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The Calling of St. Matthew, by Vittore Carpaccio, 1502.
Calling of St. Matthew by Alexandre Bida, 1875.

The Calling of Matthew, also known as the Calling of Levi, is an episode in the life of Jesus which appears in all three synoptic gospels, Matthew 9:9–13, Mark 2:13–17 and Luke 5:27–28, and relates the initial encounter between Jesus and Matthew, the tax collector who became a disciple.[1]

Biblical narratives

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According to the Gospel of Matthew: "As Jesus went on from there, he saw a man named Matthew sitting at the tax collector's booth. "Follow me", he told him, and Matthew got up and followed him."[2]

A tax collector could be either an independent contractor with the Roman government, who paid a fee to Rome to obtain the right to extract taxes from the people in a certain area, with an added fee for the collector and his employees; or he might have also been a toll collector for Herod Antipas,[3] Capernaum was an area with a high traffic of people and merchants.[4] In any case, Levi-Matthew would have been a very unpopular individual.

The Biblical Greek: τὸ τελώνιον (to telōnion) is often translated as "the tax collector's booth" (e.g. NIV) or "tax office" (e.g. RSV). The King James Version says Matthew was "sitting at the receipt of custom". Wycliffe's translation was "sitting in a tollbooth", and the Expanded Bible suggests that the telōnion was "probably a tariff booth for taxing goods in transit".[5]

In all three synoptic gospels, this episode takes place shortly after the miracle of healing the paralytic at Capernaum and is followed by Jesus' image of the danger of putting new wine into old wineskins. In the Gospels of Mark and Luke, the person called is called Levi, who was the son of Alpheus according to Mark (Luke does not mention Alpheus).[6]

Also in all three synoptic accounts Jesus is then invited to a banquet, with a crowd of tax collectors and others. The Pharisees then complain:

29 Then Levi held a great banquet for Jesus at his house, and a large crowd of tax collectors and others were eating with them. 30 But the Pharisees and the teachers of the law who belonged to their sect complained to his disciples, "Why do you eat and drink with tax collectors and sinners?" 31 Jesus answered them, "It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. 32 I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance."[7]

Commentary

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Roger Baxter reflects on Matthew's call in his Meditations, writing that:

Great was the force of this call, which was able to withdraw a man from his riches: and yet the same call, perhaps, would not be forcible enough to withdraw you from smaller impediments. Who can despair of salvation, when he sees public sinners taken out of a custom house, assumed not only to the friendship of God, but raised to the highest dignity of the apostleship." Truly, " His tender mercies are over all His works." (Ps. 144:9.)[8]

Cornelius a Lapide in his commentary writes:

Thus then as a magnet draws iron unto it, so did Christ draw Matthew, and by His drawing, gave him his virtues, and chiefly his exceeding love of God, zeal for souls, ardour in preaching. Listen to the account of S. Matthew’s conversion, which he himself gave to St. Bridget of Sweden, when praying at his tomb at Malphi: “It was my desire at the time I was a publican to defraud no man, and I wished to find out a way by which I might abandon that employment, and cleave to God alone with my whole heart. When therefore He who loved me, even Jesus Christ was preaching, His call was a flame of fire in my heart; and so sweet were His words unto my taste, that I thought no more of riches than of straws: yea, it was delightful to me to weep for joy, that my God had deigned to call one of such small account, and so great a sinner as I to His grace. And as I clave unto my Lord, His burning words became fixed in my heart, and day and night I fed upon them by meditation, as upon sweetest food.”[9][10]

In art

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The calling of Matthew has been the subject of works of art by several painters, including:

  • The Calling of Saint Matthew, by Caravaggio
    The Calling of Saint Matthew, by Caravaggio
  • The Calling of St. Matthew, by Hendrick ter Brugghen
    The Calling of St. Matthew, by Hendrick ter Brugghen
  • The Calling of St Matthew, by the Master of the Abbey of Dilighem
    The Calling of St Matthew, by the Master of the Abbey of Dilighem
  • The Calling of St. Matthew, by Orcagna
    The Calling of St. Matthew, by Orcagna
  • The Calling of St. Matthew, by Naldini
    The Calling of St. Matthew, by Naldini

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Calling of Matthew

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The Calling of Matthew is a pivotal episode in the New Testament where Jesus Christ summons the tax collector Matthew, also identified as Levi in parallel accounts, to become one of his disciples, marking a transformative moment from societal outcast to apostle. This event, set in Capernaum during Jesus' early ministry, unfolds as Jesus passes by Matthew's tax booth, issues the direct command "Follow me," and receives an immediate affirmative response, with Matthew abandoning his lucrative but despised profession. Recorded across the Synoptic Gospels, the narrative in Matthew 9:9–13 emphasizes Jesus' subsequent meal at Matthew's home with other tax collectors and sinners, sparking criticism from the Pharisees, to which Jesus responds that he came not for the righteous but for sinners, quoting Hosea 6:6 on God's preference for mercy over sacrifice. In the parallel accounts of Mark 2:13–17 and Luke 5:27–32, the figure is named Levi son of Alphaeus, hosting a great banquet that underscores themes of radical inclusion and repentance, with early Christian tradition identifying Levi as Matthew's original or alternative name, although some modern scholars argue they may be distinct individuals.[1] The episode highlights Jesus' authority to call unlikely followers, illustrating divine grace extending to the marginalized in first-century Jewish society, where tax collectors were viewed as traitors collaborating with Roman occupiers. Theologically, it exemplifies Jesus' mission to seek and save the lost, influencing Christian understandings of vocation, forgiveness, and the universality of God's call, as Matthew later authors the Gospel bearing his name, traditionally attributed to his eyewitness testimony.

Biblical Accounts

Gospel of Matthew

In the Gospel of Matthew, the calling of Matthew occurs as Jesus is walking along and notices a man named Matthew seated at the tax collector's booth; he simply commands, "Follow me," and Matthew immediately rises and obeys, leaving his position behind.[2] This abrupt summons underscores the transformative power of Jesus' invitation, requiring instant response without elaboration or negotiation.[3] The narrative continues with a banquet scene in Matthew's house, where Jesus reclines at table with many tax collectors and sinners alongside his disciples (Matthew 9:10).[4] The observing Pharisees object to the disciples, questioning why their teacher associates with such individuals, whom they regard as morally compromised (Matthew 9:11).[5] Jesus overhears and responds directly: "Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick," likening his presence to healing and then directing the Pharisees to reflect on Hosea 6:6—"I desire mercy, not sacrifice"—before declaring, "For I have come to call not the righteous but sinners" (Matthew 9:12-13).[6] This exchange frames the meal as an act of compassionate outreach rather than endorsement of wrongdoing. Matthew's account particularly stresses Jesus' deliberate association with sinners as a fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy, evident in the strategic quotation from Hosea 6:6, which elevates covenantal mercy (eleos in Greek) over ritual sacrifice (thusia), positioning Jesus as the embodiment of God's restorative intent toward the outcast.[7] Through this redactional choice, the evangelist portrays the calling and banquet not merely as biographical events but as demonstrations of messianic authority that align with divine priorities of faithfulness and inclusion over legalistic purity.[3] Verse 9 introduces the key Greek term telōnēs (τελώνης), denoting Matthew as a "tax collector" or public revenue gatherer, a role derived from telos (toll or duty) and implying a contracted agent for imperial collection, often tainted by accusations of overcharging and collaboration with Roman oppressors.[8] In verses 10-11, telōnēs recurs alongside "sinners" (hamartōloi), reinforcing the duo's shared status as social pariahs excluded from pious Jewish fellowship due to ritual impurity and ethical stigma.[8] This terminology amplifies the scandal of Jesus' call, highlighting Matthew's low standing and the radical grace extended to those deemed irredeemable. This episode parallels similar callings in Mark 2:13-17 and Luke 5:27-32, where the figure is named Levi, indicating narrative variations of one tradition.[3]

Gospel of Mark

In the Gospel of Mark, the calling of Levi occurs during Jesus' ministry in Galilee. Jesus goes out beside the Sea of Galilee, where a large crowd gathers around him, and he begins teaching them (Mark 2:13). As he walks along the seashore, he sees Levi son of Alphaeus sitting at the tax collector's booth and says to him, "Follow me," prompting Levi to immediately rise and follow (Mark 2:14). This seaside setting emphasizes the public nature of the encounter, with the tax booth likely positioned to collect tolls on goods transported by water or road near Capernaum.[9] Following the call, Jesus reclines at a meal in Levi's house, joined by many tax collectors and sinners who are eating with him and his disciples, as numerous people had begun to follow Jesus (Mark 2:15). When the teachers of the law, who were Pharisees, observe this and question the disciples about why Jesus associates with such individuals, Jesus responds, "It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners" (Mark 2:16-17). This exchange highlights the controversy surrounding Jesus' choice of companions, underscoring the immediate aftermath of Levi's summons.[10] Mark's account uniquely precedes the calling with Jesus teaching a large crowd by the sea, a detail absent from the synoptic parallels in Matthew 9:9-13 and Luke 5:27-32, which portray the event more directly without the preceding public instruction.[11] Regarding Levi's identity, scholars widely regard him as the apostle otherwise known as Matthew, with "Levi" possibly representing his original Hebrew name—evoking the tribal heritage of Levi—prior to his apostolic designation as Matthew, son of Alphaeus, which aligns him with the list of the Twelve in Mark 3:18. This naming suggests an evolution in his identity from a marginalized tax collector to a key disciple, potentially linking him familially to James son of Alphaeus among the apostles.[12][1]

Gospel of Luke

In the Gospel of Luke, the calling of Levi is recounted in chapter 5, verses 27-32. After this, Jesus went out and saw a tax collector by the name of Levi sitting at his tax booth. “Follow me,” Jesus said to him, and Levi got up, left everything and followed him.[13] The term "tax booth" translates the Greek telōnion, referring to a customs post where tolls were collected on goods passing through, highlighting Levi's involvement in the Roman taxation system that imposed economic burdens on the local population.[14] This detail underscores Levi's status as a societal outcast, yet Jesus' direct call demonstrates his outreach to the marginalized.[15] Levi responds by hosting a great banquet for Jesus at his house, attended by a large crowd of tax collectors and others.[16] This event emphasizes communal celebration and inclusion, as the guest list extends beyond Jesus and his disciples to encompass those deemed unclean or sinful by Jewish purity standards, such as tax collectors who were viewed as collaborators with Roman authorities.[17] Luke's portrayal of the banquet as a "great" (megas) affair amplifies its joyful tone, contrasting with more subdued depictions in parallel accounts and aligning with the evangelist's recurring theme of table fellowship as a sign of God's kingdom welcoming outsiders.[15] The Pharisees and teachers of the law, observing the scene, complain to the disciples: “Why do you eat and drink with tax collectors and sinners?” Jesus replies, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.”[18] This response articulates Jesus' mission of moral and spiritual transformation, explicitly adding the call "to repentance" as a Lukan redactional emphasis not found in the shorter version in Mark 2:13-17, where Levi is similarly named but the banquet is described more simply as a dinner.[15]

Textual Comparisons

The synoptic Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—present parallel accounts of Jesus calling a tax collector to discipleship, with the narratives sharing core elements such as the location at a tax booth and the subsequent banquet involving criticism from religious leaders. These parallels highlight both harmonies in the event's structure and notable differences in details, particularly regarding the disciple's name and the banquet's specifics.[19][20] The following table summarizes key elements across the accounts:
ElementGospel of Matthew (9:9–13)Gospel of Mark (2:13–17)Gospel of Luke (5:27–32)
Name of Tax CollectorMatthewLevi, son of AlphaeusLevi
SettingTax booth (implied Capernaum)Tax booth by the sea (Capernaum)Tax booth (implied Capernaum)
Immediate ResponseHe rose and followed himHe rose and followed himHe left everything, got up, and followed him
Banquet DetailsAt home (implied Matthew's), with many tax collectors and sinnersAt Levi's house, with many tax collectors and sinners recliningAt Levi's house, great banquet, many tax collectors and others
CriticsPhariseesScribes of the PhariseesPharisees and their scribes
Jesus' Response"Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick... Go and learn what this means: 'I desire mercy, and not sacrifice.' For I came not to call the righteous, but sinners.""Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick. I came not to call the righteous, but sinners.""Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick. I have not come to call the righteous but sinners to repentance."
Scholars widely agree that the "Matthew" in Matthew 9:9 and the "Levi" in Mark 2:14 and Luke 5:27 refer to the same individual, interpreting the dual naming as a common ancient practice where Jews might use a Hebrew name like Levi (possibly denoting tribal affiliation) alongside a Greek name like Matthew for broader audiences. This consensus is supported by early Christian interpreters, including church fathers like Origen and Jerome, who viewed the names as interchangeable for the apostle. A minority view posits two separate tax collectors, but this is dismissed due to the close narrative parallels and the apostle lists in Matthew 10:3 and Mark 3:18, which include Matthew (son of Alphaeus in Mark) without a separate Levi.[19][21][11] These accounts illustrate the synoptic problem, where Matthew and Luke appear to adapt Mark's earlier narrative: Mark's version is the most concise, while Matthew streamlines the banquet description and alters the name to Matthew, possibly to emphasize apostolic identity or align with the Gospel's authorship tradition, and Luke adds details like "left everything" to underscore renunciation. Under the predominant two-source hypothesis, Mark serves as a primary source for both Matthew and Luke, explaining the verbal agreements (e.g., over 50% in this pericope) and divergences as redactional choices tailored to each evangelist's theological emphases.[20][19] Early manuscripts reveal minor textual variants in Mark 2:14, such as the uncial Codex Bezae (D), some minuscules (e.g., Family 13 and ms. 565), and Old Latin witnesses replacing "Levi" with "James, son of Alphaeus," likely a scribal harmonization to the apostle list in Mark 3:18 or confusion with another disciple. However, the standard reading "Levi" is attested in major uncials like Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus (4th century), as well as the majority text tradition, indicating the variant's limited influence. No significant omissions or additions affect the core calling narrative across the synoptics in early codices.[21][11]

Historical Context

Tax Collectors in Roman Judea

In the first century CE, taxes in Judea were administered under Roman oversight, with direct collection by procurators after 6 CE, though customs duties (portoria) in some areas involved publicani—wealthy contractors, often Roman equestrians—who bid for rights to collect levies and sometimes employed local agents with autonomy. This system, while not uniformly tax farming across all taxes, incentivized overcollection through irregular surcharges, leading to exploitation and widespread resentment among the population.[22] From a Jewish perspective, tax collectors were reviled as traitors collaborating with the Roman occupiers, prioritizing personal enrichment over communal loyalty and thus embodying the oppression of foreign rule. They were socially ostracized due to their associations with Gentiles and presumed dishonesty, ranked among the lowest outcasts comparable to thieves or robbers in rabbinic literature, facing communal ostracism and disqualification as legal witnesses.[23][24] Capernaum's position as a bustling toll station on the Via Maris—the ancient international trade route linking Egypt, Arabia, and Mesopotamia—made it a prime site for tax collection, with booths strategically placed near the lakeshore to intercept commerce. Here, collectors like Matthew (also called Levi) manned stations to assess duties on goods transported by sea or land, including tolls on fish caught in the Sea of Galilee, agricultural produce, and imported wares passing through the town's harbor and gates. Economic levies encompassed customs duties (typically 2-5% of value, with higher rates up to 25% for certain luxury imports from beyond the empire), sales taxes on market transactions, and transit tolls on caravans, often compounded by multiple checkpoints along trade paths, significantly inflating costs for merchants and fishermen.[25][26][27]

Role of Capernaum

Capernaum served as the primary base for Jesus' ministry in Galilee after he left Nazareth, as described in the Gospel of Matthew, where it is called his "own town." This fishing village on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee housed a modest population of around 1,000 to 1,500 people engaged primarily in fishing and related trade, with archaeological evidence including fishhooks and a preserved first-century fishing boat underscoring its economic focus.[28] The presence of a Roman centurion, who according to the biblical account built the local synagogue and sought Jesus' help for his servant, indicates a small Roman administrative or military outpost, reflecting the village's integration into the Herodian tetrarchy under Herod Antipas.[29] A customs house, or toll station near the harbor, facilitated the collection of duties on fish and goods, directly tying into the setting of Matthew's calling at his tax booth.[30] Archaeological excavations at Capernaum reveal significant first-century remains that align with its biblical role. The ruins of a black basalt synagogue, dating to the first century CE and measuring approximately 24 by 18 meters, lie beneath a later fourth- or fifth-century limestone structure; this earlier synagogue is likely the site where Jesus taught and performed exorcisms.[28] While no definitive first-century tax booth has been uncovered, the village's harbor and proximity to trade routes suggest such a modest structure—possibly a simple booth or table—existed for collecting tolls on maritime commerce.[31] These findings, including imported pottery and storage jars, confirm Capernaum's function as a hub of daily life and religious activity during Jesus' time.[30] Capernaum's strategic position along the Via Maris trade route and on the Sea of Galilee made it a vital point for regional commerce, including the transport of fish, agricultural goods, and pilgrims, which necessitated tax collection and enhanced its administrative importance under Roman oversight.[31] This location amplified the significance of the calling of Matthew, as the customs house would have been a busy site for levying duties on cross-regional trade. Prior to this event in the Gospel narratives, Jesus performed several miracles in Capernaum that demonstrated his authority and built his reputation, contextualizing his bold summons to a stigmatized tax collector.[32]

Theological Interpretations

Mission to Sinners

In the accounts of the Calling of Matthew across the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus articulates a defining purpose for his ministry through the statement, "Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick. Go and learn what this means: 'I desire mercy, and not sacrifice.' For I came not to call the righteous, but sinners" (Matthew 9:12–13; cf. Mark 2:17; Luke 5:31–32). In the Gospel of Luke, the statement is rendered as calling "sinners to repentance" (Luke 5:32), paraphrased in Christian tradition as Jesus came not to call the righteous but sinners to repentance. This emphasizes that repenting sinners receive a welcome from him, reflecting Christian teaching on God's grace toward the repentant, as illustrated in the parable of the prodigal son (Luke 15:11-32), where the father joyfully receives his returning son. This declaration, made in response to Pharisaic objections over Jesus' association with tax collectors and sinners at Matthew's table, underscores a mission oriented toward spiritual restoration rather than affirmation of the self-righteous.[33] The phrase draws directly from Hosea 6:6, emphasizing God's prophetic preference for compassionate repentance over ritual observance, as interpreted in Matthew's narrative.[33] This mission starkly contrasts with Pharisaic purity laws, which emphasized separation from societal outcasts to maintain ritual cleanliness and covenantal fidelity. Jesus' deliberate inclusion of figures like Matthew, a tax collector reviled for collaboration with Roman authorities, challenges this exclusivity by prioritizing mercy as the fulfillment of the law.[33] The banquet following Matthew's call symbolizes this gathering of the marginalized, illustrating Jesus' outreach as an act of divine compassion that transcends social barriers. Theologically, this event highlights God's initiative in seeking the lost, echoing Old Testament prophetic themes where divine love extends to the wayward for their transformation through repentance, not mere compliance with sacrifices.[33] The Calling of Matthew carries significant implications for early Christian inclusion, extending Jesus' outreach to sinners as a model for embracing Gentiles and other marginalized groups beyond Israel. In Matthew's Gospel, the association with tax collectors like Matthew foreshadows the post-resurrection commission to disciple "all nations" (Matthew 28:19), balancing fidelity to Israel's "lost sheep" with universal salvation without requiring full Judaization of outsiders.[34] This approach fosters a community where divine mercy unites diverse peoples, reflecting continuity between Jewish roots and broader incorporation.[34] Theological interpretations of the call also engage debates on predestination versus free human response, viewing Jesus' summons to Matthew as an interplay of divine sovereignty and personal agency. Matthew's immediate obedience ("he rose and followed him," Matthew 9:9) exemplifies divine initiative through operative grace, which irresistibly draws the sinner while preserving the capacity for cooperative response. In Thomistic theology, this event illustrates predestination as God's eternal ordering toward salvation, where grace efficaciously moves the will without negating its freedom.[35] Scholars reconcile these tensions by affirming that the call's success stems from divine mercy, not prior merit, yet requires the sinner's volitional alignment, avoiding deterministic exclusion.[35]

Themes of Transformation

The calling of Matthew illustrates a profound theme of personal transformation, where his immediate response to Jesus' summons—"Follow me"—prompted him to abandon his tax booth and profession without delay, modeling radical discipleship that prioritizes divine invitation over material security. This act of unwavering obedience exemplifies forsaking worldly gain, as Matthew left behind a position of financial stability and social notoriety to embrace a life of uncertainty in service to the kingdom. In contrast, the rich young ruler in Matthew 19:16–22, when challenged to sell his possessions and follow Jesus, went away grieving, unable to detach from his wealth, highlighting the transformative power of true surrender that Matthew embodied.[36][37] Symbolically, Matthew's departure from the booth represents a deliberate renunciation of greed and entanglement with Roman economic exploitation, signifying a shift toward kingdom values of righteousness, mercy, and communal solidarity. This gesture underscores the call to detach from systems of oppression and self-interest, aligning instead with Jesus' mission of restoration and ethical renewal. As a tax collector often viewed as a sinner, this moment marked Matthew's entry into a life reoriented by grace, freeing him from prior allegiances.[36] Matthew's transformation extended to his apostolic role, traditionally evidenced by his authorship of the Gospel bearing his name, which emphasizes Jesus' teachings on the kingdom of heaven and ethical living—outcomes reflective of his journey from revenue collector to chronicler of divine wisdom. Ancient Christian traditions unanimously attribute the Gospel to the disciple called in Matthew 9:9, portraying his post-call life as one of evangelistic witness and scriptural contribution.[38][36] This motif of radical change permeates broader discipleship narratives in the Gospel, paralleling the call of Peter and Andrew, who immediately left their fishing nets and boat upon Jesus' command (Matthew 4:18–20), illustrating the consistent demand for complete abandonment of prior vocations in favor of kingdom allegiance. Such accounts collectively portray transformation not as gradual adaptation but as an instantaneous reordering of priorities under Jesus' authority.[37][39]

Scholarly and Cultural Commentary

Early Church Fathers

Origen interpreted the Calling of Matthew as a profound symbol of divine election, emphasizing Matthew's act of "arising" from the tax booth as more than simple obedience but a decisive, transformative response to Christ's summons. In his Commentary on Matthew (Book XIV), he contrasted the passive following of the multitudes with the rare, committed arising of the elect, who renounce their former lives to pursue the divine call fully; this, Origen argued, represents humanity's potential to respond to God's initiative, with the apostles prefiguring those who will judge in the eschatological kingdom.[40] Augustine of Hippo drew on the narrative in his broader theology to underscore the necessity of divine grace in enabling repentance and discipleship, portraying the radical leave-taking of figures like the tax collector as evidence that human will alone cannot achieve such transformation without God's intervention. Writing against Pelagius's emphasis on unaided free will, Augustine highlighted how grace precedes and facilitates the sinner's response to God's call, applicable to despised outcasts becoming apostles through unmerited divine favor.[41] John Chrysostom, in Homily 30 on Matthew, presented the calling and subsequent repentance of tax collectors like Matthew as an exemplary model for all sinners, illustrating Christ's deliberate mission to seek out and heal the spiritually diseased rather than the self-righteous. He noted that Jesus timed the call after displaying miracles that prepared Matthew's heart, leading to his prompt obedience and the inclusive banquet that scandalized the Pharisees; this event, Chrysostom explained, teaches that true repentance involves not only leaving sin but inviting others to the table of mercy, accessible to everyone regardless of past infamy.[42] Patristic traditions extended beyond the biblical account to Matthew's post-call ministry, often referencing apocryphal acts that depicted his apostolic labors. Irenaeus, in Against Heresies (Book III, Chapter 1), recorded that Matthew first composed his Gospel in Hebrew for Jewish believers before embarking on missionary work among them and other nations, emphasizing his role in extending the Gospel from Judea outward.[43] The later Acts of Matthew, an apocryphal text from the 4th-5th centuries, elaborates on these traditions by narrating Matthew's evangelization in Ethiopia, where he performed exorcisms, converted royalty through miracles, and faced martyrdom by sword or fire, portraying his life as a testament to the enduring fruit of his initial calling.[44]

Modern Analyses

In historical-Jesus studies, the calling of the tax collector—known as Levi in Mark and Luke, and Matthew in the latter gospel—is widely regarded as an authentic element of Jesus' itinerant ministry, supported by the criterion of embarrassment. Early Christian communities, seeking to establish credibility, would unlikely fabricate a tradition portraying Jesus associating with despised Roman collaborators without demanding prior repentance, as this challenged Jewish purity norms and social hierarchies. E. P. Sanders, in his analysis of Jesus' table fellowship practices, argues that such associations reflected a core aspect of Jesus' proclamation of God's kingdom as inclusive of societal outcasts, including tax collectors, thereby alienating religious authorities and emphasizing restoration over exclusion.[45][46][45] John P. Meier further bolsters this view in his multivolume work A Marginal Jew (Vol. 2, 1994), applying multiple criteria of historicity to conclude that Jesus' peremptory calls to discipleship, including to marginalized figures like tax collectors, demonstrated his charismatic authority and formed the nucleus of an itinerant movement centered on repentance and kingdom ethics. This tradition aligns with broader evidence of Jesus forming a close-knit group of followers amid his Galilean travels, distinct from later institutional developments in the church. Meier notes that while details like the exact location vary across synoptics, the abrupt summons and response capture a plausible historical kernel of Jesus' relational outreach.[47] Postcolonial readings reframe the calling as a subversive act against imperial structures, portraying tax collectors not merely as villains but as economically coerced participants in Roman exploitation, often from lower Jewish classes driven to collaboration for survival. Scholar Warren Carter, in works like Matthew and Empire (2001), analyzes how Jesus' invitation to the tax booth disrupts the empire's economic control, modeling a counter-imperial community where the oppressed experience liberation and agency. Feminist interpreters extend this by emphasizing the narrative's implicit critique of patriarchal power alignments, where Jesus' inclusive call challenges male-dominated hierarchies and invites transformation for those marginalized by both Roman and Jewish systems.[48] Psychological interpretations of the conversion draw on modern discipleship models to explore Matthew's instantaneous obedience as a paradigm of radical cognitive and identity shift, akin to sudden religious experiences documented in conversion psychology. Scholars in biblical counseling traditions view the scene as illustrating a decisive break from prior self-interest, facilitated by Jesus' authoritative word, which triggers existential realignment and commitment, paralleling contemporary therapeutic models of vocational calling and behavioral change. This reading underscores the narrative's enduring relevance for understanding discipleship as an abrupt yet profound psychological reorientation.[36] Recent scholarship post-2000 on synoptic harmonization largely upholds Markan priority and the two-source hypothesis, explaining the calling story's variations—such as the name discrepancy (Levi in Mark 2:14 and Luke 5:27 versus Matthew in Matt 9:9)—as redactional adaptations to integrate the tradition with community traditions about the apostle Matthew. These differences arise from source dependence, with Matthew and Luke expanding Mark's concise account to emphasize thematic links to broader discipleship motifs, potentially influenced by shared oral traditions, though the core pericope remains triple tradition. This approach resolves apparent inconsistencies by prioritizing Mark as the foundational narrative, harmonizing the gospels without positing later inventions. As of 2023, ongoing manuscript studies continue to support this framework, with digital analyses of early codices reinforcing the synoptic relationships.[49]

Representations in Art

Renaissance and Earlier Depictions

Depictions of the Calling of Matthew in medieval manuscripts typically emphasize simple scenes of obedience, portraying Matthew rising immediately from his tax booth to follow Jesus, often with minimal figures and a focus on the transformative moment. For instance, in the 15th-century Hours of Louis of Laval illuminated by Maître François, the scene divides into two registers showing Matthew's worldly accounting life contrasted with his new spiritual path, underscoring the abrupt abandonment of material pursuits.[50] These illuminations, rooted in earlier traditions, highlight Matthew's direct response without elaborate drama, reflecting the didactic style of medieval Gospel books. Iconographic elements in these early representations consistently feature the tax booth as a symbol of worldly wealth and corruption, depicted with coins, receipts, or money bags to signify Matthew's former role as a despised publican. Jesus is shown making a gesture of authoritative summons—often an outstretched hand or pointing finger—conveying divine command and inevitability of the call.[51] Regional variations distinguish Byzantine from Western European styles, with Byzantine art prioritizing spiritual humility through stylized, frontal figures and symbolic minimalism, such as emphasizing Matthew's lowered gaze or the angel attribute as a reminder of innocence and transformation. Western European depictions, particularly in manuscripts and panel paintings, adopt more narrative detail to stress personal humility and repentance, showing Matthew in contemporary attire amid everyday settings to make the call relatable.[51] In the Renaissance, a prominent example is Caravaggio's The Calling of Saint Matthew (c. 1599–1600), an oil painting in the Contarelli Chapel of San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome, which dramatically captures the moment with Jesus pointing at Matthew in a dimly lit room filled with figures, using chiaroscuro to symbolize the divine light interrupting everyday life.[52] Vittore Carpaccio's 1502 tempera on canvas painting The Calling of Saint Matthew exemplifies this Western narrative approach, situating the scene in a Venetian square with Matthew at his booth handling receipts, surrounded by a crowd that includes Christ and the apostles. The composition uses managed sunlight via wooden parasols to focus attention on Matthew's moment of decision, symbolizing the divine call piercing his mundane routine and leading to his obedience. Commissioned for the Scuola di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni in Venice, the work portrays Matthew as a usurer abandoning worldly goods, with dramatic spatial depth enhancing the theme of conversion.[53] Occasionally, these Renaissance scenes incorporate the subsequent banquet with sinners, briefly alluding to the inclusive mission.[51]

Later Artistic Interpretations

In the 19th century, French artist Alexandre Bida produced an engraving of the Calling of Matthew as part of his biblical illustrations in Christ in Art (1874).[54] The 20th century saw the scene dramatized in film, notably in Franco Zeffirelli's 1977 miniseries Jesus of Nazareth, which includes the calling of Levi (Matthew) as a pivotal moment of personal upheaval and commitment.[55] Contemporary artistic interpretations often employ abstract forms in the context of liberation theology, particularly in Latin American art that reframes biblical themes as invitations to the oppressed and marginalized, drawing parallels to social exclusion in post-colonial societies.

References

  1. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+9%3A9&version=NRSVUE
  2. Commentary on Matthew 9:9-13, 18-26 - Working Preacher
  3. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+9%3A10&version=NRSVUE
  4. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+9%3A11&version=NRSVUE
  5. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+9%3A12-13&version=NRSVUE
  6. Whose “Mercy”? What “Sacrifice”? A Proposed Reading of ...
  7. Strong's Greek: 5057. τελώνης (telónés) -- Tax collector, publican
  8. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+2%3A13-14&version=NIV
  9. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+2%3A15-17&version=NIV
  10. The Patristic Traditions about the Evangelist Matthew | Bible Interp
  11. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+3%3A18&version=NIV
  12. Is Matthew the same as Levi? Matthew 9:9 - Reading Acts
  13. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%205:27-28&version=NIV
  14. τελώνιον | Free Online Greek Dictionary | billmounce.com
  15. Dinner with Sinners: An Exegesis of Luke 5:27-32 - Academia.edu
  16. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%205:29&version=NIV
  17. [PDF] 1 CHAPTER III SYMPOSIUM CONVENTIONS IN LUKE'S GOSPEL ...
  18. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%205:30-32&version=NIV
  19. Who Wrote the Gospels, and How Do We Know for Sure?
  20. The Synoptic Problem: The Literary Relationship of Matthew, Mark ...
  21. Who Was Matthew the Apostle? The Beginner's Guide - OverviewBible
  22. Matthew and Levi (and James) - Variant Readings
  23. Taxes in First-Century Palestine - Bible Odyssey
  24. Tax Gatherers - Jewish Virtual Library
  25. 13. Calling Levi the Tax Collector (Luke 5:27-32) - Bible Study
  26. Capernaum: Home & Ministry Base of Jesus, Peter's Home
  27. Taxation (CHAPTER 3) - Class and Power in Roman Palestine
  28. Tax collection in First-century Israel
  29. Simon Peter in Capernaum: An Archaeological Survey of the First ...
  30. Capernaum - See The Holy Land
  31. [PDF] The Galilee Jesus Knew
  32. What Archeology Has Revealed About Capernaum, Jesus' “Own City”
  33. What is the significance of Capernaum in the Bible? - Got Questions
  34. Hosea 6:6 and identity formation in Matthew
  35. [PDF] Mission, Jews, and Gentiles in the Gospel of Matthew - DukeSpace
  36. Matthew Chapter 9 - Free Bible Commentary
  37. [PDF] THOMISM & PREDESTINATION - The Eye
  38. The Call of Matthew and Its Implications for Consecrated Persons
  39. Jesus Calls the Disciples (Matthew 3-4) | Theology of Work
  40. [PDF] Matthew as An Editor of the Life and teachings of Jesus
  41. CHURCH FATHERS: Commentary on Matthew, Book XIV (Origen)
  42. On Nature and Grace (St. Augustine) - New Advent
  43. CHURCH FATHERS: Homily 30 on Matthew (Chrysostom)
  44. Acts of Matthew - NASSCAL
  45. Tax Collectors and Sinners - Bible Odyssey
  46. Criterion of Embarrassment - Bible Odyssey
  47. John P. Meier - The Marginal Jew - Mystère et vie / Mystery and Life
  48. [PDF] Nongbri Manuscripts The Problem with the Synoptic Problem AAM ...
  49. The Calling of Matthew | VCS - The Visual Commentary on Scripture
  50. St. Matthew in Art - Christian Iconography
  51. The Calling of Matthew by CARPACCIO, Vittore
  52. Artwork by Alexandre Bida of the Life of Christ - GCI Archive
  53. Jesus Encounters a Despised Sinner
  54. Jesus of Nazareth (TV Mini Series 1977) - IMDb
  55. Jesus Meets Levi The Filthy Tax Collector - Jesus of Nazareth Film
  56. The Latino Christ in Art, Literature, and Liberation Theology
  57. https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-231
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