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James Tissot, The Beatitudes Sermon, c. 1890, Brooklyn Museum

The Beatitudes (/biˈætɪtjudz/) are blessings recounted by Jesus in Matthew 5:3–10 within the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew, and four in the Sermon on the Plain in the Gospel of Luke, followed by four woes which mirror the blessings.[1][2]

In the Latin Vulgate, each of these blessings begins with the word beātī, which translates to 'blessed' (plural adjective). The corresponding word in the original Greek is μακάριοι (makarioi), with the same meaning.[a][4] Thus "Blessed are the poor in spirit" appears in Latin as beātī pauperēs spīritū.[5] The Latin noun beātitūdō was coined by Cicero to describe a state of blessedness and was later incorporated within the chapter headings written for Matthew 5 in various printed versions of the Vulgate.[6] Subsequently, the word was anglicized to beatytudes in the Great Bible of 1540,[7] and has, over time, taken on a preferred spelling of beatitudes.

While some opinions can differ as to exactly how many distinct statements into which the Beatitudes should be divided (ranging from eight to ten), most scholars consider them to be only eight.[8][9] These eight of Matthew follow a simple pattern: Jesus names a group of people normally thought to be unfortunate and pronounces them blessed.[1]

Matthew 5:3–12

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Plaque of the Eight beatitudes, St. Cajetan Church, Lindavista, Mexico
Text of the Beatitudes at Our Lady of Peace Shrine, along I-80 in Pine Bluffs, Wyoming (2016)

The nine Beatitudes in Matthew:[8][9][10]

3Blessed are the poor in spirit,
for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven.
4Blessed are those who mourn,
for they will be comforted.
5Blessed are the meek,
for they will inherit the Earth.
6Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness,
for they will be satisfied.
7Blessed are the merciful,
for they will be shown mercy.
8Blessed are the pure in heart,
for they will see God.
9Blessed are the peacemakers,
for they will be called the Sons of God.
10Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness,
for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven.
11Blessed are you when people insult you, persecute you and falsely say all kinds of evil against you because of Me.
12Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you...

The ninth beatitude (Matthew 5:11–12) refers to the bearing of reviling and is addressed to the disciples.[11][page needed][12] R.T. France considers verses 11 and 12 to be based on Isaiah 51:7.[13]

The Beatitudes unique to Matthew are the meek, the merciful, the pure of heart, and the peacemakers, while the other four have similar entries in Luke, but are followed almost immediately by "four woes".[14] The term "poor in spirit" is unique to Matthew. While thematically similar, the introduction of the phrase "Poor in spirit" spiritualizes or ethicizes the poor in their predicament (in alignment with Isaiah 61),[15] while the Lucan version focuses on their actual hardship, poverty, marginalization and rejection of the poor who will see eventual vindication.

Luke

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The Eight Beatitudes. Folio from Walters manuscript W.171 (15th century)

The four Beatitudes in Luke 6:20–22 are set within the Sermon on the Plain.

20Looking at his disciples, he said:

"Blessed are you who are poor,
for yours is the kingdom of God.
21Blessed are you who hunger now,
for you will be satisfied.
Blessed are you who weep now,
for you will laugh.
22Blessed are you when people hate you,
when they exclude you and insult you
and reject your name as evil,
because of the Son of Man.

Luke 6:23 ("Rejoice in that day and leap for joy, because great is your reward in heaven. For that is how their ancestors treated the prophets.") appears to parallel the text in Matthew 5:11–12.

The four woes that follow in Luke 6:24–26[16][8]

24"But woe to you who are rich,
for you have already received your comfort.
25Woe to you who are well fed now,
for you will go hungry.
Woe to you who laugh now,
for you will mourn and weep.
26Woe to you when everyone speaks well of you,
for that is how their ancestors treated the false prophets.

These woes are distinct from the Seven Woes of the Pharisees which appear later in Luke 11:37–54.

Analysis and interpretation

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Church of the Beatitudes, the traditional location for the Sermon on the Mount

Each Beatitude consists of two phrases: the condition and the result. In almost all cases the phrases used are familiar from an Old Testament context, but in the Sermon on the Mount Jesus elevates them to new levels and teachings. Together, the Beatitudes present a new set of ideals that focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction. They echo the highest ideals of Jesus' teachings on spirituality and compassion.[14]

The term the meek would be familiar in the Old Testament, e.g., as in Psalm 37:11.[17] Although the Beatitude concerning the meek has been much praised even by some non-Christians such as Mahatma Gandhi, some view the admonition to meekness skeptically. Friedrich Nietzsche in On the Genealogy of Morals considered the verse to be embodying what he perceived as a slave morality.[18]

In Christian teachings, the works of mercy (good acts that are considered meritorious) have resonated with the theme of the Beatitude for mercy.[19] These teachings emphasize that these acts of mercy provide both temporal and spiritual benefits.[1][9]

The term peacemakers has traditionally been interpreted to mean not only those who live in peace with others, but also those who do their best to promote friendship among humanity and between God and man. St. Gregory of Nyssa interpreted it as "Godly work", which was an imitation of God's love of man.[9][19] John Wesley said the peacemakers "endeavour to calm the stormy spirits of men, to quiet their turbulent passions, to soften the minds of contending parties, and, if possible, reconcile them to each other. They use all innocent arts, and employ all their strength, all the talents which God has given them, as well to preserve peace where it is, as to restore it where it is not."[20]

The phrase "poor in spirit" (πτωχοὶ τῷ πνεύματι) in Matthew 5:3 has been subject to a variety of interpretations. A.W. Tozer describes poverty of spirit as "an inward state paralleling the outward circumstances of the common beggar in the streets." It is not a call to material poverty, but spiritual need. The idea being that when one realizes how much they need God, he will satisfy their need by giving them himself. Conversely, if someone does not really believe they need God, he will not reveal himself to them.

These blessed poor are no longer slaves to the tyranny of things. They have broken the yoke of the oppressor; and this they have done not by fighting but by surrendering. Though free from all sense of possessing, they yet possess all things. "Theirs is the kingdom of heaven."

— A. W. Tozer, The Pursuit of God, The Blessedness of Possessing Nothing, page 23

William Burnet Wright, seeking to avoid a common misunderstanding of the meaning of poverty of spirit, distinguishes those who are "poor in spirit" from those he calls "poor spirited," who "consider crawling the Christian's proper gait."

There are men who fear to call their souls their own, and if they did, they would deceive—themselves. At times such men baptize their cowardice in holy water, name it humility, and tremble. ...They are not blessed. Their life is a creeping paralysis. Afraid to stand for their convictions, they end by having no convictions to stand to.[21]

In other religious texts

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Also in the New Testament, the Epistle of James contains a verse which is worded in much the same way as the Beatitudes; and which shares themes particularly with Matthew 5:10,12:

Blessed is the one who perseveres under trial because, having stood the test, that person will receive the crown of life that the Lord has promised to those who love Him. (James 1:12)[22]

In the Book of Mormon, a religious text of the Latter Day Saint movement, Jesus delivers a sermon to a group of people in the Americas shortly after His death and resurrection. This event, believed by adherents to be part of Christ's visit to the Americas around the year 34, is recorded in 3 Nephi 12, where Jesus teaches a version of the Beatitudes similar to that found in Matthew 5.

3 Yea, blessed are the poor in spirit who come unto me, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 4 And blessed are all they that mourn, for they shall be comforted. 5 And blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. 6 And blessed are all they who do hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled with the Holy Ghost. 7 And blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. 8 And blessed are all the pure in heart, for they shall see God. 9 And blessed are all the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God. 10 And blessed are all they who are persecuted for my name's sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

Though the teachings in 3 Nephi 12 closely mirror the Beatitudes in Matthew, the Book of Mormon version emphasizes the importance of baptism and receiving the Holy Ghost, which is seen as central to the blessings. Additionally, in 3 Nephi 12:48, Jesus invites the people to be perfect, "even as I, or your Father who is in heaven is perfect,"[23] expanding the call to divine perfection to include Himself, thus highlighting His divinity in the post-resurrection context of the Americas.

The Baháʼí Lawḥ-i-Aqdas tablet concludes with 21 beatitudes, including this statement:

Blessed the soul that hath been raised to life through My quickening breath and hath gained admittance into My heavenly Kingdom.[24]

The Qur'an mirrors the Bible only in Q:21:105 which resembles Psalm 25:13 referred to in Matthew 5:5; but the Qur'an uses "righteous" rather than "meek".[25] The Qur'an (e.g., "say the word of humility and enter the gate of paradise") and some Hadith (e.g., "My mercy exceeds my anger") contain some passages with somewhat similar tone, but distinct phraseology, from the Beatitudes.[26]

The Bhagavad Gita and the traditional writings of Buddhism (e.g., some of the Mangala Sutta) have been interpreted as including teachings whose intentions resemble some of the messages of Beatitudes (e.g., humility and absence of ego), although their wording is not the same.[26][27]

Six "modern Beatitudes" were proposed by Pope Francis during his visit to Malmö, Sweden on All Saints Day 2016:[28][29]

  1. Blessed are those who remain faithful while enduring evils inflicted on them by others and forgive them from their heart.
  2. Blessed are those who look into the eyes of the abandoned and marginalized and show them their closeness.
  3. Blessed are those who see God in every person and strive to make others also discover Him.
  4. Blessed are those who protect and care for our common home.
  5. Blessed are those who renounce their own comfort in order to help others.
  6. Blessed are those who pray and work for full communion between Christians.

Bibliography

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See also

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Notes

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References

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Beatitudes

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The Beatitudes are a set of eight declarations of blessing delivered by Jesus Christ as the introduction to his , recorded in the Gospel of :3–12. These pronouncements describe spiritual conditions and virtues—such as being poor in spirit, meek, merciful, and pure in heart—that characterize participants in the Kingdom of Heaven, with corresponding eschatological rewards like inheriting the earth, receiving mercy, and seeing God. Unlike conventional wisdom that equates blessing with material prosperity or power, the Beatitudes invert worldly hierarchies by affirming divine favor upon the marginalized and humble who align with God's priorities. Delivered to disciples amid crowds on a Galilean hillside, the teachings draw on precedents, echoing and prophetic oracles that promise vindication for the righteous afflicted. They establish the ethical framework for Jesus' broader discourse on righteousness surpassing that of the , emphasizing internal transformation over external observance. Central to Christian , the Beatitudes have shaped moral theology, inspiring interpretations from early to modern ethicists as a blueprint for discipleship and social inversion in anticipation of divine justice. While parallel forms appear in Luke 6:20–23 with a focus on socioeconomic woes, Matthew's version underscores spiritual dispositions, highlighting textual variations that scholars attribute to thematic emphases in distinct traditions.

Biblical Accounts

Gospel of Matthew (5:3–12)

The Beatitudes in the form the opening of the in chapter 5, verses 3–12, where delivers teachings to his disciples amid crowds after ascending a and sitting as a rabbinic master. This passage records eight primary declarations of blessing in verses 3–10, followed by an expansion in verses 11–12 applying the final beatitude directly to the audience with an exhortation to rejoice amid . Each beatitude employs the Greek term makarioi (μακάριοι), signifying those supremely fortunate or favored by , distinct from mere by implying a state of divine commendation and future fulfillment.
“ the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of .
“ those who mourn, for they shall be comforted.
“ the meek, for they shall .
“ those who hunger and thirst for , for they shall be satisfied.
“ the merciful, for they shall receive .
“ the pure in heart, for they shall see .
“ the peacemakers, for they shall be called .
“ those who are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of .
“Blessed are you when others revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in , for so they persecuted the prophets who were before you.”
The structure exhibits parallelism, with the first and eighth beatitudes framing the series through the shared promise of "the kingdom of heaven," suggesting an inclusio that emphasizes entry into God's reign for the spiritually destitute and the righteous sufferers. Scholars identify at least seven to nine beatitudes, often grouping the first four as internal dispositions (poverty of spirit, mourning, meekness, pursuit of righteousness) and the latter as outward expressions (mercy, purity, peacemaking, endurance of persecution), reflecting holistic kingdom character traits taught primarily to disciples as models for proclamation. Exegetes interpret the qualities as countercultural virtues inverting worldly power dynamics: "poor in spirit" denotes recognition of spiritual bankruptcy reliant on God's grace rather than self-sufficiency; "meek" conveys disciplined restraint under God's authority, echoing Psalm 37:11; "hunger and thirst for righteousness" signals intense desire for covenant fidelity and justice; and persecution clauses link followers to prophetic tradition, promising heavenly reward. Promises such as seeing God or inheriting the earth point to eschatological reversal, where present humility yields eternal possession. The direct address in verse 11 underscores application to hearers facing opposition "on my account," aligning with Matthew's portrayal of discipleship amid hostility.

Gospel of Luke (6:20–23)

In the Gospel of Luke, the Beatitudes form the opening of the Sermon on the Plain, delivered by Jesus to his disciples on a level place after descending from the hillside where he selected the twelve apostles, with a crowd gathered below (Luke 6:12–19). This discourse parallels the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7 but is more concise, comprising ethical teachings on discipleship amid opposition. The Lukan Beatitudes, spanning verses 20–23, consist of four declarations of blessing pronounced in the second person directly to the disciples, emphasizing present hardships and future reversal in God's kingdom. The passage reads as follows (English Standard Version):
"And he lifted up his eyes on his disciples, and said: 'Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. Blessed are you who are hungry now, for you shall be satisfied. Blessed are you who weep now, for you shall laugh. Blessed are you when people hate you and when they exclude you and revile you and spurn your name as evil, on account of the Son of Man! Rejoice in that day, and leap for joy, for behold, your reward is great in heaven; for so their fathers did to the prophets.'" Luke's formulation differs markedly from Matthew's in structure, wording, and emphasis. Matthew presents eight or nine beatitudes in the third person ("theirs is the kingdom of heaven"), often interpreted spiritually (e.g., "poor in spirit" rather than simply "poor"), while Luke employs four in the second person ("you who are poor"), suggesting a more immediate address to ' immediate followers facing material deprivation. The Lukan poor denote economic poverty, aligning with the Gospel's recurring theme of divine reversal favoring the socio-economically marginalized, as seen in Mary's (:52–53) and ' manifesto (Luke 4:18). Hunger refers to physical need rather than a metaphorical for righteousness, and weeping evokes literal sorrow with a promise of eschatological joy. The fourth beatitude links to explicitly "on account of ," urging joyful endurance by comparing the disciples' fate to that of the prophets, whose rejection anticipates heavenly reward. Scholars note that Luke's version may preserve an earlier, more primitive form of , with its concrete imagery reflecting first-century Palestinian realities of and Roman , though redactional shaping by Luke emphasizes themes of and prophetic continuity. The absence in Luke of beatitudes on , , purity of heart, and —present in Matthew—narrows the focus to conditions of hardship shared by ' audience, potentially underscoring communal solidarity over individual virtues. This directness has prompted interpretations viewing the blessings as assurances for the economically vulnerable rather than generalized spiritual states, though some argue the "poor" still carries connotations of pious dependence on God, echoing motifs.

Jewish Antecedents

Old Testament Parallels

The Beatitudes draw on the ancient Hebrew literary form known as the makarism, a declarative blessing stating that certain individuals are "blessed" (makarios in Greek, translating Hebrew 'ashre) due to their virtues, afflictions, or faithfulness, often paired with eschatological promises. This structure permeates wisdom and poetic literature, appearing over two dozen times in the alone, such as Psalm 1:1 ("Blessed is the man who walks not in the counsel of the wicked, nor stands in the way of sinners"), :1-2 (blessing of sins), and :8 ("Blessed is the man who takes refuge in him"). Prophetic texts also employ similar forms, as in 32:17 ("And the effect of righteousness will be peace, and the result of righteousness, quietness and trust forever"), emphasizing rewards for the godly amid adversity. Specific thematic echoes abound. The Matthean beatitude "Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth" (Matthew 5:5) directly alludes to Psalm 37:11, "But the meek shall inherit the land and delight themselves in abundant peace," where 'anawim (meek or afflicted) denotes the pious who trust Yahweh despite oppression, anticipating divine reversal of fortunes. Likewise, "Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be satisfied" (Matthew 5:6) parallels Psalm 107:9, "For he satisfies the longing soul, and the hungry soul he fills with good things," portraying Yahweh as provider for the spiritually needy in covenantal terms. The purity motif in "Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God" (Matthew 5:8) resonates with Psalm 24:3-4, which conditions ascent to Yahweh's presence on "clean hands and a pure heart," linking moral integrity to divine encounter. Isaiah 61:1-3 provides a clustered prophetic , a figure to "bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives... to comfort all who mourn; to give them a beautiful headdress instead of ashes," mirroring the Lukan emphases on the poor (:20; cf. 61:1's "good news to the poor") and mourners (:21; cf. 61:2's comfort). This passage, which applies to himself in Luke 4:18-21, underscores eschatological restoration for the marginalized, framing the Beatitudes as fulfillment rather than innovation. themes evoke 6:6 ("For I desire and not sacrifice"), prioritizing compassionate fidelity over ritual, though less directly tied to beatitude form. These antecedents situate the Beatitudes within Israel's covenantal , where attends the humble remnant awaiting Yahweh's vindication, without implying verbatim quotation but evident intertextual dependence.

Dead Sea Scrolls and Intertestamental Examples

The Dead Sea Scrolls include 4Q525, a Hebrew wisdom text discovered in Qumran Cave 4 and paleographically dated to the late Hasmonean or early Herodian period, approximately 100–50 BCE. This fragmentary composition, edited and published by scholars including John Strugnell and Émile Puech, features a series of ashre (blessed) declarations praising virtues such as wisdom, Torah observance, fear of God, and moral purity. Key examples include: "[Blessed is the m]an who attains wisdom and instructs [his] heart in it"; "Blessed is he who seeks her [wisdom's] laws"; and blessings on those who are humble, pure of heart, and steadfast in righteousness. The text's structure—a cluster of short beatitudes followed by longer exhortations—mirrors the poetic form evident in the New Testament accounts, indicating a shared Jewish literary convention for extolling ethical and pious conduct. Thematic overlaps with the Gospel Beatitudes exist, such as rewards for the "pure in heart" (cf. Matthew 5:8) and the humble or meek, but 4Q525 emphasizes sapiential attainment and covenant fidelity over eschatological reversal or kingdom inheritance. For instance, it links blessedness to walking "in the law of the Most High" and restraining oneself by wisdom's disciplines, reflecting 's sectarian focus on Torah-centered piety amid apocalyptic expectations. Scholarly assessments, including those by George Brooke, view these as congruent with broader wisdom traditions rather than a direct source for ' teachings, given the texts' independent emphases: 4Q525's present-oriented ethical rewards versus the Gospels' future-oriented messianic promises. No verbatim parallels appear, and sensational claims of dependency have been tempered by recognition of the genre's antiquity in Hebrew poetry, predating in isolated makarisms. Intertestamental literature from the Second Temple era, spanning apocryphal and pseudepigraphal works, exhibits scattered beatitude forms that reinforce this tradition's prevalence without compiling extended lists like 4Q525. In the Wisdom of (ca. 180 BCE), blessings praise the prudent, righteous, and God-fearing, such as "Blessed is the husband of a sensible wife" (Sirach 25:8) and commendations of those delighting in the law (Sirach 15:1–2, 14–15), aligning with 's role in averting misfortune. Similarly, 1 Enoch's (104:12–13) blesses the wise and for their , echoing apocalyptic for the pious amid , though framed in visionary rather than sermonic contexts. These examples illustrate beatitudes as a for moral instruction in , distinct from the Gospels' innovative synthesis of , , and with kingdom , but rooted in a causal framework where yields divine favor.

Textual and Source Analysis

Synoptic Variations

The Beatitudes exhibit significant variations between the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, stemming from distinct editorial emphases while preserving overlapping core sayings likely derived from a shared oral or written . Matthew's account in 5:3–12, part of the delivered "on a mountain" to disciples and multitudes (:1), comprises eight beatitudes (with a ninth expanding on ), phrased in the third person plural to describe general spiritual virtues such as of spirit, , , purity of heart, and , with promises including inheriting the earth and seeing . Luke's parallel in 6:20–23, embedded in the on "a level place" after descending a hill (:17), limits the beatitudes to four, addressed in the second person plural directly to disciples amid crowds, stressing socioeconomic hardships like , , weeping, and exclusion for the of Man's sake, followed by four antithetical woes against , fullness, , and acclaim (:24–26). Direct parallels exist in three beatitudes, though rephrased: the poor (Matthew spiritualizes as "poor in spirit" inheriting the kingdom of ; Luke literalizes as "you who are poor" receiving the kingdom of ); hunger/mourning (Matthew links to thirsting for and comfort; Luke to present hunger and weeping yielding satisfaction and ); and persecution (both promise heavenly reward for reviling, but Matthew ties to "righteousness' sake" and prophetic , while Luke specifies hatred "on account of the "). Matthew's expansions emphasize internal character traits conducive to eschatological fulfillment, aligning with the sermon's broader ethical demands, whereas Luke's condense to external conditions of reversal, underscoring divine inversion of earthly status.
Parallel ThemeMatthew (ESV)Luke (ESV)
The Poor"Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." (5:3)"Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God." (6:20)
Hunger/Mourning"Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted." (5:4); "Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be satisfied." (5:6)"Blessed are you who are hungry now, for you shall be satisfied. Blessed are you who weep now, for you shall laugh." (6:21)
Persecution"Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are you when others revile you and persecute you..." (5:10–11)"Blessed are you when people hate you... and spurn your name as evil, on account of the Son of Man! Rejoice... for your reward is great in heaven..." (6:22–23)
These divergences extend to terminology—Matthew consistently employs "kingdom of heaven" to avoid direct naming of , per Jewish convention, while Luke uses "kingdom of God"—and audience orientation, with Matthew evoking law-giving on a and Luke portraying accessible on flat ground. Scholars attribute Matthew's fuller, virtue-oriented list to for a community valuing fulfillment, and Luke's streamlined, woe-balanced form to highlighting social and inclusivity, without implying verbatim contradiction but rather complementary adaptations of ' teaching.

Hypotheses on Origins and Redaction

Scholars employing source criticism posit that the Beatitudes in Matthew 5:3–12 and Luke 6:20–23 derive primarily from a shared hypothetical document known as Q, a collection of Jesus' sayings presumed to predate the Gospels and used independently by both evangelists. This two-source theory, dominant in New Testament studies, explains the verbal agreements and thematic overlaps—such as blessings on the poor, mourners, and meek—while accounting for divergences absent in Mark, which lacks any Sermon on the Mount or Plain. Q's material is viewed as a proto-gospel of logia (sayings), likely circulating orally or in written Aramaic form among early Jesus followers circa 30–50 CE, before Greek redaction. Redaction criticism highlights how Matthew and Luke adapted this Q core for their theological agendas. Matthew expands the list to eight or nine beatitudes (depending on whether 5:11–12 counts separately), introducing phrases like "poor in spirit" and "kingdom of heaven" to align with Jewish covenantal themes and his community's emphasis on righteousness, possibly drawing from special Matthean tradition (M). Luke, conversely, condenses to four beatitudes in second-person address, retaining more socioeconomic literalism ("poor," "hungry now") and appending four woes (6:24–26), reflecting a proto-Lukan source (L) or redaction for a Gentile audience focused on reversal of fortunes. These modifications suggest post-70 CE composition, with Matthew (ca. 80–90 CE) meshing Q with Old Testament allusions (e.g., Psalm 37:11 for the meek inheriting the land) and Luke (ca. 80–85 CE) emphasizing eschatological vindication. Further structural analysis of Matthew's Beatitudes reveals deliberate numerical patterns and symmetry. Mark Allan Powell proposes dividing the core eight blessings into two groups of four: verses 3–6 addressing the disadvantaged (poor in spirit, mourners, meek, those hungering for righteousness) facing spiritual and existential challenges, and verses 7–10 blessing those actively embodying virtues (merciful, pure in heart, peacemakers, persecuted for righteousness). This organization forms a chiasmus, framed by "theirs is the kingdom of heaven" in verses 3 and 10, with parallelism in descriptions across groups. Examination of the Greek text indicates potential word count symmetry between the groups, underscoring intentional literary design. Theologically, the first group emphasizes reversal for the oppressed upon the kingdom's advent, while the second highlights rewards for righteousness, connecting passive sufferers and active advocates through identification with God's purposes. Origins hypotheses trace the Beatitudes' form—stylized "blessed are..." proclamations—to Jewish antecedents, including makarisms (beatitude formulas) in (e.g., Psalm 1:1) and prophetic oracles like 61:1–2 announcing good news to the poor. Intertestamental texts, such as 4QBeatitudes from the Dead Sea Scrolls (ca. 50 BCE), feature similar eschatological blessings on the pious poor, indicating a Jewish genre of wisdom-apocalyptic sayings that or early tradents could have adapted. While some reconstruct an original closer to Luke's version as potentially authentic to ' proclamation, others argue the stylized structure evinces communal relecture from prophetic speech into a fixed by 50 CE. Challenges to the hypothesis persist, with critics arguing it lacks direct manuscript evidence and over-relies on synoptic alignments, proposing instead Luke's dependence on Matthew or multiple oral traditions. Nonetheless, the Q model's explanatory power for non-Markan agreements, including the Beatitudes' shared motifs like blessings, remains the consensus in peer-reviewed source studies, though redactional layers obscure precise .

Historical Setting

Context in Jesus' Ministry

The Beatitudes form the opening of the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew, positioned early in Jesus' Galilean ministry following his baptism by John the Baptist around AD 28, temptation in the wilderness, and relocation to Capernaum after John's imprisonment by Herod Antipas. Matthew 4:12-25 describes Jesus' initial preaching of the kingdom of heaven throughout Galilee, the calling of the first disciples including fishermen Simon Peter, Andrew, James, and John, and the gathering of large crowds from Galilee, the Decapolis, Jerusalem, Judea, and beyond the Jordan before ascending the mountain to teach. This sequence places the delivery shortly after these foundational events, likely within the first year of his public ministry spanning approximately AD 28-30. The setting was a hillside or low mountain (Greek oros) overlooking the , near Capernaum, which served as ' operational base during this phase. In first-century , a predominantly Jewish region under the tetrarchy of (r. 4 BC–AD 39) and indirect Roman procuratorial oversight, the area featured fishing villages, agricultural communities, and synagogues where taught. Economic life centered on , farming, and , with social structures emphasizing , patronage, and honor-shame dynamics prevalent in Mediterranean societies. Jesus addressed primarily his disciples, who came to him on the mountain, though crowds followed and heard the teachings, as noted in both Matthew 5:1 and the parallel Lukan (Luke 6:17-20), where multitudes from , , and the coast of Tyre and sought healing. This context reflects ' emerging reputation as a healer and amid heightened messianic expectations in a region ripe for prophetic fulfillment, contrasting with Pharisaic interpretations of observance. Scholarly analysis views the sermon as encapsulating core kingdom ethics, potentially drawing from oral traditions rather than a verbatim single , though the Gospels present it as a cohesive inaugural address.

First-Century Apocalyptic Expectations

In first-century , apocalyptic expectations centered on the imminent arrival of God's kingdom, characterized by , the of the righteous, and a radical reversal of earthly fortunes, where the oppressed would be vindicated and the powerful humbled. These beliefs, widespread among groups like the , , and other sects, drew from prophetic traditions in texts such as Daniel and , envisioning a cataclysmic end to the present age under Roman domination, followed by messianic deliverance and the restoration of . The Beatitudes align with this framework by pronouncing blessings on the marginalized—such as the poor, mourning, and persecuted—as inheritors of the kingdom, comfort, and divine vision, implying eschatological exaltation rather than present amelioration. This motif of reversal echoes intertestamental literature, where the lowly are promised future dominion, as seen in promises of the "poor" (anawim) being lifted up in God's reign. Scholars interpret these declarations as proclamations of an impending divine order overturning social hierarchies, consistent with expectations of cosmic upheaval and reward for fidelity amid tribulation. Such expectations fueled messianic hopes and resistance sentiments, with figures like and various claimants invoking similar themes of judgment and renewal, though unfulfilled in the anticipated manner, leading to interpretive shifts in later Judaism and early Christianity. The emphasis on endurance yielding eternal reward underscores a causal link between present suffering and apocalyptic vindication, privileging the faithful remnant over temporal power structures.

Fundamental Themes

Definitions of Blessedness

The Greek term makarios, rendered as "blessed" in the Beatitudes of , denotes a profound , good fortune, or divine favor, distinct from fleeting emotional pleasure or material . This word, appearing 50 times in the , carries connotations of being congratulated or envied for one's enviable condition, often rooted in an inner and stability derived from alignment with God's purposes rather than external achievements. In classical Greek usage, makarios described gods or those in a blissful, self-sufficient state, but in biblical contexts, it emphasizes endowment and spiritual . The underlying Hebrew concept, ashre (or esher), from parallels like and Proverbs, similarly signifies "happy" or "well-off" in a grounded, ethical sense—those "on sure footing" through obedience to divine instruction, as in Psalm 1:1, where it promises for the one who avoids counsel and delights in God's . This happiness is objective and relational, tied to covenant fidelity and , not subjective sentiment; it implies enduring contentment amid trials, as the blessed person experiences God's commendation and future vindication. Within the Beatitudes, redefines blessedness as possession of the kingdom of heaven by those exhibiting countercultural virtues: spiritual poverty (recognizing dependence on ), mourning (over and injustice), (humbled strength), hunger for , merciful disposition, purity of heart, , and endurance of . These conditions promise present and eschatological rewards—comfort, inheritance of the earth, satisfaction, seeing , sonship, and great reward—highlighting a paradoxical blessedness that thrives in apparent weakness, inverting pagan or worldly metrics of success centered on power, wealth, or self-reliance. Theologically, this blessedness originates in 's initiative, marking the reversal of human fallenness through messianic fulfillment, where true felicity flows from rather than .

Conditions and Promises

The Beatitudes in :3-12 pair each declaration of blessedness with a distinct condition—typically a posture of , , or —and a corresponding promise of divine favor, often blending present possession with future fulfillment. The Greek term makarios, translated as "blessed," denotes a state of profound favor or under God's rule, distinct from mere contingent on circumstances. These structures emphasize grace received rather than merit earned, portraying the conditions as marks of those already aligned with the kingdom of heaven. The first condition, "poor in spirit," refers to recognition of spiritual bankruptcy and dependence on , promising immediate possession of the kingdom of heaven as an eschatological realm breaking into the present. "Those who mourn" grieve over and , assured of comfort through God's restorative action, echoing prophetic hopes of reversal for the afflicted. The "meek" exhibit controlled strength under God's authority rather than self-assertion, inheriting the renewed earth as fulfillment of :11. Subsequent conditions highlight active pursuit: those who "hunger and thirst for "—a zeal for God's covenant —will be satisfied in the messianic banquet-like provision. The "merciful" extend modeled on divine , receiving in ; "pure in heart" denotes undivided moral , granting unmediated vision of . "Peacemakers" actively reconcile amid conflict, earning recognition as God's children, a status implying and divine likeness. The final conditions address opposition: those "persecuted for righteousness' sake" and disciples reviled "because of me" share the kingdom and a great heavenly reward, paralleling the prophets' endurance and underscoring fidelity amid hostility as kingdom evidence. Exegetes observe that these promises invert first-century power dynamics, assuring reversal for the marginalized faithful while prioritizing ethical righteousness as kingdom entry's hallmark, not ritual or status. This pairing underscores causal realism: virtues rooted in God's character yield outcomes aligned with his rule, verifiable through scriptural precedents like Isaiah's comfort for mourners (Isaiah 61:2-3).

Historical Interpretations

Early Church and Patristic Readings

Early Church Fathers regarded the Beatitudes as a foundational ethical and spiritual framework, often interpreting them as an ascending ladder of virtues leading to divine union, with each beatitude building upon the previous to foster humility and detachment from worldly attachments. Origen of Alexandria (c. 185–254 AD), in his commentary on Matthew, emphasized the Beatitudes' call to interior righteousness, explaining "blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness" as a pursuit of God as the true source of virtue, beyond mere external observance of law. He linked meekness to the control of anger, viewing it as essential for inheriting the renewed earth promised in the eschatological sense. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD), in his treatise De Sermone Domini in Monte (c. 393–396 AD), provided one of the most systematic patristic exegeses, portraying the Beatitudes as countermeasures to the seven deadly vices outlined later in the . He defined the "poor in spirit" as those humbled by recognition of their spiritual poverty before God, initiating a progression from (countering ) to (countering ), with the rewards signifying both present graces and eternal kingdom inheritance. Augustine stressed that true blessedness arises not from temporal prosperity but from conformity to Christ's , warning against superficial readings that ignore the soul's submission to divine authority. Other patristic writers, such as Leo the Great (c. 400–461 AD), in Sermon 95 (delivered c. 443 AD), applied the Beatitudes to ecclesiastical life, assigning the kingdom of heaven to the spiritually humble rather than the materially destitute, underscoring as the criterion for heavenly reward over . (c. 347–420 AD) echoed this in his commentaries, interpreting poverty of spirit as detachment from self-reliance, enabling reliance on . These readings collectively emphasized moral transformation over literal , integrating the Beatitudes into ascetic practices and liturgical reflection, as evidenced in early Christian homilies that urged believers to embody them amid Roman persecution.

Medieval and Reformation Perspectives

In medieval theology, particularly within the scholastic tradition, the Beatitudes were interpreted as acts that perfect the moral and theological virtues, facilitated by the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologiae (I-II, q. 69), systematically linked each Beatitude to specific virtues and opposed vices, viewing them as steps toward spiritual perfection and ultimate beatitude in union with God. For instance, "Blessed are the poor in spirit" corresponds to humility countering pride, while "Blessed are the meek" aligns with temperance or patience against wrath. Aquinas argued that these acts, enabled by grace, represent the highest exercise of virtues leading to rewards in this life and the next, distinguishing them from mere evangelical counsels. This framework integrated patristic insights, such as those from Augustine and , into a comprehensive where the Beatitudes served as an and guide for contemplative ascent. Scholastic commentators, including Aquinas in his university sermons on :1-10, emphasized their role in the active and contemplative life, portraying the Beatitudes as dynamic principles for rather than static declarations. Such interpretations reinforced the medieval emphasis on meritorious works within a system, where fulfilling the Beatitudes contributed to justification and sanctity. During the , interpreters shifted focus toward the Beatitudes as descriptive of the Christian life regenerated by faith, rejecting merit-based readings. , in his Commentary on the (1530-1532), viewed the Beatitudes as portraying the humbled soul under grace, not achievable human efforts but fruits of justification that expose human incapacity apart from Christ. He interpreted them as impossible ideals akin to the law's function, driving believers to reliance on rather than self-perfection, as seen in his of "the meek inheriting the earth" as passive trust in God's provision following spiritual poverty. John Calvin, in his Sermons on the Beatitudes preached in the 1550s and compiled in his Harmony of the Gospels, treated them as exhortations to the faithful, commending virtues already implanted by the Spirit in those possessing the kingdom. Calvin exposited Matthew 5:1-12 alongside parallel passages, applying each Beatitude practically to believers' conduct while insisting the promises flow from union with Christ, not ascetic striving. This perspective underscored sola fide, portraying the Beatitudes as evidences of election and sanctification rather than ladders to divine favor, marking a causal break from scholastic syntheses by prioritizing imputed righteousness over infused virtues.

Contemporary Debates

Conservative and Evangelical Views

Conservative and evangelical scholars interpret the Beatitudes as a portrait of the transformed character of those who enter the kingdom of heaven through repentance and faith in Christ, emphasizing spiritual realities over material or social conditions. They view the blessings as both present realities for believers—manifested through the indwelling Holy Spirit—and eschatological promises fulfilled in the age to come, rather than calls for systemic societal reform. For instance, "poor in spirit" denotes a profound awareness of personal sinfulness and utter dependence on God's grace, not economic deprivation, marking the entry point into the kingdom for disciples regenerated by the gospel. This interpretation aligns with the Beatitudes' placement at the outset of the Sermon on the Mount, proclaiming the gospel's power to awaken kingdom attitudes amid worldly opposition. Evangelical commentators like John Piper stress that the Beatitudes invert conventional values by highlighting virtues born of divine initiative, such as mourning over sin leading to godly comfort, and as submissive trust in God's hand rather than passive weakness. , in his exposition, describes them as the "norms" of kingdom life, where , purity of heart, and flow from justification by , producing that witnesses to Christ's lordship without reliance on human effort. These traits are seen as evidences of grace in true believers, distinguishing them from mere ; for example, hungering for entails a desperate pursuit of Christ's , satisfied ultimately in him. Reformed evangelicals further affirm the Beatitudes as "marks of grace," inherent to heaven-born disciples who exhibit them progressively through sanctification. In contrast to progressive readings that prioritize , conservative views maintain that the Beatitudes critique self-sufficiency and call for personal holiness, with arising from fidelity to Christ's exclusive claims rather than political . This eschatological framework underscores their role in discipleship: believers are "blessed" now in their afflictions because the kingdom's power equips them for endurance, culminating in eternal reward. Such interpretations, drawn from scriptural , reject allegorizing the promises as immediate earthly utopias, instead grounding them in the and as the causal basis for transformed lives.

Social and Political Applications

The Beatitudes have informed social activism, particularly in non-violent resistance efforts. In the U.S. of the 1950s and 1960s, invoked their emphasis on meekness, peacemaking, and hunger for righteousness to advocate for racial justice without retaliation, as seen in his 1963 "" where he aligned Christian ethics with against unjust laws. King described the Beatitudes as a core motivator for the movement, framing persecution for righteousness as a pathway to moral victory, which sustained participants amid violence like the 1965 Selma marches. In , emerging in post-Vatican II around 1968, theologians such as interpreted "blessed are the poor" (Luke 6:20) as a divine endorsement of material and a call for systemic overthrow of oppressive structures, influencing base communities and political advocacy in countries like and during the 1970s-1980s. This view posits the Beatitudes as a "preferential ," prioritizing economic redistribution over spiritual humility. Critics, including Vatican documents like the 1984 Instruction on Certain Aspects of the "Theology of Liberation," contend this politicizes the text by conflating spiritual with socioeconomic class, neglecting the original Greek ptōchoi tō pneumati (poor in spirit) as denoting dependence on rather than Marxist-inspired class struggle. Conservative and evangelical interpreters resist direct political appropriations, viewing the Beatitudes as descriptive of kingdom ethics—character traits like and purity of heart that transform individuals inwardly, yielding secondary social benefits through voluntary charity rather than state coercion. For instance, figures like document tensions where white evangelicals prioritize cultural preservation over Beatitudinal , yet scholars such as those in emphasize personal repentance preceding societal reform, cautioning against using the text for partisan policies like wealth redistribution, which they argue inverts biblical incentives for (e.g., Proverbs 10:4). This approach aligns with causal realism: spiritual renewal, not political engineering, historically correlates with reduced , as evidenced by 19th-century revivals spurring that alleviated urban slums without government mandates. Contemporary debates highlight risks of selective application, where progressive readings amplify "blessed are the meek" for pacifism or equity mandates, while overlooking empirical failures of state-driven equality in regimes invoking similar rhetoric, such as Venezuela's post-1999 Bolivarian programs that exacerbated poverty despite "option for the poor" framing. Evangelical critiques, per Alberta's analysis, warn that fusing Beatitudes with nationalism or progressivism dilutes their eschatological focus—promises of eternal reward amid temporal reversal—potentially justifying coercion over conscience. Thus, applications succeed when grounded in voluntary communities, as in Dorothy Day's Catholic Worker houses (founded 1933), which embodied mercy through direct aid, avoiding the institutional biases that plague academia-influenced activism.

Criticisms and Challenges

Questions of Historicity

Scholars debate the extent to which the Beatitudes preserve verbatim sayings of the , who ministered in around 27–30 CE, versus later editorial shaping by early Christian communities. The core blessings appear in both the Gospel of Matthew (5:3–12, circa 80–90 CE) and :20–23, circa 80–85 CE), indicating multiple attestation through a hypothesized shared source known as Q, a collection of Jesus' sayings likely circulating orally by the 50s CE. This attestation supports the view that the Beatitudes derive from early tradition, as discrepancies between Matthew's expanded, spiritualized forms (e.g., "poor in spirit") and Luke's material emphases (e.g., "poor") suggest independent adaptations rather than direct copying, consistent with oral transmission in a pre-literate Jewish context where mnemonic structures like parallelism aided recall. Applying historical criteria such as dissimilarity and coherence bolsters claims of authenticity for key elements. The Beatitudes' reversal of worldly status—pronouncing divine favor on the marginalized amid apocalyptic expectation of God's kingdom—diverges from mainstream first-century Jewish wisdom literature, which often rewarded the righteous with prosperity (e.g., Proverbs), and from later church emphases on universal salvation, marking them as distinctive to Jesus' proclamation of imminent reversal for the oppressed. Aramaic reconstructions of phrases like "Blessed are the poor" align with Galilean dialect patterns, and parallels to Old Testament blessings (e.g., Isaiah 61:1) indicate Jesus drew from prophetic traditions but innovated eschatologically, promising inheritance of the earth to the meek (echoing Psalm 37:11) in a renewed creation. Conservative scholars, emphasizing the reliability of oral cultures and rapid apostolic testimony, argue this framework renders wholesale invention unlikely, as the sayings' countercultural edge would not have been fabricated to appeal to Greco-Roman audiences. Skeptical critiques, prevalent in historical-critical , question full , positing the Beatitudes as a Matthean or Lukan composition aggregating disparate logia into a cohesive for didactic purposes. Differences in wording and additional Matthean beatitudes (e.g., on peacemakers) suggest post-Jesus expansions reflecting , potentially influenced by Hellenistic beatitude forms in Stoic or Cynic traditions, though Palestinian Jewish roots predominate. The , a group of about 50–100 scholars in the 1980s–1990s, color-coded sayings by probability: rating Luke's versions of the poor, hungry, and persecuted as "red" (authentic) or "pink" (close to ) based on simplicity and context, but deeming others "gray" (possibly altered) or "black" (inauthentic), such as the fourth beatitude on hunger. This approach has faced criticism for subjective voting and underweighting positive evidence like the —early unlikely to invent blessings on amid narratives—while methodological presuppositions favoring naturalistic explanations may undervalue eyewitness chains documented in sources like 1 Corinthians 15 (circa 50 CE). Despite such debates, no contemporary non-Christian sources directly refute the tradition, and the sayings' embedding in Synoptic parallels underscores their antiquity over later Gospel inventions.

Ethical and Practical Critiques

Critics, particularly philosophers influenced by , have argued that the Beatitudes promote an ethic of weakness and resentment, inverting natural human values of strength, ambition, and self-assertion in favor of , , and . Nietzsche, in works such as , described this as "slave morality," originating from the weak's envy of the strong, where virtues like blessedness for the poor in spirit and the meek serve to undermine life's vitality by glorifying suffering and passivity over mastery and nobility. He identified the Beatitudes as the exemplary expression of this morality, blessing those marginalized by power structures while implicitly condemning the powerful as obstacles to true flourishing. This framework, Nietzsche contended, pathologizes healthy instincts like and , which are causally essential for human achievement and societal progress, replacing them with a ressentiment-driven ideal that equates moral worth with victimhood and restraint. Ethically, such a reversal risks fostering cultural , as evidenced by Nietzsche's observation that widespread adoption of these values correlates with declining vitality in civilizations prioritizing over excellence. Practically, the Beatitudes' promises—such as the meek inheriting the or the persecuted receiving reward—have been challenged as unrealistic when detached from their original apocalyptic , where reversal occurs only at the end of history. Scholarly analysis notes that without this , the teachings devolve into an unattainable and potentially harmful ethic, encouraging of without mechanisms for redress and ignoring empirical patterns where , not , secures resources and influence in competitive environments. The directive implicit in blessings like those for the merciful or peacemakers raises causal concerns: unconditional and non-retaliation, akin to in the broader Sermon, may enable aggressors by removing deterrents, perpetuating cycles of abuse rather than resolving them through proportionate response. Historical precedents, such as early Christian communities facing , illustrate how strict adherence led to through martyrdom rather than earthly , underscoring a tension between spiritual and pragmatic rooted in human evolutionary drives for reciprocity and defense. This critique holds that while the Beatitudes may cultivate inner resilience, their literal application overlooks how unchecked passivity causally disadvantages adherents in zero-sum conflicts, as power vacuums invite exploitation.

Enduring Influence

In Christian Doctrine and Practice

The Beatitudes constitute a core component of Christian moral doctrine, delineating the virtues and spiritual attitudes that characterize true discipleship and entry into the Kingdom of Heaven. In Catholic teaching, they fulfill the promises of the Old Testament by orienting believers toward eschatological beatitude, portraying Christ's charity and summoning the faithful to partake in divine life through humility, mercy, and purity of heart. The Catechism emphasizes their role in elevating human aspirations to heavenly glory, where beatitude involves participation in the Trinitarian joy and vision of God. Protestant theologians similarly view them as indicative of grace at work in the regenerate soul, manifesting traits like spiritual poverty and hunger for righteousness as evidence of kingdom citizenship rather than meritorious conditions for salvation. In Eastern Orthodox doctrine, they form a progressive ascent of virtues—a "ladder" from poverty in spirit to peacemaking—encapsulating the essence of deification and union with God. In ecclesiastical practice, the Beatitudes permeate , , and ethical formation. Eastern Orthodox services, particularly the in Byzantine and Slavic traditions, incorporate their chant immediately after the reading, reinforcing communal meditation on kingdom ethics during worship. Catholic lectionaries feature them prominently, as in the Gospel for the Fourth of (Year A), where they underscore authentic amid worldly reversal. Protestant assemblies often expound them in sermons and discipleship programs, applying principles like to vocational and relational spheres. Across traditions, they guide personal piety, with practices such as daily recitation fostering detachment from material pursuits and pursuit of justice, as evidenced in papal exhortations framing them as a blueprint for holiness in contemporary trials. Their doctrinal weight informs social ethics without conflating spiritual poverty with systemic advocacy; instead, they prioritize interior transformation yielding outward and , as articulated in Orthodox reflections on living commandments for peaceable lives. This enduring integration sustains their role in shaping believer conduct, from monastic to lay endurance of , affirming divine reversal of earthly hierarchies.

Broader Cultural Legacy

The Beatitudes have permeated Western art, inspiring visual representations across centuries. James Tissot's series The Life of Christ includes The Sermon of the Beatitudes (1886–1894), depicting addressing the crowd on the mount, emphasizing the teachings' communal impact. Medieval illuminations, such as Dirc van Delft's The Eight Beatitudes in a fifteenth-century , illustrate each symbolically, influencing iconographic traditions in Christian . In modern contexts, artists like Hyatt Moore created a nine-panel series in 2018 explicitly illustrating the Beatitudes, extending their motif into contemporary expression. In literature, the term "beatitude" derived from the Latin beatus in the biblical text has shaped nomenclature and themes. , originator of the "" label in 1948, explicitly connected "beat" to "beatific," drawing from the Beatitudes' connotation of spiritual blessedness amid cultural alienation, as articulated in his 1959 essay "The Origins of the Beat Generation." This linkage influenced mid-twentieth-century countercultural , portraying existential questing as a secular echo of biblical flourishing. Echoes appear in film, where motifs like mourning's comfort resonate in Pixar's Up (2009), aligning narrative arcs with "Blessed are those who mourn." Musically, the Beatitudes have inspired compositions blending sacred and profane elements. Arthur Bliss's The Beatitudes (1962), premiered at Coventry Cathedral's dedication, sets the text chorally as a of reconciliation. Gospel adaptations, such as Bernice Johnson Reagon's arrangement performed by (1987), infuse African American spiritual traditions with the blessings' themes of and . Secular reinterpretations extend to , with a 2021 study framing the Beatitudes as virtues aligned with character strengths like and , applying them to non-religious human flourishing frameworks.

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  94. https://puritanboard.com/threads/the-beatitudes-from-a-reformed-perspective.53182/
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  101. https://favs.news/the-beatitudes-a-dividing-point-among-christians/
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  103. https://www.christianitytoday.com/2025/01/unrecognized-great-awakening-civil-rights-mlk/
  104. https://ryanpost.com/2020/06/01/the-beatitudes-social-unrest-in-america/
  105. https://www.1517.org/articles/the-upsetting-reality-of-the-beatitudes
  106. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/searching.html
  107. https://www.christianitytoday.com/1986/12/current-religious-thought-voting-out-fourth-beatitude/
  108. https://open.library.okstate.edu/introphilosophy/chapter/slave-and-master-morality-by-nietzsche/
  109. https://bigthink.com/personal-growth/the-master-and-slave-moralities-what-nietzsche-really-meant/
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  112. https://www.academia.edu/8628231/Nietzsche_and_the_beatitude_of_Jesus_as_will_to_power
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  114. https://www.vatican.va/content/catechism/en/part_three/section_one/chapter_three/article_1/iii_the_new_law_or_the_law_of_the_gospel.html
  115. https://www.vatican.va/content/catechism/en/part_three/section_one/chapter_one/article_2/iii_christian_beatitude.html
  116. https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/spirituality/the-beatitudes
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  118. https://catholicproductions.com/blogs/mass-readings-explained-year-a/the-fourth-sunday-of-ordinary-time-year-a
  119. https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/apost_exhortations/documents/papa-francesco_esortazione-ap_20180319_gaudete-et-exsultate.html
  120. https://www.goarch.org/-/beatitudes-for-orthodox-christian-living
  121. https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/spirituality/the-beatitudes/the-beatitudes
  122. https://artvee.com/dl/the-sermon-of-the-beatitudes/
  123. https://www.hyattmoore.com/egallery/2018/01/26/the-beatitudes/
  124. https://lithub.com/allen-ginsbergs-definition-of-the-beat-generation/
  125. https://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/beatitudes-film-we%25E2%2580%2599ve-got-golden-ticket
  126. https://www.wisemusicclassical.com/work/7501/The-Beatitudes--Arthur-Bliss/
  127. https://artandtheology.org/2020/10/28/the-beatitudes-artful-devotion/
  128. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/12/11/1000
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