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Righteousness
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Righteousness is the quality or state of "being morally right or justifiable"[1], rooted in religious or divine law, with a broader spectrum of moral correctness, justice, and virtuous living as dictated by a higher authority or set of spiritual beliefs.[2]
Rectitude, often a synonym for righteousness, is about personal moral values and the internal compass that guides an individual’s decisions and actions.[1] It can be found in Indian, Chinese, and Abrahamic religions and traditions, among others, as a theological concept. For example, from various perspectives in Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Confucianism, Taoism, and Judaism. It is an attribute that implies that a person's actions are justified, and can have the connotation that the person has been "judged" as living a moral life, relative to the religion’s doctrines.
William Tyndale (translator of the Bible into English in 1526) remodeled the word after an earlier word rihtwis, which would have yielded modern English *rightwise or *rightways. He used it to translate the Hebrew root צדק tzedek, which appears over five hundred times in the Hebrew Bible, and the Greek word δίκαιος (dikaios), which appears more than two hundred times in the New Testament.
Etymologically, it comes from Old English rihtwīs, from riht 'right' + wīs 'manner, state, condition' (as opposed to wrangwīs, "wrongful"[3]). The change in the ending of the word in the 16th century was due to association with words such as bounteous.[1]
Ethics or moral philosophy
[edit]Ethics is a major branch of philosophy that encompasses principles leading to right conduct. Rushworth Kidder states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty'".[4] Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures".[5] The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' ... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual".[6]
Abrahamic and Abrahamic-inspired religions
[edit]Christianity
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In the New Testament, the word righteousness, a translation for the Greek word dikaiosunē, is used in the sense of 'being righteous before others' (e.g. Matthew 5:20) or 'being righteous before God' (e.g. Romans 1:17). William Lane Craig argues that we should think of God as the "paradigm, the locus, the source of all moral value and standards".[7]
In Matthew's account of the Baptism of Jesus, Jesus tells John the Baptist, "it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness" as Jesus requests that John perform the rite for him. The Sermon on the Mount contains the memorable commandment, "Seek ye first the kingdom of God and His righteousness".
A secondary meaning of the Greek word is 'justice',[8] which is used to render it in a few places by a few Bible translations, e.g. in Matthew 6:33 in the New English Bible.
Jesus asserts the importance of righteousness by saying in Matthew 5:20, "For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven".
Paul the Apostle speaks of two ways to achieve righteousness: through the Law of Moses (or Torah), and through faith in the atonement made possible through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Romans 10:3–13). However, he repeatedly emphasizes that faith is the effective way.[9] For example, a few verses earlier, he states the Jews did not attain the law of righteousness because they sought it not by faith, but by works.[10]
The New Testament speaks of a salvation founded on God's righteousness, as exemplified throughout the history of salvation narrated in the Old Testament (Romans 9–11). Paul writes to the Romans that righteousness comes by faith: "... a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: 'The righteous will live by faith'" (Romans 1:17).
In 2 Corinthians 9:9 the New Revised Standard Version has a footnote that the original word has the meaning of 'benevolence', and the Messianic Jewish commentary of David Stern affirms the Jewish practice of 'doing tzedakah' as a charity, in referring to the Matthew 6:33 and 2 Corinthians 9:9 passages.[11]
James 2:14–26 speaks of the relationship between works of righteousness and faith, saying that "faith without works is dead". Righteous acts according to James include works of charity (James 2:15–16) as well as avoiding sins against the Law of Moses (James 2:11–12).
2 Peter 2:7–8 describes Lot as a righteous man.
Type of saints
[edit]In the Eastern Orthodox Church, "Righteous" is a type of saint who is regarded as a holy person under the Old Covenant (Old Testament Israel). The word is also sometimes used for married saints of the New Covenant (the Church). According to Orthodox theology, the Righteous saints of the Old Covenant were not able to enter into heaven until after the death of Jesus on the cross (Hebrews 11:40), but had to await salvation in the Bosom of Abraham (see: Harrowing of Hell).
Islam
[edit] |
Righteousness is mentioned several times in the Quran.[12] The Quran says that a life of righteousness is the only way to go to Heaven.
We will give the home of the Hereafter to those who do not want arrogance or mischief on earth; and the end is best for the righteous.
O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise each other). Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things).
Righteousness is not that you turn your faces to the east and the west [in prayer]. But righteous is the one who believes in God, the Last Day, the Angels, the Scripture and the Prophets; who gives his wealth in spite of love for it to kinsfolk, orphans, the poor, the wayfarer, to those who ask and to set slaves free. And (righteous are) those who pray, pay alms, honor their agreements, and are patient in (times of) poverty, ailment and during conflict. Such are the people of truth. And they are the God-Fearing.
Judaism
[edit] |
Righteousness is one of the chief attributes of God as portrayed in the Hebrew Bible. Its chief meaning concerns ethical conduct (for example, Leviticus 19:36; Deuteronomy 25:1; Psalms 1:6; Proverbs 8:20). In the Book of Job, the title character is introduced as "a good and righteous man".[13] The Book of Wisdom calls on rulers of the world to embrace righteousness.[14]
Mandaeism
[edit]An early self-appellation for Mandaeans is bhiri zidqa meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4.[15] In addition to righteousness, zidqa also refers to alms or almsgiving.[16]
East Asian religions
[edit]Yi (Confucianism)
[edit]Yi, (Chinese: 義; simplified Chinese: 义; traditional Chinese: 義; pinyin: yì; Jyutping: Ji6; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄧˋ), literally "justice, or justness, righteousness or rightness, meaning", is an important concept in Confucianism. It involves a moral disposition for the good in life, with the sustainable intuition, purpose, and sensibility to do good competently with no expectation of reward.[17][18]
Yi resonates with Confucian philosophy's orientation towards the cultivation of reverence or benevolence (ren) and skillful practice (li).
Yi represents moral acumen that goes beyond simple rule-following, as it is based on empathy, it involves a balanced understanding of a situation, and it incorporates the "creative insights" and grounding necessary to apply virtues through deduction (Yin and Yang) and reason "with no loss of purpose and direction for the total good of fidelity. Yi represents this ideal of totality as well as a decision-generating ability to apply a virtue properly and appropriately in a situation."[18]: 271
In application, yi is a "complex principle" that includes:[18]
- skill in crafting actions which have moral fitness according to a given concrete situation
- the wise recognition of such fitness
- the intrinsic satisfaction that comes from that recognition.
Indian religions
[edit]There might not be a single-word translation for dharma in English, but it can be translated as righteousness, religion, faith, duty, law, and virtue. Connotations of dharma include rightness, good, natural, morality, righteousness, and virtue. In common parlance, dharma means 'right way of living' and 'path of rightness'. It encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behavior considered appropriate, correct or "morally upright". It is explained as a law of righteousness and equated to satya (truth): "...when a man speaks the Truth, they say, 'He speaks the Dharma'; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, 'He speaks the Truth!' For both are one"[19]
The importance of dharma to Indian sentiments is illustrated by the government of India's decision in 1947 to include the Ashoka Chakra, a depiction of the dharmachakra ( the "wheel of dharma"), as the central motif on its flag.
Hinduism
[edit]yada yada hi dharmasya glanir bhavati bharata
abhyutthanam adharmasya tadatmanam srjamy aham
Whenever there is decay of righteousness, O Bharata,
And there is exaltation of unrighteousness, then I Myself come forth
In Hindu philosophy and religion, major emphasis is placed on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.[21] Including duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and "right way of living".[sentence fragment] The Sanskrit epics contain themes and examples where right prevails over wrong, good over evil.
In an inscription attributed to the Indian Emperor Ashoka from the year 258 BC, in Sanskrit, Aramaic, and Greek text, appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma: the word eusebeia This suggests dharma was a central concept in India at that time, and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, and of one's duty.[citation needed]
The Ramayana is one of the two great Indian epics. It tells about life in India around 1000 BC and offers models in dharma. The hero, Rama, lived his whole life by the rules of dharma; this is why he is considered heroic. When Rama was a young boy, he was the perfect son. Later, he was an ideal husband to his faithful wife, Sita, and a responsible ruler of Aydohya. Each episode of Ramayana presents life situations and ethical questions in symbolic terms. The situation is debated by the characters, and finally, right prevails over wrong, good over evil. For this reason, in Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as dharmaraja.
In Mahabharata, the other major Indian epic, similarly, dharma is central, and it is presented with symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, the god Yama, referred to as dharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal, but who refuses to abandon his companion, for which decision he is then praised by dharma. The value and appeal of the Mahabharata is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book, claims Daniel H.H. Ingalls, because Indian metaphysics is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures.[citation needed] The appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, is in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, to which there are usually three answers given, according to Ingalls: one answer is of Bhima, which is the answer of brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of Yudhishthira, which is always an appeal to piety and gods, of social virtue and tradition; the third answer is of introspective Arjuna, which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man.[citation needed] The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma. There is extensive discussion of dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism, observes Ingalls; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, ultimately concluding that the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.[citation needed] The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma, they are a means of communicating dharma with metaphors.
In Hinduism, dharma signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with Ṛta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and "right way of living". The concept of dharma was already in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope have evolved over several millennia.
Secular
[edit]The ancient Tamil moral text of Tirukkural is solely based on aṟam, the Tamil term for dharma. The antonym of dharma is adharma.
Buddhism
[edit]In Buddhism, dharma means cosmic law and order, but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha. In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena". Dharma refers not only to the sayings of the Buddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and to expand upon the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see the dharma as referring to the "truth", or the ultimate reality of "the way that things really are" (Tibetan: ཆོས, THL: chö).[relevant?]
Jainism
[edit]Tattvartha Sutra mentions Das-dharma with the meaning of "righteous". These are forbearance, modesty, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment, and celibacy.
A right believer should constantly meditate on virtues of dharma, like supreme modesty, in order to protect the soul from all contrary dispositions. He should also cover up the shortcomings of others.
— Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya (27)
Sikhism
[edit]For Sikhs, the word Dharm means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice. For Sikhs, the word dharam (Punjabi: ਧਰਮ, dharam) means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice. Guru Granth Sahib in hymn 1353 connotes dharam as duty. The 3HO movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh beliefs, defines Sikh dharam broadly as all that constitutes religion, moral duty, and way of life.
Persian religions
[edit]Zoroastrianism
[edit]In Zoroastrianism, asha is an important tenet of the Zoroastrian religion with a complex and nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right(eousness)', 'order' and 'right working'.
From an early age, Zoroastrians are taught to pursue righteousness by following the Threefold Path of asha: humata, huxta, huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds).
One of the most sacred mantras in the religion is the Ashem Vohu, which has been translated as an "Ode to Righteousness". There are many translations, that differ due to the complexity of Avestan and the concepts involved (for other translations, see: Ashem Vohu).
"Righteousness is the best good and it is happiness. Happiness is to her/him who is righteous, for the sake of the best righteousness".[22][full citation needed]
See also
[edit]- Alien righteousness – Term coined by Martin Luther
- Asha – Central and complex Zoroastrian theological concept
- Chivalry – Traditional ideology and code of conduct of knights
- Christian perfection – Process of achieving spiritual perfection
- Hrī (Buddhism)
- Human rights – Fundamental rights belonging to all humans
- Imparted righteousness – Concept in Methodist theology
- Imputed righteousness – Doctrine in Christianity; faithful humans are accepted by God
- Justice – Concept of moral fairness and administration of the law
- Justification (theology) – Concept of Christian theology
- Philotimo – Greek notion of duty and honor
- Piety – Religious devotion or spirituality
- Pono – Hawaiian word commonly rendered as "righteousness"
- Proper righteousness – Term coined by Martin Luther
- Righteous Among the Nations – Non-Jews who saved Jews during the Holocaust
- Righteous indignation – Man's version of commination
- Sacred – Dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity
- Sanctification – Dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity
- Virtus – Masculine virtue in Ancient Rome
- Yi – Concept in Confucianism
- Tzadikim Nistarim - 36 hidden Righteousness
References
[edit]- ^ a b c "rectitude vs. righteousness".
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Rectitude vs. Righteousness — What's the Difference?". www.askdifference.com. Retrieved 12 June 2025.
- ^ Wedgwood, Hensleigh (1855). "On False Etymologies". Transactions of the Philological Society (6). London: George Bell: 68.
- ^ Annabelle, Laura (5 March 2017). "Ethics Defined". The Ethical World. Retrieved 13 November 2024 – via Medium.
- ^ Levin, Noah (8 November 2019). "5: Ethics". Humanities LibreTexts. Retrieved 13 November 2024.
- ^ Khatibi, Mina; Khormaei, Farhad (May 2016). "Morality and Ethics: A Brief Review" (PDF). Journal of Life Science and Biomedicine. 6 (3): 66–70.
- ^ Craig, William Lane. "Doctrine of God (part 19)". Reasonable Faith. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
- ^ Young, Robert (1998). Young's Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Hendrickson Academic. p. 819. ISBN 978-1-56563-810-5.
- ^ Romans 4:5, Romans 3:21–24
- ^ Romans 9:30–33
- ^ Stern, David H. (1992) Jewish New Testament Commentary: A companion volume to the 'Jewish New Testament'. pp. 30, 512. ISBN 9653590081
- ^ Mababaya, Norlain Dindang. "Islam Teaches Righteousness And Forbids Evil Deeds". www.wefound.org. Archived from the original on 11 March 2001.
- ^ Job 1:1 in the New Catholic Bible
- ^ Wisdom 1:1: New Revised Standard Version
- ^
- Rudolph, Kurt (April 1964). "War Der Verfasser Der Oden Salomos Ein "Qumran-Christ"? Ein Beitrag zur Diskussion um die Anfänge der Gnosis". Revue de Qumrân. 4 (16). Peeters: 552–553.
- Coughenour, Robert A. (December 1982). "The Wisdom Stance of Enoch's Redactor". Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period. 13 (1–2). Brill: 52. doi:10.1163/157006382X00035.
- Rudolph, Kurt (7 April 2008). "Mandeans ii. The Mandean Religion". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- Aldihisi, Sabah (2008). The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba (PhD). University College London. p. 18.
- ^
- Gelbert, Carlos (2011). Ginza Rba. Sydney: Living Water Books. ISBN 978-0958034630.
- Drower, Ethel Stefana (1937). The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
- ^ "The Main Concepts of Confucianism". Philosophy.lander.edu. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
- ^ a b c Cheng, Chung-ying (July 1972), "On yi as a universal principle of specific application in Confucian morality", Philosophy East and West, 22 (3): 269–280, doi:10.2307/1397676, JSTOR 1397676
- ^ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.xiv
- ^
- "Bhagavad-gītā As It Is". Bhagavad Gita As It Is (in Sanskrit and English). Translated by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. 1968. 4.7. LCCN 68008322. Wikidata Q854700.
- "Bhagavad Gita Chapter 4, Verse 7–8: Yada Yada Hi Dharmasya". Swami Vivekananda Quotes. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2018.
- ^ Ingalls, Daniel H.H. (1957). "Dharma and Moksa". Philosophy East & West. pp. 41–48. Archived from the original on 21 February 2001. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
- ^ Kanga, Ervad Kawasji Eduljee. English Translation of Gujarati Khordeh Avesta. p. 1.
External links
[edit]
The dictionary definition of righteousness at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Righteousness at Wikiquote
Righteousness
View on GrokipediaEtymology and Definition
Linguistic Origins
The term "righteousness" in English derives from Old English rihtwīsnisse, a compound formed from riht (meaning "right" or "straight") and wīsnisse (denoting "manner," "state," or "wisdom").[4] This Old English form evolved from Proto-Germanic roots, where rehtaz signified "straight," "right," or "just," often implying conformity to law or justice, while wīsą related to "manner" or "wise conduct."[5][6] In biblical contexts, the concept traces to Hebrew tzedek (צֶדֶק), which conveys justice, moral equity, and righteousness as an attribute of right conduct or alignment with divine standards.[7] This term, from the root tsadaq meaning "to be just" or "to be righteous," appears frequently in the Hebrew Bible to denote ethical uprightness and fairness.[8] In the New Testament, the Greek equivalent dikaiosynē (δικαιοσύνη) translates and expands on tzedek, emphasizing right standing, justification, and a state of being in accordance with what is right.[9] Derived from dikaios ("just" or "righteous"), it often implies a relational or legal rectitude, particularly in covenantal terms.[10] Broader Indo-European linguistic roots connect "righteousness" to notions of straightness and order, stemming from Proto-Indo-European h₃reǵ-, meaning "to move in a straight line" or "to direct straight."[11] This root underlies concepts of alignment and correctness across descendant languages, such as Sanskrit ṛju, which means "straight," "direct," or "right," influencing terms for moral or spatial uprightness in ancient Indian texts.[12] Similar derivations appear in Latin rectus ("straight" or "right"), reinforcing the shared etymological link to order and justice in early Indo-European societies.[13] The usage of "righteousness" in English evolved from its 12th-century Middle English form rightwisnes, primarily in religious manuscripts where it denoted moral or divine justice within Christian theology.[1] By the 16th century, during the Renaissance and Reformation, the term shifted to righteousness through analogy with suffixes like -ness in words such as "bounteousness," extending its application into moral philosophy to describe ethical virtue and upright character.[4] This linguistic development paralleled broader philosophical discussions of justice during the period.Conceptual Overview
Righteousness is defined as the quality or state of being morally right or justifiable, characterized by adherence to ethical principles, integrity, and alignment with standards of justice.[14] This moral quality emphasizes an internal disposition toward uprightness, where actions and beliefs conform to natural or divine laws, fostering personal virtue and the pursuit of fairness in human interactions.[15] Unlike mere compliance with rules, righteousness involves a holistic commitment to ethical norms that promote the well-being of individuals and society. A key distinction exists between righteousness and justice: while justice pertains to external systems of fair treatment and equitable distribution of resources or punishments, righteousness focuses on the internal moral character that drives such actions.[16] Historically, righteousness has been a universal human ideal, evident in ancient legal codes like the Code of Hammurabi, which proclaimed the king's role in establishing the "rule of righteousness" through judgments that aimed to protect the weak and curb wrongdoing.[17] This concept evolved across civilizations as a foundational ethic, linking personal morality to societal order from Mesopotamian times to later philosophical traditions.[18] In contemporary philosophy, righteousness is often viewed as an expression of moral uprightness tied to good will and ethical integrity, serving as a guide for individual conduct in secular contexts.[19] Psychologically, however, the pursuit of righteousness can lead to self-righteousness, a cognitive bias in which individuals overestimate their own moral superiority relative to others, fostering judgmentalism and distorted self-perception.[20] This bias highlights the challenges in achieving genuine righteousness, as it underscores the human tendency toward asymmetric moral evaluations.[21]In Moral Philosophy
Western Perspectives
In Western moral philosophy, righteousness has been conceptualized through diverse ethical lenses, primarily rooted in Greco-Roman traditions that emphasize rational inquiry into human conduct and the good life.[3] Central to early perspectives is Aristotle's virtue ethics in the Nicomachean Ethics, where dikaiosynē—translated as justice—serves as a complete virtue encompassing fairness in distribution and rectification, essential for achieving eudaimonia, the balanced flourishing of the soul through habitual excellence.[22] For Aristotle, the righteous individual practices justice not merely as compliance with laws but as a disposition toward equitable relations with others, integrating it within a broader system of virtues like courage and temperance to realize human potential.[22] In ancient Greek philosophy, righteousness is encapsulated in the concept of dikaiosyne, which Plato explores in The Republic as the virtue of justice representing harmony both within the individual soul and the broader state. For Plato, dikaiosyne arises when the three parts of the soul—reason, spirit, and appetite—are in proper balance, mirroring the just organization of society where rulers, guardians, and producers each fulfill their roles without interference. This internal and external harmony ensures that each element performs its function, leading to overall well-being and moral order.[23] Deontological approaches, exemplified by Immanuel Kant, reframe righteousness as an imperative of rational duty rather than personal flourishing. In the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant posits the categorical imperative as the supreme principle of morality: one must act only according to maxims that could become universal laws, ensuring actions stem from respect for the moral law itself.[24] Righteousness here aligns with treating persons as ends in themselves, never merely as means, thereby upholding universalizable duties that transcend empirical consequences or individual inclinations.[24] This duty-based view positions righteousness as an a priori obligation of the autonomous will, foundational to ethical autonomy. Utilitarian thought critiques such absolute conceptions by subordinating righteousness to consequential outcomes. John Stuart Mill, in Utilitarianism, defines moral rightness by the principle of utility: actions are righteous insofar as they tend to promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number, calculated through pleasures and pains.[25] Mill argues that while virtues like justice contribute to social utility by fostering security and cooperation, rigid adherence to deontological righteousness may conflict with overall welfare if it impedes happiness maximization.[25] Thus, righteousness becomes instrumental, evaluated by its empirical effects rather than intrinsic moral worth. Twentieth-century philosophers further diversify these views on righteousness in social and existential contexts. John Rawls, in A Theory of Justice, links righteousness to distributive justice through the "veil of ignorance," a hypothetical device where rational agents, unaware of their social position, select principles ensuring fairness, such as equal liberties and benefits for the least advantaged.[26] This framework recasts righteousness as the structural equity of institutions designed impartially. In contrast, Friedrich Nietzsche, in On the Genealogy of Morality, denounces conventional righteousness as "slave morality," a resentful ethic born from weakness that inverts noble values of strength and creativity into guilt and pity, thereby stifling the affirmative will to power.[27] Nietzsche's critique portrays righteousness not as virtue but as a historical pathology suppressing human vitality.[27] Stoic philosophy further develops notions of righteousness through the imperative to live according to nature and reason, aligned with the universal logos—the rational principle permeating the cosmos—as articulated by thinkers like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. For the Stoics, righteousness manifests as justice (dikaiosyne), one of the four cardinal virtues, involving the fair distribution of indifferents and actions that conform to rational order, thereby achieving inner tranquility (ataraxia) and ethical consistency. Epictetus stressed that true righteousness requires disciplining impressions to act virtuously regardless of external circumstances, while Marcus Aurelius in his Meditations viewed it as participating in the divine logos by treating others with equity and fulfilling one's role in the rational whole. This alignment with nature's reason positions righteousness not as mere rule-following but as a harmonious existence within the interconnected universe.[28]Eastern Perspectives
In Confucian philosophy, righteousness is articulated through yi (義), one of the five constant virtues (wuchang) alongside benevolence (ren), propriety (li), wisdom (zhi), and trustworthiness (xin), serving as a moral disposition to act justly and appropriately in social contexts. Confucius emphasized yi as the intuitive sense of propriety that guides individuals to prioritize ethical conduct over personal gain, fostering social harmony by ensuring actions align with relational duties and communal welfare, as seen in passages where a gentleman "thinks of righteousness when faced with gain." This virtue underscores the idea that just actions maintain the moral fabric of society, promoting stability through deliberate and competent goodness.[29][30] In Indian philosophical traditions, particularly in ancient texts like the Upanishads, dharma represents the cosmic order (ṛta) and personal duty, embodying the eternal principles that sustain universal harmony and individual ethical responsibilities. The Upanishads portray dharma as the foundational law governing both the natural world and human conduct, where upholding it ensures alignment with the ultimate reality (Brahman) and prevents chaos, as reflected in teachings that link righteous living to the maintenance of existential balance. For instance, dharma is described as the sustainer of moral order, guiding personal duties based on one's role in the cosmos while emphasizing truth (satya) as its core. This concept briefly overlaps with later religious applications in Hinduism, where it extends to ritual and societal norms, but in its Upanishadic form, it prioritizes philosophical insight into duty as a path to self-realization.[31][32]Secular Interpretations
In secular interpretations, righteousness is frequently aligned with the principles of human rights frameworks that emphasize inherent dignity, equality, and justice for all individuals, independent of religious or supernatural justifications. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the United Nations in 1948, exemplifies this by stating in Article 1 that "all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights" and are "endowed with reason and conscience," framing these entitlements as universal and grounded in human rationality rather than divine mandate.[33] Subsequent articles reinforce this secular ethic, such as Article 7, which guarantees equal protection under the law without discrimination, and Article 22, which links social security to the realization of economic, social, and cultural rights essential for human dignity.[33] This approach positions righteousness as an active commitment to protecting these rights through international law and policy, influencing global standards for ethical governance. Within social justice movements, righteousness is secularized as the ethical imperative to achieve equity and combat systemic injustice through non-violent action and civil disobedience. In the U.S. civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, Martin Luther King Jr. adapted this concept by distinguishing just laws—those that "uplift human personality"—from unjust ones that degrade it, arguing that individuals have a moral duty to resist the latter openly and peacefully to foster societal equity.[34] This interpretation, drawn from ethical philosophy, inspired legislative reforms like the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, thereby embedding righteousness as a principle of inclusive justice in secular legal systems.[34] From psychological and sociological perspectives, righteousness encompasses both positive moral intuitions and potential pitfalls like self-righteousness, analyzed through empirical frameworks that explain human behavior without invoking theology. Jonathan Haidt's Moral Foundations Theory posits that righteousness arises from evolved psychological modules, such as the care/harm and fairness/cheating foundations, which underpin intuitive judgments of moral uprightness and vary across cultures and ideologies to promote social cohesion.[35] Complementing this, studies on self-righteousness reveal it as a form of moral licensing, where individuals who affirm their own moral credentials subsequently permit themselves less prosocial or even unethical actions, as evidenced by a meta-analysis of 91 studies showing a small but consistent licensing effect (Cohen's d = 0.31).[36] Sociologically, this dynamic highlights how perceptions of personal righteousness can reinforce group biases or hinder collective progress, informing interventions in diverse settings like workplaces and communities. In environmental ethics, righteousness is construed as responsible stewardship of the planet, rooted in the recognition of nature's intrinsic value beyond human utility. Deep ecology, pioneered by Arne Naess, articulates this through principles that affirm the equal right of all life forms to flourish, obligating humans to reduce population and consumption levels to minimize interference with non-human ecosystems.[37] This secular ethic extends to practices like biodiversity preservation and sustainable living, positioning righteousness as an ecological duty that integrates human well-being with planetary health, as seen in Naess's call for policies that prioritize the richness and diversity of life over anthropocentric exploitation.[37]In Abrahamic Religions
Judaism
In Judaism, righteousness is fundamentally expressed through the concept of tzedakah, which encompasses justice, righteousness, and charitable acts as an obligation rooted in the Torah. The term derives from the Hebrew root tz-d-k, meaning "righteousness" or "justice," and is exemplified in Deuteronomy 16:20, which commands, "Justice, justice shall you pursue (tzedek tzedek tirdof)," emphasizing the active pursuit of equitable treatment in society and before God.[38][39] This verse underscores tzedakah not as optional benevolence but as a moral imperative to rectify imbalances, including through material support for the needy, which fulfills divine justice.[40] The Hebrew prophets amplified this Torah foundation by prioritizing social justice as the essence of righteousness, often critiquing ritual observance devoid of ethical action. Amos, for instance, condemned economic exploitation and indifference to the poor, declaring in Amos 5:24, "Let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream," linking true piety to societal equity.[41] Similarly, Isaiah rebuked empty sacrifices while the vulnerable suffered, stating in Isaiah 1:17, "Learn to do good; seek justice, correct oppression; bring justice to the fatherless, plead the widow's cause," portraying righteousness as active defense of the marginalized over mere religious formalism.[42] These prophetic calls reinforced that righteousness demands holistic ethical conduct, influencing Jewish thought on communal responsibility.[43] Within Halakha, the body of Jewish law, righteousness manifests through the fulfillment of mitzvot (commandments), which guide righteous living by aligning human actions with divine will. Observing the 613 mitzvot—derived from the Torah and elaborated in rabbinic texts—constitutes the path to righteousness, as these laws cover interpersonal ethics, ritual duties, and social obligations.[44] Tzedakah is distinguished from gemilut chasadim (acts of loving-kindness), where the former emphasizes obligatory justice, such as systematic aid to prevent poverty, while the latter involves voluntary compassion like visiting the sick or comforting mourners, both essential yet complementary to righteous conduct.[45] This framework positions righteousness as an integrated practice of law and ethics, sustaining moral order.[46] In Kabbalistic tradition, righteousness involves balancing the sefirot—the ten divine emanations through which God interacts with creation—to achieve tikkun olam, the repair of the world. Lurianic Kabbalah teaches that the primordial shattering of divine vessels (shevirat ha-kelim) dispersed holy sparks into the material realm, and righteous acts like tzedakah elevate these sparks, restoring harmony among opposing sefirot such as Chesed (kindness) and Gevurah (severity).[47] Through mitzvot including tzedakah, individuals participate in this cosmic rectification, countering spiritual fragmentation and aligning the world with divine unity.[48][49]Christianity
In Christian theology, righteousness is fundamentally understood as imputed through faith in Jesus Christ, rather than achieved through human works. The Apostle Paul articulates this in Romans 3:21-26, describing the "righteousness of God" (dikaiosynē theou) as a divine gift manifested apart from the law, received through faith in Christ's atoning sacrifice, which justifies believers and reconciles them to God. This imputation credits Christ's perfect righteousness to the believer, rendering them righteous in God's sight despite their sinfulness.[50] Early Church Fathers developed this concept within the framework of grace overcoming original sin. Augustine of Hippo emphasized that human righteousness is impossible without divine grace, which counters the inherited guilt from Adam's fall and enables true moral renewal.[51] In his view, grace not only forgives sin but transforms the will, making righteousness a participatory gift rather than a self-generated virtue. Later, Thomas Aquinas integrated Aristotelian ethics by distinguishing acquired virtues—habits cultivated through reason and practice—from infused virtues bestowed by grace, arguing that Christian righteousness perfects natural moral excellence through supernatural aid, aligning human acts with divine justice. Canonized saints in Christianity exemplify this imputed and infused righteousness through lives of heroic virtue, distinct from Old Testament figures like Noah, whose righteousness was credited by faith in God's promises but lacked the fullness of Christ's redemptive work and the indwelling Holy Spirit available to New Covenant believers.[52] For instance, St. Francis of Assisi demonstrated moral uprightness through voluntary poverty and radical obedience to Christ, mirroring the self-emptying love of the Gospel and inspiring the faithful toward sanctification. The doctrine of righteousness has sparked significant debate between Protestant and Catholic traditions. Martin Luther's principle of sola fide asserts that justification is entirely by faith alone, imputing Christ's righteousness without meritorious works, while good deeds flow as fruits of faith in the process of sanctification. In contrast, Catholic teaching, as articulated at the Council of Trent, views justification as synergistic, involving grace-initiated cooperation with human free will, where sacraments and works contribute to growing in righteousness alongside faith. This distinction underscores differing emphases on forensic declaration versus transformative union with Christ.Islam
In Islam, righteousness is primarily encapsulated by the concepts of birr (piety and moral excellence) and taqwa (God-consciousness), which integrate faith, ethical conduct, and devotion into daily life. Birr refers to comprehensive righteousness that transcends mere ritual, emphasizing a balanced life of belief and action. The Quran defines birr in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:177) as not merely facing the east or west in prayer, but rather believing in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the scriptures, and the prophets; giving wealth out of love for Allah to relatives, orphans, the needy, travelers, those who ask, and for freeing slaves; establishing prayer and giving zakat; fulfilling promises; and being patient in adversity, hardship, and battle. This verse underscores birr as a holistic virtue combining inner faith with outward justice and charity, forming the foundation of righteous living.[53] Taqwa, often translated as piety or righteousness through God-consciousness, represents the internal dimension of righteousness, guiding believers to ethical actions by fostering awareness of divine oversight. It involves guarding oneself against sin and pursuing moral excellence in all dealings, leading to spiritual purification and societal harmony. The Prophet Muhammad emphasized taqwa in ethical conduct, such as in business, where he stated, "The truthful, trustworthy merchant is with the Prophets, the truthful, and the martyrs," highlighting honesty in trade as a manifestation of inner piety that elevates one to the highest ranks of righteousness.[54] This God-consciousness motivates believers to avoid deceit and injustice, ensuring actions align with divine will.[55] Within Sharia (Islamic law), righteousness is operationalized through the Five Pillars—declaration of faith (shahada), prayer (salat), charity (zakat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage (hajj)—which structure moral duties and communal welfare. These pillars cultivate birr by integrating worship with social justice, such as zakat's role in redistributing wealth equitably. Complementing them is ihsan, defined as performing worship with the excellence of knowing that Allah witnesses everything, as the Prophet explained in the Hadith of Jibril: "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you."[56] This level of righteousness elevates obligatory acts into profound spiritual devotion, ensuring ethical integrity permeates all aspects of life. In Sufi traditions, righteousness involves the purification of the nafs (lower self) to achieve closeness to Allah, emphasizing inner transformation over external forms. Sufis view taqwa and birr as processes of cleansing the heart from vices like greed and pride through practices such as dhikr (remembrance of Allah) and cultivating divine love. This purification subordinates egoistic desires to spiritual awareness, leading to ethical actions rooted in selfless devotion; as Sufi teachings describe, it breaks the nafs' dominance to establish the soul's authority under Allah's guidance.[57] The Islamic concept of righteousness thus maintains continuity with the Abrahamic tradition originating in Judaism, adapting shared monotheistic ethics to emphasize balanced faith and deeds.[58]Mandaeism
In Mandaeism, righteousness is fundamentally understood as alignment with Hayyi Rabbi, the supreme deity known as the Great Life, achieved primarily through ritual immersion in flowing waters to purify the soul and foster communion with the divine light. Baptism, or masbuta, serves as the central rite for this purification, performed by priests to cleanse impurities and strengthen the soul's connection to Hayyi, enabling it to resist dark influences and progress toward the World of Light. This practice underscores the ethical imperative of maintaining ritual and moral purity as a pathway to spiritual elevation.[59][60] The ethical framework of Mandaeism is detailed in the Ginza Rabba, the primary scripture, which emphasizes truthfulness, non-violence, and the rejection of idolatry as core virtues for righteous living. Truth is portrayed as essential for upholding the divine order, while non-violence prohibits killing or bloodletting, viewing all life as sacred emanations from Hayyi Rabbi, with mandates against harming female animals to preserve reproductive integrity. Idolatry is strictly condemned, as Mandaeans adhere to monotheistic worship of Hayyi alone, directing prayers toward the North Star as a symbol of light rather than any created form. These principles guide daily conduct, promoting secret good deeds and ascetic restraint to cultivate inner purity.[59] Mandaean cosmology features a stark dualism between the forces of light, representing righteousness and the realm of Hayyi Rabbi, and the forces of darkness, embodied by malevolent entities like Ruha, the fallen spirit who leads demonic opposition to the light beings or uthras. Righteous individuals, through ethical adherence and rituals, navigate this cosmic conflict, ensuring their souls ascend past Ruha's watch-houses after death to reach the World of Light, where eternal communion with the divine awaits. This ascent demands vigilant opposition to dark influences, reinforcing the moral duty to embody light in thought and action.[60] Community practices further mark moral uprightness, with vegetarianism originally prescribed as an ideal to honor life's sanctity, though limited meat consumption (such as rams) is permitted under strict purity rules to avoid pollution from predatory or unclean sources. Endogamy is enforced, particularly for priests who must descend from immaculate Mandaean lineages, preserving doctrinal integrity and ritual eligibility within the closed community. These customs reinforce collective righteousness by safeguarding purity against external defilement.[59][61][62]In Dharmic Religions
Hinduism
In Hinduism, dharma represents the foundational concept of righteousness, embodying cosmic order, moral duty, and ethical conduct that sustains the universe and individual lives. Rooted in the Sanskrit verbal root dhṛ meaning "to uphold" or "to sustain," dharma aligns human actions with the eternal principle of ṛta, the intrinsic harmony governing nature and society, as articulated in Vedic literature. This principle ensures balance between personal obligations and universal welfare, guiding adherents toward virtuous living without deviation into adharma (unrighteousness).[63] The Bhagavad Gita exemplifies dharma's cosmic significance, where Lord Krishna declares his divine role in preserving righteousness: "Whenever there is a decline in dharma and an increase in adharma, O Bharata, I manifest myself on earth... to protect the virtuous, to destroy the wicked, and to reestablish dharma" (4:7-8). This incarnation underscores dharma as an active force against moral decay, emphasizing duty (svadharma) performed selflessly to restore equilibrium. Krishna's counsel to Arjuna further illustrates dharma as prioritizing ethical imperatives over personal attachments, even in conflict.[64] Dharma manifests contextually through the varna (social classes) and āśrama (life stages) systems, delineating righteous roles to foster societal harmony. Varna dharma assigns duties based on inherent qualities: Brahmins uphold knowledge and rituals, Kshatriyas protect justice and governance, Vaishyas manage commerce and agriculture, and Shudras support through service, each contributing interdependently to the social order. Complementing this, āśrama dharma outlines progressive stages—brahmacarya (student life focused on learning), gṛhastha (householder duties of family and livelihood), vānaprastha (retreat for reflection), and saṃnyāsa (renunciation for spiritual pursuit)—ensuring personal growth aligns with ethical responsibilities. Svadharma, or one's unique duty, integrates these, as the Bhagavad Gita advises: better to imperfectly follow one's own dharma than another's flawlessly, highlighting individualized righteousness.[65] In the epic Mahabharata, Yudhishthira, titled Dharmaputra, epitomizes dharma through his unwavering commitment to truth, justice, and compassion amid moral dilemmas like the dice game and war. His evolution reflects dharma's subtlety, balancing nonviolence (ahimsa) with necessary force as a Kshatriya, ultimately affirming righteousness as dynamic conduct tested by trials. The philosophical roots of dharma trace to the Upanishads, where it emerges as an ethical framework for realizing universal harmony and self-realization.[66][67] Modern Hindu thought adapts dharma through reformers like Mahatma Gandhi, whose satyagraha—soul-force rooted in truth (satya) and nonviolence—serves as active righteousness to combat injustice while upholding moral duty. Gandhi interpreted satyagraha as a dharma yuddha (righteous struggle), drawing from the Bhagavad Gita to promote ethical resistance that transforms society without compromising integrity.[68]Buddhism
In Buddhism, righteousness is fundamentally embodied in sīla, or moral discipline, which forms the ethical foundation of the path to liberation from suffering. Sīla is one of the three trainings—alongside concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā)—and specifically encompasses the factors of right speech, right action, and right livelihood within the Noble Eightfold Path. Right speech involves abstaining from falsehood, slander, harsh words, and idle chatter, promoting truthful, harmonious, and beneficial communication that fosters social and personal integrity.[69] Right action entails refraining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct, emphasizing non-harm (ahiṃsā) and ethical conduct to protect life and promote welfare.[70] Right livelihood requires pursuing a vocation that avoids harm, such as trading in weapons, intoxicants, or living beings, ensuring one's means of sustenance align with compassion and non-exploitation.[69] These precepts cultivate a mind free from remorse, enabling deeper meditative practice and insight into the nature of reality. In Theravada Buddhism, righteousness is further elaborated through the Vinaya, the monastic code that governs the Saṅgha with 227 rules for monks (bhikkhus), prioritizing non-harm as the core ethical imperative. These rules prohibit intentional killing or incitement to death (Pārājika 3), theft of valuable items (Pārājika 2), and actions that damage living plants or disturb ecosystems (Pācittiya 10-11), extending moral discipline to all forms of life.[71] Violations range from expulsion for severe offenses like homicide to confession for lesser infractions like lying (Pācittiya 1), with the intent to rehabilitate and maintain communal harmony. For lay practitioners, righteousness mirrors these through the Five Precepts, reinforcing non-harm in daily conduct. In Mahayana traditions, righteousness expands via the bodhisattva vow, where practitioners commit to universal compassion (karuṇā) by liberating all sentient beings from suffering before attaining personal nirvana. This vow, rooted in the aspiration for enlightenment (bodhicitta), manifests as selfless action driven by great compassion, which arises from the wisdom of emptiness and benefits beings without discrimination.[72] Righteous actions in Buddhism generate positive karma (kuśala karma), volitional deeds rooted in wholesome intentions that propel favorable rebirths and progress toward enlightenment. Virtuous conduct, such as generosity, ethical discipline, and patience—the first five perfections (pāramitās)—accumulates merit that purifies obscurations and reveals the mind's innate luminosity, ultimately leading to buddhahood when paired with wisdom.[73] In the cycle of karma and rebirth (saṃsāra), unwholesome actions yield suffering, while righteous ones break this chain, culminating in nirvana as the cessation of conditioned existence. In Zen (Chan) Buddhism, particularly in the teachings of Dōgen (1200–1253), righteousness is realized as spontaneous right action arising in the present moment through zazen practice. Dōgen describes this as the natural manifestation of the Buddha-way, where ethical conduct emerges effortlessly from enlightened activity, such as the bodhisattva's four methods of guidance—giving, kind speech, beneficial action, and identity action—performed without attachment or deliberation.[74] In fascicles like "Shoaku-makusa" and "Bodaisatta-Shishobo," he emphasizes that true righteousness is not rule-bound but a dynamic expression of compassion in each instant, aligning body, mind, and Dharma in the ongoing actualization of enlightenment.[75]Jainism
In Jainism, righteousness is fundamentally understood as the path to spiritual liberation (moksha) through the Ratnatraya, or three jewels: samyak darshana (right faith), samyak jnana (right knowledge), and samyak charitra (right conduct). These principles form the core ethical and spiritual framework, guiding adherents toward the purification of the soul by eradicating karmic bondage. Samyak darshana involves an intuitive conviction in the truths of the soul's existence, the nature of karma, and the path to enlightenment, serving as the foundational belief that dispels doubt and motivates ethical action.[76] Samyak jnana refers to accurate knowledge of the self, non-self, and the universe, acquired through sensory perception, scriptural study, or omniscience, which destroys ignorance and enables discernment between virtuous and unvirtuous actions.[76] Samyak charitra encompasses moral conduct, including self-restraint and adherence to vows, which integrates the first two jewels into practical righteousness, culminating in the cessation of karmic influx.[76] Together, the Ratnatraya, combined with austerities, exhaust past karma and prevent future accumulation, embodying the righteous pursuit of beatitude as taught by the Jinas.[76] Central to Jain righteousness is ahimsa, the principle of non-violence, regarded as the supreme virtue extending to all life forms in thought, word, and deed. Ahimsa demands universal compassion, prohibiting harm to even microscopic beings and influencing daily practices such as vegetarianism and mindful speech.[77] Complementing ahimsa is anekantavada, the doctrine of multiplicity of views, which promotes tolerant justice by recognizing reality's multifaceted nature and encouraging humility in judgments. This intellectual non-violence fosters dialogue and relativity, mitigating conflict and supporting ethical coexistence without absolutism.[78][79] The Tattvartha Sutra outlines righteous living through vows that operationalize these principles, distinguishing mahavratas (great vows) for ascetics from anuvratas (lesser vows) for laity. Mahavratas include absolute commitments to ahimsa, satya (truthfulness), acaurya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (celibacy), and aparigraha (non-possession), observed lifelong without exception to achieve total detachment and karmic purification.[80] Anuvratas adapt these for householders, allowing flexibility—such as limiting ahimsa to avoidable harm or restricting brahmacharya to fidelity within marriage—while still advancing spiritual progress amid worldly duties.[80] These vows, as detailed in the sutra, form the ethical backbone of Jain conduct, ensuring righteousness aligns with the Ratnatraya for soul liberation.[77] Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, exemplifies extreme ascetic righteousness through his 12-and-a-half years of rigorous practices, including prolonged fasting, exposure to elemental hardships, and unwavering adherence to the five vows. Renouncing princely life at age 30, he endured physical torments without retaliation, embodying ahimsa and aparigraha in nudity or minimal attire, which purified his soul and led to kevala jnana (omniscience).[81] His life serves as the paradigmatic model for Jains, illustrating how ascetic discipline integrates the three jewels into ultimate righteousness and moksha.[81]Sikhism
In Sikhism, righteousness is embodied in the concept of dharam, which refers to the path of righteous living as outlined in the Guru Granth Sahib, the central Sikh scripture. This path emphasizes honest conduct, truthful actions, and selfless service (seva) to others, fostering a life aligned with divine will (hukam). For instance, the scripture teaches that true righteousness arises from inner devotion and ethical behavior, such as earning through honest means and serving humanity without expectation of reward, as a means to spiritual liberation (mukti).[82] Central to this righteous path are the three foundational pillars established by Guru Nanak: Naam Japna (meditation on God's name), Kirat Karni (honest labor and earning a living), and Vand Chakna (sharing with others). These principles promote equality before Waheguru (the divine), where all individuals are seen as equal regardless of social status, encouraging Sikhs to live truthfully, work diligently, and contribute to community welfare through practices like langar (communal kitchen). Righteousness thus manifests as a balanced life of spiritual focus, ethical work, and communal sharing, rejecting materialism and ego in favor of humility and service.[83][84] Sikhism explicitly rejects the caste system, viewing it as a barrier to true righteousness, with Guru Nanak emphasizing inner purity and moral character over external rituals or birth-based hierarchies. He taught that spiritual worth lies in one's devotion and righteous deeds, not societal divisions, as exemplified in his establishment of egalitarian practices like pangat (sitting together in equality during meals). This focus on internal transformation underscores righteousness as accessible to all through sincere living and rejection of discrimination.[85][86] The Sikh Rehat Maryada, the official code of conduct for the Khalsa, further integrates righteousness through symbols like kesh (uncut hair) and kirpan (ceremonial sword). Kesh represents acceptance of God's natural order and commitment to a disciplined, righteous life, symbolizing spiritual humility and resistance to vanity. The kirpan signifies readiness for ethical defense, upholding dharam by protecting the weak and fighting injustice without aggression, as in the principle of just warfare (dharam yudh). These articles remind Sikhs to embody courage, compassion, and moral integrity in daily practice.[87][88][89]In East Asian Traditions
Confucianism
In Confucianism, righteousness is embodied in the concept of yi (義), one of the five constants (wuchang, 五常) that form the foundational ethical principles of human nature and social harmony. These constants—benevolence (ren, 仁), righteousness (yi), propriety (li, 禮), wisdom (zhi, 智), and trustworthiness (xin, 信)—are considered innate virtues essential for moral cultivation and interpersonal relationships. Yi specifically denotes moral righteousness, justice, and the appropriate action required in one's roles within familial, social, and political contexts, emphasizing duty over personal gain to maintain societal order.[90] Confucius highlights yi as a distinguishing trait of the morally superior individual in the Analects, stating, "The superior man understands what is right; the inferior man understands what will profit." This contrast underscores yi as an internal moral compass guiding decisions based on ethical propriety rather than self-interest, fostering a life oriented toward virtue and communal well-being.[91] Yi integrates closely with ren (benevolence) and li (ritual propriety), forming a triad that balances compassion, justice, and decorum in human interactions. While ren emphasizes empathetic humaneness and li governs ritualized conduct to preserve harmony, yi ensures actions align with moral justice in relational dynamics, such as filial piety or ruler-subject obligations. In the Mencius, this integration manifests in the justification of righteous rebellion against tyranny; Mencius argues that a ruler who loses the people's hearts through oppression forfeits legitimacy, as seen in the historical ousting of tyrants like Jie and Zhou, where the people's rejection equates to moral removal rather than mere regicide. He asserts that such a sovereign "will himself be slain, and his kingdom will perish," framing rebellion as a dutiful restoration of yi when benevolence and propriety fail under despotic rule.[92] Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200) further developed yi as integral to moral cultivation through the investigation of principles (li, 理), viewing it as a manifestation of cosmic and ethical patterns discernible in the world. In his commentaries on the Four Books, Zhu Xi posits that yi, alongside ren and li, arises from innate human nature (xing) aligned with universal principles, requiring diligent self-examination and study to embody righteousness in daily practice. This approach elevates yi from situational ethics to a systematic pursuit of moral enlightenment, influencing later Confucian education and governance.[93][94]Taoism
In Taoist philosophy, righteousness (yi) is viewed not as a primary moral imperative but as a secondary virtue that emerges when alignment with the Tao—the natural way of the universe—is disrupted, emphasizing spontaneous harmony over deliberate ethical enforcement. This perspective critiques artificial constructs of morality, positioning righteousness as a symptom of societal decline rather than an ideal to be actively pursued. Central to this outlook is the principle of wu wei (effortless action), which allows righteousness to manifest naturally through intuitive adaptation to the flow of existence, without rigid adherence to rules.[95] The Tao Te Ching, attributed to Laozi, encapsulates this critique in Chapter 18, stating, "When the Great Way is abandoned, benevolence and righteousness come into being," portraying righteousness as an inadequate substitute for the innate order of the Tao. Here, Laozi argues that true virtue arises effortlessly from living in accord with nature, rendering imposed notions of righteousness superfluous and even hypocritical in a harmonious world. This foundational text thus subordinates yi to the broader cosmic process, warning that overemphasis on it fosters pretense and division.[96] In the Zhuangzi, righteousness further evolves into a model of spontaneous efficacy, illustrated through parables like that of Butcher Ding, who dissects an ox with unparalleled skill by following the animal's natural contours (li), achieving "effortless rightness" without intellectual strain or moral deliberation. This narrative highlights how mastery aligned with the Dao transcends fixed ethical standards, embodying wu wei as adaptive, flow-like action that accomplishes what righteousness intends—harmony and preservation—purely through attuned responsiveness. Unlike prescriptive virtues, such spontaneity evaluates fittingness by contextual success rather than universal norms.[97][98] In later religious Taoism, righteousness integrates with esoteric practices, where moral purity is cultivated through alchemy and longevity techniques to restore alignment with the Tao. External alchemy (waidan) involves ritual purification using elixirs from minerals to extend life and refine the spirit, while internal alchemy (neidan) refines essence (jing), breath (qi), and spirit (shen) to generate an immortal embryo, implying ethical harmony as a byproduct of existential transformation. Traditions like Tianshi dao link moral faults to physical ailments, prescribing confession and repentance alongside these methods to achieve purity and longevity, thus framing righteousness as an outcome of holistic self-cultivation rather than isolated duty. This contrasts with Confucianism's structured emphasis on yi as social propriety, prioritizing instead the Dao's immanent, non-dual flow.[99]In Iranian Traditions
Zoroastrianism
In Zoroastrianism, righteousness is centrally embodied in the concept of asha, a divine Amesha Spenta that represents truth, cosmic order, and moral rectitude as integral aspects of Ahura Mazda's creation. As the "Best Truth" or "Highest Righteousness," asha governs the ethical and natural harmony of the universe, guiding human actions toward perfection and justice.[100] This principle is vividly articulated in the Gathas, Zarathustra's hymns comprising Yasna 28-34, where asha is invoked as the path to divine favor and the antithesis of chaos.[100] Opposed to asha stands druj, the force of falsehood, deception, and disorder, forming the core of Zoroastrian ethical dualism between good and evil. Individuals are called to actively choose asha through righteous living, as this alignment counters druj and contributes to the ultimate restoration of the world; Zarathustra emphasizes this choice in the Gathas, portraying druj as leading to self-destruction while asha promises renewal and reward.[100][101] The practical expression of righteousness manifests in the foundational triad of humata (good thoughts), hukhta (good words), and hvarshta (good deeds), which encapsulate the moral imperative to align one's inner and outer life with Ahura Mazda's will. This ethical framework underscores free will in the cosmic struggle, where righteous conduct—rooted in truth and beneficence—strengthens the divine order and ensures spiritual progress, as detailed in the Gathas (e.g., Yasna 30.3).[101] Fravashi, understood as pre-existent guardian spirits or divine essences of all creation, assist individuals in righteous decision-making by offering protection, inspiration, and guidance against evil forces throughout life. These spirits, emanations of Ahura Mazda, encourage adherence to asha and moral integrity, existing ideally in the heavenly realm even before birth.[102] In Zoroastrian eschatology, the fravashi collectively participate in the final renovation (frashokereti), battling alongside the forces of good to triumph over evil, purify the world, and resurrect all souls in a state of eternal righteousness.[102] Daily Zoroastrian practices reinforce this pursuit of righteousness through structured prayers seeking asha's moral direction, recited during the five daily periods (gahs) to foster reflection on ethical values like honesty, justice, and order. Fire (atar), revered as the visible embodiment of divine purity and asha, symbolizes the inner spiritual flame of righteousness; it is maintained in homes and temples using clean fuels, serving as a focal point for prayers that invoke ethical clarity and communal harmony.[103]Influences on Other Faiths
Scholars propose that the concept of asha, representing divine order, truth, and righteousness in Zoroastrianism, exerted significant influence on Jewish thought during the Babylonian exile in the 6th century BCE, when Persian rule exposed exilic communities to Zoroastrian cosmology, though the extent of direct influence remains debated. This interaction is suggested to have shaped post-exilic prophetic literature, particularly in the Book of Daniel, where ideas of cosmic justice and divine judgment mirror Zoroastrian notions of moral accountability and the ultimate triumph of order over chaos.[104][105] These Zoroastrian elements are believed to have transmitted to Christianity through Jewish intermediaries, influencing apocalyptic visions in the New Testament, such as the Book of Revelation, though scholarly consensus on the degree of influence varies. The Revelation's depiction of a final renovation of the world, with righteousness prevailing in an eschatological battle, echoes Zoroastrian frashokereti, the cosmic renewal where good overcomes evil.[106] Similarly, Persian cultural exchanges during the Sasanian era are thought to have contributed to Islamic eschatology, incorporating Zoroastrian dualistic frameworks of ethical struggle and post-mortem judgment into doctrines of the afterlife and divine reckoning, subject to interpretive debates.[107][108] In the syncretic religion of Manichaeism, founded in the 3rd century CE by the prophet Mani, Zoroastrian asha found a parallel in the cosmic moral struggle between particles of divine light—trapped in matter and seeking liberation—and enveloping darkness, representing evil and disorder. This dualistic ethic, drawn directly from Zoroastrian sources, framed human righteousness as active participation in freeing light through ascetic practices and ethical choices.[109][110] Zoroastrianism's broader legacy in Abrahamic eschatology includes the enduring motifs of a final judgment, where individual deeds are weighed for eternal reward or punishment, and ethical dualism positing an ongoing cosmic conflict resolvable by righteousness. These ideas, adapted across Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, underscore a shared emphasis on moral order prevailing at history's end, as proposed in various scholarly analyses.[108][111]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/w%C4%ABsaz