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Semen collection
Semen collection
Semen collection
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A breeding mount with built-in artificial vagina used to collect semen from horses for use in artificial insemination

Semen collection refers to the process of obtaining semen from human males or other animals with the use of various methods, for the purposes of artificial insemination, or medical study (usually in fertility clinics). Semen can be collected via masturbation[1] (e. g., from stallions[2] and canids[3]), prostate massage, artificial vagina, penile vibratory stimulation (vibroejaculation) and electroejaculation.[4] Semen can be collected from endangered species for cryopreservation of genetic resources.[5]

By species

[edit]

Humans

[edit]
Semen collection cup for fertility treatment

Methods of semen collection from humans include:

  • Masturbation, directing the sample into a clean cup.[6] This is the most common way to collect a semen sample.[6]
  • Sexual intercourse using a special type of condom known as a collection condom.[6] Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane, as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm. Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation, and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely. Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them.[7] However, such samples are inferior to the ones collected by masturbation in clean cup.[8]
  • Coitus interruptus (withdrawal). With this technique, the man removes his penis from the vagina near the end of intercourse and ejaculates into a wide-necked cup or bottle. If an analysis of semen quality is required, this technique is generally not recommended as part of the ejaculation could be lost which decreases the accuracy of the results.[6][8]
  • Surgical extraction, if for example a blockage in the vas deferens is suspected to impede fertility, semen can be taken directly from the epididymis. Such a collection is called percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA). Alternatively, the testicular tissue itself, instead of the sperm produced can be investigated. Then, the collecting method is called testicular sperm extraction (TESE).[9] A Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to recommend any specific surgical sperm retrieval technique for men with azoospermia undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).[10]
  • Penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) and electroejaculation are two other alternatives for men with anejaculation due to spinal cord injury.[11] The penile vibratory stimulator is a plier-like device that is placed around the glans penis to stimulate it by vibration, and provides the first-line method for sperm retrieval in spinal cord injury patients with anejaculation.[11]

The best specimen is produced when a short period of 3–5 days of abstinence is observed. A more prolonged period does not yield better results.[8]

Cattle

[edit]
Main article: Frozen bovine semen § How semen is collected

The process of bovine semen collection is vital in the agricultural industry as it allows farmers to improve the genetics of their herds and increase the efficiency of their breeding programs.

Horses

[edit]

For semen collection from stallions, the most common method used is an artificial vagina; after collecting semen, it is tested, diluted, then stored according to the intended use. Semen can be either liquid or frozen. There are many kinds of preservatives used in dilution with semen - most contain energy and antibiotics for liquid, and protection from freezing for frozen semen. Many studies are ongoing to improve preservation, increase liquid semen storage time, and reduce or remove bacteria from semen.[12][13][14]

Canids

[edit]

Dogs

[edit]
See also: Canine reproduction
Dog sperm collection

In order to collect semen from a male dog, an artificial vagina is prepared,[15][16] which is a conical thin latex sleeve ending in a sterile collection tube. The inside of the latex sleeve is lightly lubricated.[17] The male is allowed to sniff a female in estrus. Experienced studs cooperate readily in the process. New studs often require encouragement in the form of manual stimulation,[18][19] also known as "manual ejaculation".[20][21] Generally the male will mount the female[failed verification], and the collector quickly directs the dog's penis into the latex sleeve. The male ejaculates and the semen is collected in the tube. The semen is then drawn up into a long thin pipette.[22][20] Prior to ejaculation, the penis is massaged inside its sheath. It is then extruded from its sheath, and the collector massages the dog's erect penis near the base of the bulbus glandis using the thumb and index finger. The dog begins pelvic thrusting movements at the onset of ejaculation.[23]

Wolves

[edit]

Semen can be collected from wolves via manual stimulation[24] or electroejaculation.[25][26][27]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Semen collection

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Semen collection refers to the process of obtaining semen samples from males or other animals, for purposes such as fertility assessment, assisted reproduction, , breeding programs, and conservation efforts. In humans, the most common method involves into a sterile container following a period of . In animals, techniques vary by species and include artificial vaginas, , and manual stimulation. This procedure is essential in evaluating reproductive health across , where is analyzed for parameters such as volume, concentration, , and morphology to diagnose , monitor treatments, or select breeding stock. In clinical settings, samples are typically collected after 2–7 days of to optimize quality, and must be processed within one hour to preserve viability, adhering to strict protocols that prohibit lubricants or non-sterile materials. Beyond standard collection methods, alternative non-surgical techniques are employed when conventional approaches are not feasible, including specialized semen-collection condoms during intercourse or vibro- and electrostimulation to induce . For cases of —where no is present in the ejaculate—surgical retrieval methods such as testicular extraction (TESE) or microsurgical epididymal aspiration (MESA) are utilized to directly obtain from the testes or , often under . Semen collection also plays a critical role in sperm banking for , allowing storage for future use in procedures like intrauterine (IUI), fertilization (IVF), or donor programs in humans, and for in . Global standards, such as those set by the for humans, ensure safety and consistency. These practices underscore the importance of standardized laboratory procedures to minimize and maintain sample , contributing to advancements in and veterinary science.

Overview

Definition and Importance

Semen collection is the process of obtaining semen samples from male humans or animals using various non-invasive or minimally invasive techniques, primarily for evaluation, assisted , and long-term storage through . This procedure ensures the collection of viable spermatozoa under controlled conditions to maintain sample integrity for subsequent analysis or use. The importance of semen collection lies in its foundational role across multiple fields, including diagnostics for male reproductive health and enhancement of breeding programs. In human medicine, it enables the assessment of sperm parameters such as count, motility, and morphology, which are critical for diagnosing infertility and guiding treatments like intrauterine insemination (IUI) and in vitro fertilization (IVF). In agriculture, particularly livestock production, semen collection supports artificial insemination (AI), allowing the dissemination of superior genetics from select sires to improve herd productivity, disease resistance, and overall breeding efficiency without the risks associated with natural mating. Beyond and , semen collection plays a vital role in biodiversity conservation by facilitating the genetic preservation of through gamete banking and . This approach enables future reproductive efforts, such as AI in programs, to bolster population recovery. Globally, its impact is substantial; for instance, derived from collected contributes to over 50% of births in many developed countries as of 2025, with more than 60% of U.S. cows bred via AI annually.

History

Greek agricultural writings from approximately 700 BCE further documented techniques for animals, emphasizing controlled to improve stock quality, though systematic semen handling was not yet developed. In humans, initial attempts at collection for studies emerged in the mid-19th century, driven by microscopic observations of spermatozoa and early experiments to assess reproductive , marking the shift toward scientific rather than anecdotal practices. The 20th century brought pivotal innovations in semen collection techniques, primarily for veterinary applications. Russian biologist pioneered the in the early 1900s, a device designed to simulate natural mating for safe and efficient semen extraction from horses, revolutionizing equine breeding programs. By , established the world's first cooperative bull semen collection centers in 1936, enabling organized (AI) services for and rapidly scaling genetic improvement in . That same year, was introduced by R.M.C. Gunn for sheep, providing a non-invasive method to stimulate ejaculation in restrained males, which soon extended to other species including . Following , semen collection saw widespread adoption within global livestock AI programs during the , as cooperatives proliferated in and , with approximately 20% of U.S. dairy cows bred via AI by 1955, supported by advances in semen preservation. Human applications advanced concurrently, with the establishment of the first dedicated semen banks in the and , such as the 1952 initiative at the for cryopreserved donor sperm, facilitating fertility treatments and genetic banking. In the 2010s and 2020s, breakthroughs in enabled semen collection for , exemplified by successful freezing and transport of sperm for AI in 2013, aiding preservation.

Collection Methods

Manual and Stimulatory Methods

Manual and stimulatory methods for semen collection involve non-invasive techniques that rely on physical manipulation or mechanical to induce , mimicking natural mating behaviors to obtain high-quality samples suitable for analysis, donation, or across . These approaches prioritize voluntary participation from the subject, requiring trained personnel to ensure and semen integrity, and are preferred for their ability to yield ejaculates with representative parameters without the need for or electrical intervention. Manual stimulation entails direct physical handling of the genitals to replicate copulatory actions, often used in both animals and humans. In animals such as stallions, dogs, and , this involves gentle or manipulation of the in the presence of a teaser or dummy mount to stimulate and into a collection vessel. For humans, particularly those with due to or other conditions, rectal serves as a variant, where digital pressure on the gland through the induces seminal emission, though it typically yields lower volumes than full ejaculates. Success with manual stimulation depends on the subject's training and cooperation, achieving rates of 62–73% in species like alpacas over multiple sessions. The (AV) is a widely adopted device constructed from heated or to simulate the warmth and of genitalia, serving as a standard for semen collection in and companion animals. The protocol includes pre-warming the AV with to an internal temperature of 42–45°C—achieved by filling the outer casing with at 50–55°C—and applying a non-spermicidal, water-soluble to the inner liner to facilitate intromission without damaging spermatozoa. During collection, the male mounts a phantom or estrous , and the AV is positioned to capture the ejaculate as the penis thrusts, with immediate transfer to a sterile for evaluation. This method is particularly effective in stallions, where it yields success rates exceeding 96% in trained individuals, producing ejaculates with optimal and concentration. Penile vibratory stimulation employs a battery-powered device applied to the frenulum or glans penis to trigger reflex ejaculation, primarily in humans with spinal cord injuries but adaptable to certain animals. The vibrator operates at frequencies of 100–150 Hz, with amplitude adjusted based on reflex level, typically for 1–2 minutes per application to elicit antegrade ejaculation into a collection cup. In men with spinal cord injuries above T10, this technique retrieves semen in up to 80% of cases, offering a first-line option due to its simplicity and lack of invasiveness compared to alternatives like electroejaculation for non-responsive subjects. Collection condoms, made from sperm-friendly latex without spermicides or additives, enable semen retrieval during in humans, providing a culturally or religiously acceptable alternative to . These specialized sheaths are worn during intercourse and removed post-ejaculation, yielding samples with superior and viability compared to standard methods, as they avoid contamination or stress factors associated with withdrawal alone. These methods offer advantages such as high —preserving natural accessory gland secretions for better function—and reduced risk of or disease transmission relative to live , with overall success rates of 80–90% in cooperative subjects like trained stallions or motivated humans. However, limitations include the need for skilled handlers to minimize stress, potential variability in yield from uncooperative individuals, and challenges in maintaining sterile conditions during stimulation.

Electroejaculation and Surgical Methods

is an invasive technique employed primarily in veterinary and medical contexts to obtain samples from males unable or unwilling to ejaculate voluntarily, such as immobilized animals or those with neurological impairments. The procedure involves the insertion of a specialized rectal probe that delivers low-voltage (typically 3–20 V) to stimulate the accessory sexual glands and nerves innervating the reproductive tract, inducing without direct genital manipulation. This method is particularly useful in breeding programs for domestic and species where cooperative collection is infeasible. The process begins with to minimize stress and ensure , often using agents like and for . A lubricated rectal probe, typically 12–18 mm in diameter with embedded electrodes, is gently inserted into the adjacent to the and . Electrical stimulation is then applied in incremental pulses, starting at (e.g., 2–5 V) and increasing gradually to 20 V or until occurs, with cycles of 2–5 seconds on and off to avoid overstimulation; the entire procedure usually lasts 5–10 minutes. Power sources are portable units with adjustable output, often limited to 500 mA current for safety. Surgical extraction methods serve as alternatives or complements when electroejaculation yields insufficient samples, particularly in cases of obstructive azoospermia or testicular dysfunction in humans. Percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA) involves inserting a fine needle (21–25 gauge) directly through the scrotal skin into the epididymis under local anesthesia to aspirate fluid containing mature sperm, a minimally invasive outpatient procedure lasting 15–30 minutes with low complication rates. Testicular sperm extraction (TESE), by contrast, requires a small incision (1–2 cm) in the scrotum to access the testis, followed by biopsy or excision of seminiferous tubules to retrieve immature sperm, which are then processed for use; this is performed under local or general anesthesia and may involve microsurgical techniques for higher yield. As a non-surgical variant to , penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) applies targeted vibration (e.g., 100–150 Hz) to the using a handheld device, eliciting through activation of the ejaculatory ducts; this advanced approach is especially effective in wildlife species like , where it avoids rectal invasion and in some cases, achieving semen collection in marmosets and monkeys with minimal restraint. These compulsory methods carry risks including rectal trauma, , or in conscious subjects, necessitating veterinary or medical oversight and adherence to protocols like limiting sessions to once weekly; success rates range from 60–80% in anesthetized or immobilized animals, though outcomes vary by and operator experience. While manual stimulatory techniques remain first-line for cooperative subjects, and surgical approaches are essential for comprehensive reproductive management.

Semen Collection in Humans

For Medical Purposes

Semen collection for medical purposes primarily occurs in clinical settings to diagnose through , following standardized protocols outlined by the (WHO). The standard method involves to produce the sample after a period of ejaculatory lasting 2 to 7 days, ensuring optimal for evaluation. This approach allows for the assessment of key parameters such as semen volume (lower reference limit of 1.4 mL), concentration (16 million per mL), total count (39 million per ejaculate), total (42%), and progressive (30%), which help identify potential fertility issues like or asthenospermia. In clinical procedures, samples are collected in sterile, wide-mouthed containers provided by the , typically in a private room to maintain comfort and hygiene. The entire ejaculate must be captured to avoid underestimation of parameters, and the sample is kept at body (around 37°C) during transport to the lab. Analysis must commence within 1 hour of collection to preserve viability and , with the specimen maintained at in the interim. For patients with , such as those with injuries, assisted methods like penile vibratory stimulation (PVS) or (EEJ) are employed in specialized clinics. PVS, the first-line option, applies a high-amplitude vibrator to the penile to induce and succeeds in 86% of cases with injuries at or above T10. EEJ, involving rectal probe electrical stimulation, achieves success rates of 70–90% and is used when PVS fails, often under for patient comfort. These techniques enable retrieval for treatments, with combined PVS and EEJ yielding ejaculates in up to 97% of patients. Recent advancements in the 2020s have integrated (AI) into workflows, enhancing the objectivity of assessment during post-collection evaluation. AI-powered computer-assisted analysis (CASA) systems automate the tracking of movement, reducing inter-observer variability and improving diagnostic accuracy compared to manual methods. These tools, validated in clinical studies, provide real-time insights into patterns, supporting more precise infertility diagnoses.

For Donation and Research

Semen donation for banking and research involves a structured process beginning with rigorous health screening to ensure donor safety and recipient protection. Prospective donors undergo comprehensive medical history reviews, physical examinations, and testing for infectious diseases such as , and C, , and , as well as genetic screening for conditions like and chromosomal abnormalities. This screening typically spans 2 to 6 months to confirm eligibility. Approved donors collect samples through in a private room at a licensed facility, adhering to periods of 2 to 5 days prior to each donation to optimize quality. Donations occur 2 to 3 times per week, often over a period of 3 to 6 months, to build an adequate inventory while allowing sperm replenishment. Semen banks, also known as cryobanks, process and store these samples under strict regulatory oversight to maintain viability and prevent . After collection, is mixed with cryoprotectants, portioned into vials, and frozen using vapor phase cooling before immersion in at -196°C, where it can remain viable indefinitely. , the (FDA) mandates donor screening and testing under human cells, tissues, and cellular and tissue-based products (HCT/P) regulations, including periods of up to 6 months for anonymous donors with repeat testing to rule out communicable diseases. Regarding donor , FDA rules require record-keeping for at least 10 years but do not mandate identity disclosure; however, partial anonymity has become standard in the due to evolving state laws and ethical guidelines promoting open-identity options, though full remains permissible in many programs. In research contexts, semen collection supports investigations into , including epigenetics and the effects of drugs on semen parameters. For instance, studies have analyzed epigenetic markers like in to assess age-related decline and environmental influences on reproductive potential. Protocols for such research emphasize voluntary participation, with donors providing detailing study aims, risks, and data use, alongside institutional review board (IRB) ethical oversight to protect privacy and ensure compliance with human subjects regulations. Globally, semen donation facilitates hundreds of thousands of donor inseminations annually, with estimates indicating over 440,000 alone using donor between 2015 and 2017. Post-2010s, there has been a notable rise in open-identity donation options, driven by ethical shifts toward transparency and donor-conceived individuals' to know their origins, with programs reporting increased proportions of such donors and over 35% of eligible requesting identity release in some cohorts, and by 2024, open-identity donors represented 65% of new donors in the United States.

Semen Collection in Domestic Animals

In Cattle

Semen collection in cattle is a critical component of artificial insemination programs in both dairy and beef industries, enabling the dissemination of superior genetics from select bulls to large numbers of females. The process is conducted in specialized centers where bulls are managed under controlled conditions to optimize semen quality and quantity. This practice significantly reduces the need for maintaining multiple breeding bulls on farms, lowering costs and biosecurity risks while accelerating genetic improvement. The standard procedure for semen collection in bulls utilizes an (AV) to simulate natural , paired with a teaser cow or a dummy mount to arouse the bull's . The teaser animal is typically restrained in a chute to facilitate safe mounting, allowing the bull 2-3 false mounts before directing the into the AV for . Bulls are selected and trained for this routine starting at 12-15 months of age, when they exhibit sufficient , and are handled in restraint crates or chutes to minimize stress and ensure handler during collections, which occur 2-3 times per week per bull to balance production without compromising quality.90321-0/pdf) A typical ejaculate yields 5-10 mL of , which is immediately extended with a -citrate medium to protect viability during cooling and transport. This extender, containing egg and citrate buffer, stabilizes membranes and maintains prior to further processing. In large-scale operations, artificial insemination centers house and collect from over 100 bulls daily, producing millions of doses annually that support global and production, with economic benefits including enhanced and yields through improved herd .

In Horses

Semen collection in , particularly from , is a controlled process designed to mimic natural mating while ensuring and semen quality. The primary method involves an (AV), such as the Missouri or model, maintained at 45–48°C with adjustable pressure to suit the stallion's preferences. This device is used in tandem with either a live estrous , selected for her calm demeanor to avoid kicking, or a padded phantom mount for trained stallions, allowing the animal to mount and ejaculate without direct contact. Collections are typically scheduled 2–3 times weekly during the breeding season (spring to early summer) to align with peak testicular function and daily output, often yielding a second ejaculate about one hour later with approximately 60% of the first's sperm count. Effective behavioral management is crucial due to the stallion's sensitivity and potential for . Estrous pheromones, present in or vaginal secretions (such as p- and m-cresols), are utilized to stimulate , enhancing success even in off-season collections. Minimal restraint is applied—such as hobbles on the mount and removal of the stallion's shoes—to reduce stress and prevent trauma, with a handler guiding the process in a quiet, familiar environment. under general serves as a rare backup for injured or non-responsive stallions. Equine semen is characterized by a gel-free volume of 30–100 mL after initial collection, with the gelatinous fraction removed via inline filters or to prevent contamination and facilitate processing. at 500 × g for 10 minutes follows, concentrating while retaining at least 5% seminal plasma to preserve . In breeding programs, this enables (AI) where permitted, expanding stallion reach and reducing disease transmission risks; cooled semen, extended in a 1:2 to 1:5 ratio and stored at 5°C in insulated systems like the Equitainer, maintains viability for 24–48 hours during transport. Although registries, such as The , prohibit AI for registration to preserve live-cover traditions, semen collection supports reproductive evaluations and shipment in broader equine programs.

In Pigs

Semen collection in pigs primarily involves manual stimulation of boars using a dummy sow to facilitate mounting and . The boar is led to a quiet, dedicated collection area where it mounts an adjustable-height dummy sow, typically constructed from sturdy materials without sharp edges to ensure safety and comfort. Once mounted, a trained collector uses a clean, warm, non-latex gloved hand—often polyvinyl to avoid toxicity to —to grasp the spiral tip of the boar's and apply gentle pressure mimicking the sow's , directing the ejaculate into a pre-warmed at 38°C. Collections are performed 2–3 times per week per boar to maintain and prevent fatigue, with boars rotated in schedules to avoid overuse and ensure consistent production across the herd. is paramount, involving clipped preputial hairs to reduce , double-gloving techniques, and sterile to minimize risks. Boar ejaculates typically yield 150–400 mL total volume, divided into distinct fractions: a pre-sperm fraction (clear, low-sperm), the sperm-rich fraction (creamy white, 20–100 mL containing 80–90% of motile spermatozoa at high concentration), a third phase with additional sperm, and a gel-rich post-sperm fraction often discarded or filtered. Only the sperm-rich and sometimes third fractions are retained for use, as they provide the optimal concentration for , with total usable volume around 50–150 mL per collection. Immediately after collection—within 15 minutes—the semen is filtered to remove , evaluated for and concentration, and diluted in a specialized extender like (Beltsville Thawing Solution) medium to protect sperm viability, stabilize , and provide nutrients, resulting in 15–25 insemination doses per ejaculate each containing 2–3 billion motile spermatozoa in 80–100 mL. This dilution process is conducted at controlled temperatures (15–17°C post-extension) to avoid cold shock, ensuring storage viability up to 3–5 days. In commercial , semen collection from boars is essential for (AI), which is utilized for over 90% of sow breedings in major pork-producing countries, enabling genetic improvement, disease control, and efficient large-scale production without natural mating. AI centers, which supply ready-to-use doses, typically manage collections from 20–50 boars daily, processing thousands of doses weekly to meet industry demands and supporting the breeding of millions of sows annually. This centralized approach standardizes and reduces on-farm boar maintenance costs, with a single mature boar contributing 1,100–1,200 doses per year through optimized collection protocols.

Semen Collection in Companion and Wildlife Animals

In Dogs

Semen collection in dogs is primarily performed using manual digital stimulation of the , often in the presence of an estrous bitch to enhance and ejaculation quality. This technique involves gently massaging the prepuce to induce , followed by manipulation of the to collect the ejaculate in : a clear pre-sperm fraction, a sperm-rich fraction, and a prostatic fraction. Collections can be conducted 1–2 times per week without significantly impacting , as male dogs maintain stable sperm production with intervals of 2–5 days between ejaculations. In some cases, a phantom or dummy mount is used to facilitate the process, particularly for trained dogs or when a teaser bitch is unavailable. Breed size influences and collection technique, with larger breeds typically yielding higher in the sperm-rich (1–5 mL) compared to smaller breeds (0.5–2 mL), necessitating gentler handling in smaller dogs to avoid discomfort or incomplete . For instance, dogs under 15 kg average around 3 mL total , while larger breeds exceed 5 mL, though the sperm-rich portion remains the focus for evaluation and use. In veterinary practice, semen collection serves key purposes such as diagnosing infertility through assessment of sperm count, motility, and morphology, often performed on-site with immediate microscopic evaluation to determine progressive motility (ideally ≥70%). It also supports the creation of frozen semen banks for breeding programs, where samples from young, healthy dogs are cryopreserved to preserve genetic lines. Training for semen collection typically begins around 1 year of age, post-puberty but prior to full at 18–30 months, using gradual desensitization to handler touch and environmental stimuli in a quiet setting. This process, which may take 1–2 weeks, conditions the to ejaculate reliably without a teaser bitch, achieving high success rates (over 90% in experienced subjects) for routine collections.

In Other Species

Semen collection in wolves, particularly gray wolves (Canis lupus) and red wolves (Canis rufus), is primarily achieved through under general , as manual stimulation—common in domestic dogs—is ineffective due to the ' behavioral and physiological differences. This method involves inserting a rectal probe to deliver electrical stimuli, yielding samples suitable for and . Since the 1990s, such collections have supported programs, including the establishment of a semen bank in 1991 at the for Mexican gray wolves, aiding genetic management across approximately 60 facilities housing about 350 individuals, as of 2024. In rhinoceroses, rectal probe electroejaculation remains the standard technique, performed on immobilized animals to minimize stress and ensure safety. The first successful collections were reported in 1979 using early methods, with refinements in probe design in subsequent decades improving reliability across species like the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), and (Ceratotherium simum simum). These efforts have been pivotal for fertilization (IVF), as demonstrated in programs where cryopreserved semen from electroejaculation enabled production and development via . Other non-domestic species employ adapted techniques tailored to their anatomy and behavior. In elephants, particularly Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), semen is often collected using an artificial vagina in conjunction with a teaser cow to stimulate mounting and ejaculation, producing volumes of 50–100 mL with high sperm concentration when successful. For big cats such as African lions (Panthera leo), urinary catheterization—inserting a catheter into the urethra following medetomidine sedation—provides a less invasive alternative to electroejaculation, yielding high-quality semen with minimal urine contamination and excellent motility for cryopreservation. Conservation efforts face significant challenges, including relatively low and variable volumes in rhinoceroses (e.g., 0.5–20 mL in some species), which can limit the number of viable available for banking and assisted . Post-2010s advancements have integrated these collections with resource banking, enabling long-term storage of cryopreserved to combat in captive populations, as seen in expanded biobanks for felids, , and other endangered taxa that support genetic rescue and reintroduction programs.

In Humans

In human semen collection, informed consent is a foundational ethical requirement, mandating that donors receive comprehensive information about the procedures, potential risks, storage policies, and future uses of their gametes before agreeing to participate. This process, as outlined by professional guidelines, ensures donors understand disposition options for unused samples and any implications for offspring, with clinics required to document this consent explicitly. Privacy concerns further complicate practices, particularly around donor anonymity, which has faced increasing scrutiny in the 2020s as donor-conceived individuals advocate for access to genetic origins; for instance, EU member states like France have shifted toward non-anonymous donation policies to uphold the rights of offspring under frameworks emphasizing identity and heritage, with France destroying its remaining stocks of anonymous donor sperm in April 2025 despite rising demand. Commercialization of semen donation raises ethical questions about exploitation, with regulations varying globally to balance incentives and risks. In the United States, donors typically receive compensation of around $100 per donation to cover time and inconvenience, though this is capped to avoid . Conversely, several countries, including , , and , prohibit monetary incentives entirely, allowing only reimbursement for direct expenses to prevent and ensure altruistic motivations. These bans aim to mitigate socioeconomic pressures on vulnerable donors while addressing concerns over cross-border . A 2025 scandal involving a Danish sperm donor with a hereditary cancer has further questioned disparities in European donor screening and policies, prompting calls for harmonized regulations. Equity issues in semen collection and related fertility treatments highlight systemic disparities, particularly in access and genetic practices. Economic and racial barriers limit treatment availability, with lower-income and minority groups facing higher rates yet reduced utilization of donor services due to costs and geographic constraints. In the era since the , ethical debates have intensified around genetic screening of donors, questioning whether expanded carrier testing infringes on donor or discriminates against carriers of certain traits, while raising fears of eugenics-like selection in recipient choices; the International Federation of Gynecology and (FIGO) 2025 position statement reinforces ethical principles to promote safe and equitable donation practices. In the U.S., a 2025 Colorado bill (HB 1259) sought to reverse transparency rules by eliminating mandatory donor record updates and allowing banks to restrict access, but it advanced to the amid opposition as of March 2025. High-profile scandals have prompted stricter regulatory oversight, exemplified by 2018 incidents at U.S. clinics involving and mishandling. A notable case at the Pacific Fertility Center in saw thousands of eggs and embryos destroyed due to storage failures, exposing lapses in and leading to multimillion-dollar lawsuits. These events, coupled with mix-up errors in subsequent years, such as the 2021 California clinic swap where women received incorrect embryos, have driven enhanced FDA inspections and warnings to over 30 facilities since 2018, emphasizing compliance with donor screening and tissue handling standards to protect patient rights.

In Animals

Semen collection in animals is subject to stringent welfare protocols designed to minimize pain and stress, particularly for invasive methods like (EE). is widely mandated or recommended during EE to mitigate the procedure's stressful and potentially painful effects, with studies showing that or epidural reduces physiological stress responses such as elevated heart rates and levels in ruminants. For non-invasive techniques like (AV) collection in , guidelines emphasize stress reduction through gentle handling, positive human-animal interactions, and minimizing to prevent or during semen harvesting. These protocols, often outlined by veterinary associations, ensure that collection does not compromise animal health, with regular welfare assessments recommended in breeding centers to monitor for signs of distress. Legal frameworks in the , evolving since the early 2000s, require semen collection methods to be non-harmful and aligned with broader directives that recognize animals as sentient beings. Post-2006 proposals and subsequent regulations have led to bans on EE without in several member states, including and the , deeming it inhumane due to welfare concerns. The EU has also prohibited the importation of frozen obtained via unanesthetized EE, extending protections to traded animal products and influencing global standards for ethical practices. In contexts, similar restrictions apply under international agreements, banning coercive techniques that could harm protected species during genetic sampling. In conservation efforts, ethical considerations balance the need for genetic salvage—such as banking to preserve diversity in endangered populations—with minimizing animal stress, guided by IUCN Species Survival Commission recommendations since the . These guidelines advocate for non-invasive or low-stress collection methods in biobanking programs, prioritizing the long-term viability of genetic resources like from such as the while ensuring procedures do not exacerbate population declines. Frameworks emphasize veterinary oversight and post-collection monitoring to avoid health impacts, promoting cryobanking as a welfare-friendly tool for . Controversies surrounding semen collection often center on overuse in intensive operations, where frequent collections in factory farm settings contribute to bull subfertility, reproductive disorders, and premature due to accumulated physical strain. , while effective, carries risks of rectal trauma or behavioral aversion if not managed properly, prompting calls for refined protocols.

References

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