later based in France, Recoque graduated from the École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris, where she honed her expertise in electronics and automation. She began her career at Société d'Electronique et d'Automatisme (SEA), where she contributed to the design of the CAB 500 minicomputer, released in 1960, one of the earliest such systems in Europe. In the 1960s and 1970s, as part of France's national Plan Calcul initiative under President Charles de Gaulle, she joined Compagnie Internationale pour l'Informatique (CII) and directed the creation of advanced minicomputers, including the influential Mitra 15. Her work extended to groundbreaking research in parallel architectures and artificial intelligence, where she explored innovative computing paradigms that anticipated modern systems. Beyond hardware innovation, Recoque played a pivotal role in shaping data privacy policies by participating in the founding of the , France's data protection authority, in 1978, contributing to the nation's early frameworks for ethical computing. She contributed to publications on . In recognition of her legacy, Europe's second was named Alice Recoque in 2024, honoring her as a trailblazer in .

Early Life and Education

Early Life

Alice Recoque was born Alice Maria Arnaud on 29 August 1929 in , Algeria, during the period of . Her family background reflected the influences of French settlement in the region, with her maternal relatives having established roots there. She grew up in this colonial environment, where her father's ownership of an —a distillation apparatus—provided an early spark for her interest in physics, as she observed its mechanical operations during her childhood. Recoque's formative years in were shaped by the landscape, including the lingering effects of global conflict and the evolving in the colony. A key influence was her mathematics teacher, who nurtured her passion for the subject; she later expressed gratitude to this educator on the teacher's 100th birthday. Her uncle, Pierre-Louis Bourgoin, a maternal relative and national hero for his actions, later served as a and played a pivotal role in her family's connections to . These experiences fostered her early aptitude for science and engineering amid the challenges of the era. In the 1940s, as a teenager, Recoque completed her secondary education in , earning her baccalauréat in 1947, which marked her transition to adulthood and initial exposure to advanced technical fields. Following this, she relocated to , welcomed by her uncle Pierre-Louis Bourgoin, who encouraged her to prepare for the entrance exam to the . This move set the stage for her formal pursuit of engineering studies in .

Education

Alice Recoque, born in , relocated to France following her baccalauréat in 1947 to pursue higher education in engineering. She prepared for competitive entrance exams through two years of at Lycée Chaptal in Paris starting in 1948, focusing on mathematics and sciences, before gaining admission to the in 1950. At , one of the earliest to admit women, Recoque pursued a rigorous curriculum centered on and chemistry, which provided a solid foundation for her later contributions to and . The program's emphasis on equipped her with analytical skills essential for tackling complex technological challenges. During her studies, she specialized in , gaining exposure to emerging technologies in and that would later influence her work in . Key academic influences shaped Recoque's path at , including guidance from her uncle, Pierre Bourgoin, a national figure who recommended the institution, and a mathematics teacher from her time in who nurtured her early aptitude for quantitative reasoning. Although specific details on theses or projects from her ESPCI tenure related to are not extensively documented, her training in and during this period laid the groundwork for her innovative approaches to and upon entering the professional field. Recoque graduated from in 1954 as a , marking the completion of her formal academic training and positioning her at the intersection of and .

Career in Computer Engineering

Early Positions

After completing her education at the , Alice Recoque entered the professional workforce in 1954, joining Société d'Electronique et d'Automatisme (SEA) in as an engineer. At SEA, a company specializing in and , she began her career focusing on the design of electronic components and systems for industrial applications. Recoque's initial responsibilities at SEA involved contributing to , where she collaborated with teams on the development of , including work on the for the CAB1101 computer. These roles required her to apply to create reliable and , laying the groundwork for more advanced computational projects. Her work emphasized , integrating physics and engineering to address practical automation challenges in . In the , Recoque gained key experiences at SEA that honed her expertise in , including hands-on involvement in hardware testing and for emerging digital technologies. These formative years exposed her to the rapid evolution of from analog to digital paradigms, building her proficiency in designing scalable . Through these positions, she established herself as a valuable contributor to France's burgeoning , focusing on innovative solutions for efficiency.

CAB500 Minicomputer

Alice Recoque joined Société d'Electronique et d'Automatisme (SEA) early in her career and participated in the development of the CAB500 minicomputer starting in 1956. Her involvement marked an early milestone in her contributions to French computing, leveraging her expertise in to help design a system that balanced performance and affordability. The CAB500, one of 's pioneering , was initiated in 1956 at SEA under the direction of André Richard and François-Henri Raymond, with the first units delivered to clients in February 1961. Designed as a low-cost, user-friendly machine primarily for and , it represented a significant advancement in accessible computing technology. The system was , utilizing proprietary SYMMAG magnetic logic modules for , which contributed to its reliability and lack of reported operational incidents. By September 1962, over 60 units were in operation, establishing it as SEA's biggest commercial success and a forerunner to personal computers. Architecturally, the CAB500 featured a versatile design that allowed it to function both as a full computer and an office machine, an innovative dual-purpose capability at the time. It incorporated and was one of the first conversational desktop computers, enabling direct dialogue with users through a called PAF (Programmation Automatique en Français). Recoque's architectural contributions emphasized , facilitating easier installation in environments like corporate offices and research labs while reducing the need for . These features advanced , shifting from bulkier to more efficient licensed partly from the . The CAB500's innovations laid foundational groundwork for subsequent designs in France.

Mitra 15 Project

In the , following the 1966 merger of Société d'Electronique et d'Automatisme (SEA) with Compagnie Internationale pour l'Informatique (CII), Alice Recoque was appointed project manager and lead designer for the development of CII's Mitra range of , with a particular focus on the . Her prior experience designing the CAB500 minicomputer at SEA informed her approach to this project, enabling her to build on established principles of compact, efficient hardware. Under her leadership, the team emphasized innovative architecture to create a versatile system capable of for diverse applications. The design of the centered on a , allowing for flexible expansion and customization to meet varying user needs, such as in and . Key features included a () with up to 1024 words for specialized processing units, enabling functions like or , and expandable in 4K increments up to 32 kilowords of (approximately ). Performance was optimized for efficiency, with operations such as loading, storing, or adding a word taking 2.1 , multiplication in 7 microseconds, and division in 8 microseconds in the advanced Mitra 15/30 variant; the system also supported 86 instructions, including arithmetic, , and , with a fixed . These attributes contributed to its robustness and adaptability, making it suitable for . Industrialization efforts under Recoque's oversight involved scaling production to ensure commercial viability, with manufacturing initially based in Crolles and later shifted to Échirolles to support broader deployment. The process focused on integrating the modular components into a cost-effective, user-friendly design that minimized the need for specialized training, drawing from Recoque's vision of accessible computing hardware. This phase transformed the prototype into a production-ready system, emphasizing reliability through features like dynamic memory protection and a hierarchical interrupt system with up to 32 priority levels for rapid response times under 300 microseconds. The was launched in 1971 as CII's flagship , quickly establishing itself as a technical and commercial success. Over 8,000 units were sold, with many remaining in operation through the , demonstrating its longevity and market impact. It found widespread adoption in critical sectors, including for , , and as network nodes in the , which influenced like those in . This success underscored Recoque's pivotal role in advancing France's minicomputer industry, positioning the Mitra 15 as a competitive alternative to international systems like the .

Plan Calcul Involvement

France's Plan Calcul was a government initiative launched in 1966 under President Charles de Gaulle to develop a national computer industry and achieve technological independence, particularly by reducing reliance on American imports and fostering domestic innovation in informatics. The program involved significant state investment and led to the creation of the Compagnie Internationale pour l'Informatique (CII) in 1966, which consolidated efforts among French firms to produce competitive computing systems. It emphasized policy-driven strategies to support research, manufacturing, and market development in the computing sector during the late 1960s and 1970s. Alice Recoque played a pivotal role in the Plan Calcul through her leadership at CII, where she directed the development of the , a key outcome of the initiative commercialized in 1971. Her efforts influenced policy by advocating for advanced technologies that aligned with national goals for applications, while fostering industrial collaborations between CII and entities like the Société d'Électronique et d'Automatisme (SEA), where she had previously worked. These partnerships enabled the integration of expertise in areas like and automation, contributing to the program's aim of building a robust French computing ecosystem. The Plan Calcul faced substantial challenges, including fierce international competition from U.S. firms like , which dominated the global market, as well as internal hurdles such as inconsistent policy direction and limited resources that hindered sustained progress. Despite these obstacles, Recoque's leadership helped drive the to notable success, with over 7,000 units produced by 1985 and applications in critical sectors like , , , and education, achieving significant market penetration in France. This demonstrated the viability of domestic and partially realized the initiative's objectives for industrial self-sufficiency.

Research Contributions

Parallel Architectures

In the , following her contributions to , Alice Recoque shifted her focus to research on , emphasizing design principles for at the Compagnie Internationale pour l'Informatique (CII). Her work during this period included oversight of for the Gamme Y project (1972–1975), which explored with features such as , address transformations, and based on a directory concept, leading to a patented innovation in 1978. This project highlighted her interest in optimizing for efficient operation in complex computing tasks. Recoque's key publication, "L'architecture multiprocesseur" (1973), addressed concepts in . After CII's merger into in 1975, Recoque continued her research on at the , leading efforts in the on before transitioning to other roles in 1985. These initiatives at Bull contributed to theoretical advancements in , focusing on practical implementations for research institutions and laying groundwork for future .

Artificial Intelligence

During the , Alice Recoque advanced artificial intelligence research by integrating with AI algorithms, building on her earlier work in to explore efficient processing for complex AI tasks. At the 's research laboratories, she initiated studies on , which served as a foundational enabler for AI applications requiring . In 1985, Recoque was appointed director of the mission at , where she led the creation of the Centre de Recherche et Développement pour l’Intelligence Artificielle (CEDIAG), assembling a team of 200 people to develop industrial AI products. This center focused on early models for processing, producing tools such as KOOL and CHARME, which enabled networked systems and for applications including natural language understanding and . These innovations represented precursors to modern distributed AI, emphasizing scalable, collaborative processing across multiple nodes. Recoque's work also anticipated concepts through her advocacy for , highlighting their potential for learning and adaptive behaviors in computational systems during the . She explored practical applications like and , promoting realistic development strategies to sustain long-term progress in the field. Recoque's contributions were documented in several influential publications from this era. In 1980, she authored "L’évolution de l’architecture matérielle des ordinateurs," discussing . Her 1984 article "La structure interne des ordinateurs," published in Techniques de l’Ingénieur, provided a reference on . These works, along with her 1991 piece "Qu’est-ce que l’intelligence artificielle," underscored her forward-looking vision for AI integrated with .

Role in Data Protection

Founding of CNIL

In the late 1970s, faced growing concerns over the privacy implications of expanding computer technology and data processing, particularly following public backlash against initiatives like the SAFARI project, which sought to centralize personal information held by government agencies. This led to the enactment of the Loi n° 78-17 du 6 janvier 1978 relative à l'informatique, aux fichiers et aux libertés, France's pioneering data protection legislation that established comprehensive rules for the collection, processing, and storage of personal data while creating the as an independent administrative authority to oversee compliance and safeguard civil liberties. The 1978 Act positioned France as the first European country to introduce broad privacy laws in response to these technological advancements, emphasizing the balance between and individual rights. Alice Recoque, drawing on her extensive expertise in and from prior roles at organizations like Société d'Electronique et d'Automatisme (SEA) and Compagnie Internationale pour l'Informatique (CII), played a key role in the 's establishment by participating in its founding meeting in 1978. During this inaugural session, she provided advisory and technical contributions, highlighting the risks posed by the increasing capabilities enabled by computers in both corporate and governmental contexts. Recoque advocated for robust safeguards to mitigate these dangers, stressing the necessity of regulatory mechanisms to protect personal data against misuse in an era of rapid digital expansion. The early organizational structure of the , as outlined in the 1978 Act, included a composed of appointed members from diverse sectors such as , , and technical experts, with Recoque's insights helping to shape discussions on the technical dimensions of data protection enforcement. Her input ensured that the authority's foundational framework addressed not only legal but also practical informatics challenges, such as and ethical processing protocols. This involvement marked a pivotal moment in Recoque's career, bridging her technical background with emerging policy needs in .

Contributions to Privacy Policy

Following the founding of the in 1978, Alice Recoque's advocacy for safeguards against the increased surveillance power of companies and states significantly shaped the ethical foundations of French data protection policies. Her emphasis on protecting in the face of advancing influenced the development of guidelines for in computing systems, ensuring that technical innovations prioritized . These efforts had a lasting impact on French data protection frameworks.

Publications and Visions

Key Publications

Alice Recoque produced a series of influential publications in the and that advanced understanding in , , , and artificial intelligence, often drawing from her practical experience at SEA and CII. These works, primarily articles and technical papers, served as key references for French engineers and researchers, emphasizing innovative methodologies in hardware design and system efficiency. Her writings highlighted the integration of theoretical research with industrial applications, influencing subsequent developments in during France's Plan Calcul era. Among her seminal contributions is "La microprogrammation des miniordinateurs" (1971), which detailed for optimizing the performance of like the CAB500, enabling more flexible instruction execution and paving the way for in industrial computing. This paper underscored the potential of to enhance system adaptability, a concept that resonated in . In 1972, Recoque published "Microprogrammation et machines virtuelles," exploring how could support to improve and in . Presented in the context of advancing , it contributed to discussions on virtualization precursors, influencing research into efficient emulation for . Her 1973 article "L’architecture multiprocesseur" addressed the design principles of , focusing on for enhanced computational power and reliability. This work analyzed synchronization challenges and scalability, providing foundational insights that informed later initiatives in France and . A notable later publication, "L’évolution de l’architecture matérielle des ordinateurs" (1980), traced the historical and technical progression of , from early to emerging , emphasizing trends toward and . It served as an educational resource for understanding evolutionary paths in informatics hardware. Recoque's comprehensive article "La structure interne des ordinateurs" (1984), published in Techniques de l’Ingénieur, remains a reference work on . It covers the structure of simple machines, , , (including and ), arithmetic operators, and . The paper elucidates through chronograms and discusses advanced features like anticipatory instruction fetching, offering practical guidance for engineers designing robust systems; it is regarded as a scientific and technical benchmark in French informatics literature. Extending her scope to artificial intelligence, "Qu’est-ce que l’intelligence artificielle" (1991) provided an accessible overview of AI fundamentals, defining its scope and potential applications in computing. This publication reflected her forward-thinking research at , bridging with AI methodologies and contributing to early awareness of in professional contexts. These publications, while not extensively cited in due to their French-language focus, had significant impact within European technical circles, shaping pedagogical materials and engineering practices in computer science. They exemplify Recoque's emphasis on research methodologies that integrated and AI with real-world challenges.

Forecasts on Workstations

In the , Alice Recoque contributed to the MIRIA project at while representing CII, focusing on the development of a small computer that she recognized as having substantial potential for advancing . This initiative reflected her early vision for compact, accessible machines that could serve individual users, foreshadowing the rise of personal workstations in subsequent decades. Recoque's 1971 article, "La microprogrammation des miniordinateurs," explored the use of in , emphasizing designs that enhanced flexibility and efficiency for workstation-like applications in professional settings. Her contributions to the CAB 500 project at SEA produced one of the earliest in 1959, a compact system designed for practical use, influencing later paradigms. By the , as director of the at CII, Recoque designed a intended to complement larger systems like the IRIS 80 in networked configurations, promoting that prefigured modern networked workstations for industrial and scientific use. This approach highlighted her foresight into interconnected systems, where smaller units could handle , reducing reliance on and enabling more collaborative, . In her 1973 publication "L’architecture multiprocesseur," Recoque delved into , advocating for that could integrate multiple processors to boost performance in workstation environments, a concept that anticipated the prevalent in contemporary computing. These ideas were further elaborated in her 1980 article "L’évolution de l’architecture matérielle des ordinateurs," which addressed the evolution of . Recoque's visions extended to AI-enhanced workstations; as head of the AI mission at from 1985, she oversaw developments in and natural language processing, foreseeing their embedding in workstations to support intelligent, by the . Her 1984 treatise "La structure interne des ordinateurs," published in Techniques de l’Ingénieur, provided a reference on the . Overall, these forecasts from the and demonstrated remarkable prescience, as evidenced by the eventual dominance of with , AI features, and networking, transforming everyday professional tools into powerful, .

Legacy

Naming of Supercomputer

In June 2024, the (EuroHPC JU) announced the naming of Europe's second after Alice Recoque, honoring her as a pioneering French computer scientist and AI specialist whose contributions to and shaped France's computing landscape. The decision reflects her legacy in advancing and artificial intelligence, aligning with the supercomputer's focus on AI-driven research and simulations. The supercomputer, Alice Recoque, is located in at the CEA's Très Grand Centre de Calcul (TGCC) and will be operated by the under a hosting agreement signed with GENCI in June 2024. It represents France's first and is designed to exceed one exaflop of performance, enabling breakthroughs in , energy innovation, and as part of the broader . Technically, Alice Recoque is powered by hardware from and Eviden, featuring next-generation and AMD Instinct MI430X GPUs, each equipped with 432 GB of and 19.6 TB/s bandwidth to support high-capacity AI workloads. The system is integrated into the AI Factory France project, a collaborative effort funded by and national contributions totaling over €544 million over five years, positioning it as Europe's first purpose-built AI factory for advanced simulations and .

Other Recognitions

In 1979, Alice Recoque was awarded the for her contributions to computer science and engineering. She was promoted to in 1985, recognizing her ongoing leadership in and artificial intelligence development. In 2016, she was recognized as an honorary member of the Société informatique de France. Following her death in 2021, Recoque received posthumous tributes through initiatives highlighting women in science, including her feature in the "Researching Minds" podcast series by Alliance Française, launched in 2021 and promoted around International Women's Day 2022, which highlights pioneering female researchers in technology. The 2024 book Who Wanted to Erase Alice Recoque? In the Footsteps of a Forgotten Pioneer of Artificial Intelligence by Marion Carré, published by Fayard, brought renewed attention to her overlooked legacy, sparking discussions on her invisibilization in historical narratives. This publication has sparked discussions on her legacy, including questions about greater recognition such as potential inclusion in to address gender biases in French scientific history. On January 26, 2026, Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo announced that Alice Recoque's name will be engraved on the frieze of the Eiffel Tower alongside 71 other women scientists as part of the "frise des savants" project to honor contributions of women in science.

References

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