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Duwa (Chinese: 都哇; died 1307), also known as Du'a, was Khan of the Chagatai Khanate (1282–1307). He was the second son of Baraq. He was the longest reigning monarch of the Chagatayid Khanate and accepted the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty as Great Khan before his death. Under his rule, the Chagatai Khanate reached its peak.

Key Information

History

[edit]

In 1282, Kaidu appointed Duwa as head of the Chagatai Khanate, in an effort to gain peace between himself and the sons of Baraq, who had ravaged Central Asia for much of the past ten years. This promotion ensured the loyalty of the Chaghataids from that point to Kaidu's death. Several years earlier, in 1275, Duwa destroyed a force in Uyghuria loyal to Kublai Khan, led by the Chaghataid Ajiki and Kublai's son Ayachi. The following year, Kaidu and Duwa launched an expedition against Beshbalik, defeated the Yuan forces there and captured the city. The strike given by Kaidu and Duwa was so hard that Uyghurs lost Dzungaria. During the rule of 4th Great Mongol Khan Mongke Khan (1251-1259), Uyghuria lost its privileged status of 5th Ulus of Mongol Empire, granted by Chengiz Khan to Idiqut of Uyghuria Baurchuk Art Tegin in 1211, when he named Idiqut to be his 5th son, and when in 1269 Kaidu began a war against Kublai Khan Uyghuria became a subject of contest between Kublai and Kaidu.[2] To save the people, the entire Uyghur population of Beshbalik in Dzungaria (former summer capital of Uyghur Buddhist / Manichaenian Qocho Kingdom since 856) was evacuated to Kara-Khoja (former winter capital of Uyghur Idiquts since 866) in Turpan Depression by Idiqut Khochqar Tegin (火赤哈兒的斤/huǒchìhāér dejīn), ruler of Uyghuria since 1266, who succeeded Mamuraq Tegin (馬木剌的斤/mǎmùlà dejīn) Idiqut (1257-1266), who succeeded Oghrunch Tegin (玉古倫赤的斤/ ùgǔlúnchì dejīn) Idiqut (1255-1257), who succeeded Salandi (سالندی/sālandī) Idiqut (1245-1255), who succeeded Kishmayin (کیشماین/kīshmāīn) Idiqut (1235-1245), son of Baurchuk Art Tegin (巴而朮阿而忒的斤/bāérzhú āértè dejīn) Idiqut (1209-1235). Idiqut Khochqar reinforced Kara-Khoja defenses while all Uyghur cities in Dzungaria were abandoned by its population and turned into rubble within a few years as a result of these Mongol attacks. Duwa then laid siege to Kara Khoja (present Idiqut Shahri near Turpan) for six months with his brother Buzma by 120,000 troops.[3] They demanded the Uyghur commander Idiqut Khochqar to surrender, having said to him: We have just overcome the resistance of 300,000 troops, how can you with only one city to withstand us? Khochqar replied to them: I will follow my fate and destiny, this city is a place, where I was born and raised, its population has become my own family, if now I have to die, well, then let this city to have become my own grave.[4] Nevertheless, the Mongol princes had failed to take the city by assaults during six months and finally Idiqut Khochqar managed to have the siege lifted only by giving Duwa his daughter in marriage, and probably financial compensation as well. Soon afterwards, in the same 1276, Idiqut Khochqar died in the occasional combat with Kaidu forces near the border of Yuan China.[5] Duwa also may have given assistance to an unsuccessful revolt of Brigung sect against Kublai's authority in Tibet. In 1278 Duwa was reported to have led a raid into Yuan territory.

Kaidu's attempts to spread his power within the Ilkhanate gave Duwa an excuse to invade that Mongol kingdom in early 1295. Supported by Kaidu's son Sarban, he invaded Khurasan and Mazandaran while the Ilkhanid commanders were involved in a succession struggle far to the west. For eight months he stayed in Mazandaran; when he left, he pillaged many cities on the way back. Duwa attempted to convince the Kartids of Herat to defect to his side, but they refused. He attempted to plunder the cities of Kusui, which he failed to do; and Fushang, which he succeeded at, killing many of the inhabitants. A similar attempt on Herat never happened, since Duwa feared he would fail; he soon after was recalled by Kaidu back to Central Asia, and the campaign ended.

Stiffening resistance by the Yuan commanders forced Kaidu and Duwa to pull back several times in 1297. In 1298, Duwa avenged these defeats when he attacked the Yuan garrisons during the winter. Most of the Yuan commanders were eating and drinking and therefore incapable of fighting; the Yuan emperor Temür Khan or Emperor Chengzong's grandson-in-law Körgüz, who had been more ready, was unable to defeat him by himself. Duwa tried to convince him to abandon the Yuan side, but was unsuccessful in doing so. Duwa then withdrew, only to be defeated in battle by the garrison troops in what is today known as Kebuduo. Duwa's brother-in-law was captured in the midst of the defeat. A prisoner exchange was agreed to, and his brother-in-law was returned, but Körgüz died before returning to the Yuan court. In 1298 or 1299 Duwa appointed his son Kutluk Khoja as head of the Qara'unas, a Mongol group that controlled a large part of Khurasan.

In 1300 Yuan forces launched a large offensive against Kaidu. The latter called on Duwa for assistance, but the Chaghadaid refused, claiming his forces were exhausted. Surprised by the answer, Kaidu sent a command to him, but soon had to turn east to meet the Yuan. Still, Duwa and his men eventually came to help him, and during one battle in 1301 he himself was wounded and defeated. Shortly afterward, Kaidu died and the political situation changed. Duwa ignored Kaidu's choice of successor, Orus, and instead picked Kaidu's firstborn son Chapar to take his father's place. Chapar was enthroned in 1303, thanks to Duwa's effort. Duwa insisted Chapar to submit to Temür Khan.

The division of the Mongol Empire, c. 1300.
  •   Yuan dynasty
  •   Golden Horde
  •   Chagatai Khanate
  •   Ilkhanate

Shortly afterward, Duwa sought to end conflict with Temur Khan, and around 1304 a general peace among the Mongol states was declared, bringing a formal end to the Kaidu–Kublai war that had involved all Mongol khanates and lasted for over 30 years since the 1260s. Soon after, he proposed a joint Mongol attack on India, but the campaign did not materialize. The settlement favored Duwa much more than Chapar, a fact which set a rift between the two. Duwa hoped to throw off the mastery of Kaidu's son; he therefore sought to improve relations with Temür Khan. He had the advantage of being a legitimate heir to Chagatai's realm, while Chapar did not.

Chapar refused to attend a meeting that Duwa arranged to celebrate the peace, and in 1305 or 1306 fighting broke out between the troops of both sides, probably due to Duwa's attempts to take control of parts of Chapar's lands granted to him by Temür Khan. The fighting lasted for a while but was inconclusive; while Chapar's brother Sarban gave up to the Ilkhanate and abandoned the Oxus region, but the region around Samarkand continued to be infested with supporters of Kaidu's family. Duwa proposed a peace; Chapar, believing that it was sincere and accepted, withdrawing his brothers. Duwa's forces then struck, defeating Chapar's supporter Baba, plundering Talas and overcoming Chapar's brother Shah. On the eastern front Duwa convinced the border commander of Yuan, Qaishan, to strike and defeat Chapar's brother Orus in June 1306.

Chapar then mobilized his own troops, but several of his commanders deserted him, and the Yuan sent a large force to Duwa's assistance. Surrounded by this army, Chapar surrendered. The northeast part of Duwa's realm was ceded to the Yuan dynasty, and Duwa afterwards received gifts from Temür Khan, signifying the restored relations between the Chagatai Khanate and the Yuan dynasty for the first time since the mid-thirteenth century. Duwa at first gave Chapar a small domain and pension, but afterwards killed or captured many of his followers, and deposed Chapar in 1307 in place of his brother Yangichar, who had not fought Duwa previously. Part of Yangichar's realm was split off and given to Tügme, a grandson of Güyük Khan. That same year, Duwa died, to be succeeded by his son Könchek.

Duwa's actions went a long way toward freeing the Chagatai Khanate from its subservience to Kaidu and his sons, a situation that had lasted since 1271. Nevertheless, Kaidu's sons continued to pose problems for the Chaghadaid state. Duwa's successes in recreating the Central Asian state also proved to be transitory; less than forty years later, the eastern part of the khanate would split off, and in the 1360s the western khans would be reduced to puppets by Timur.

Genealogy

[edit]

Genealogy of Chaghatai Khanates

In Babur Nama written by Babur, Page 19, Chapter 1; described genealogy of his maternal grandfather Yunas Khan as:[6]

"Yunas Khan descended from Chaghatai Khan, the second son of Chingiz Khan (as follows,) Yunas Khan, son of Wais Khan, son of Sher-'ali Aughlon, son of Muhammad Khan, son of Khizr Khwaja Khan, son of Tughluq-timur Khan, son of Aisan-bugha Khan, son of Dawa Khan, son of Baraq Khan, son of Yesuntawa Khan, son of Muatukan, son of Chaghatai Khan, son of Chingiz Khan."

Genealogy of Duwa Khan according to Tarikh-i-Rashidi
  1. Chingiz Khan
  2. Chaghatai Khan
  3. Mutukan
  4. Yesü Nto'a
  5. Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq
  6. Duwa
  7. Esen Buqa I
  1. Tughlugh Timur
  2. Khizr Khoja
  3. Muhammad Khan (Khan of Moghulistan)
  4. Shir Ali Oglan
  5. Uwais Khan(Vaise Khan)
  6. Yunus Khan
  7. Ahmad Alaq
  1. Sultan Said Khan
  2. Abdurashid Khan
  3. Abdul Karim Khan (Yarkand)


"Chagahtai Khanates" A research project by Abdul Rauf Mughal[7]

See also

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References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Duwa

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Duwa (Chinese: 都哇; died 1307), also known as Du'a, was khan of the from 1282 to 1307, appointed by his ally following the death of the previous khan Boqa Temür. The second son of the earlier Chagatai ruler Baraq, Duwa played a pivotal role in resisting the central authority of and his successors, allying with to maintain the independence of Central Asian Mongol factions. Under his leadership, the achieved greater stability and revival of power after periods of internal strife, positioning him as the effective founder of the enduring Chaghatayid state. Following 's death in 1301, Duwa shifted strategy by forging peace with the and the , consolidating his rule without further major eastern conflicts. He directed multiple military expeditions from into the during the late 13th and early 14th centuries, seeking to extend Mongol dominion over the , though these incursions were repeatedly thwarted by forces under sultans like .

Early Life and Rise

Ancestry and Family Origins

Duwa belonged to the Borjigin clan, the ruling dynasty of the Mongol Empire originating from the nomadic tribes of the eastern Eurasian steppes under Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227). His family's ulus, or appanage, derived from Chagatai Khan (c. 1183–1241/1242), Genghis Khan's second son, who received Central Asian territories extending from the Ili River basin eastward to the Tarim and westward to Transoxania following the empire's partition in 1227. As the second son of Baraq Khan (r. 1266–1271), Duwa traced his immediate patrilineage through Baraq's father, Yesünto'a (Yssuntu), the third son of Mutugen (Moatukan, d. 1221), Chagatai's eldest son by his principal wife Yesulun Khatun. Mutugen fell during the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire at the siege of Bamiyan in 1221, solidifying the Chagatayid branch's martial heritage amid the empire's expansive campaigns. This descent affirmed Duwa's legitimacy within the Chagatayid lineage, which emphasized adherence to Mongol yasa (customary law) while navigating alliances and conflicts in the fragmented post-1250s Mongol world, including ties to figures like Qaidu of the eastern nomadic coalition. Baraq's adoption of the Islamic name Ghiyas ud-Din prior to his death in 1271 reflected emerging cultural adaptations in the ulus, though the core Borjigin identity remained tied to steppe nomadic governance rather than sedentary influences.

Path to Khanate and Overthrow of Baraq

Duwa, the second son of , derived his claim to the Chagatai throne from his father's lineage as a direct descendant of through Yesünto'a. Baraq had ruled from 1266 to 1271, initially deposing Mubarak Shah with military support but facing defeats against the , including a loss to Abaqa in 1269–1270 and a subsequent failed invasion of that weakened his position. Baraq died on 9 August 1271 during this campaign against the Il-Khanate, creating a power vacuum that allowed Ögedeid prince to dominate the Chagatai ulus. Kaidu, who had allied with Baraq against the Yuan dynasty's claims, exploited the instability to install puppet khans, effectively overthrowing the independent authority of Baraq's line in favor of his own control over Chagatai territories. He first enthroned Negübei in 1271, but Negübei rebelled shortly thereafter and was killed around 1272 by Buqa Temür, son of Yasur (Qadaqchi), who replaced him as khan under 's patronage from 1272 to 1282. Buqa Temür's ineffective rule, marked by illness and subordination, maintained 's overlordship but failed to stabilize the amid ongoing conflicts with the and Yuan. Upon Buqa Temür's death circa 1282, enthroned Duwa as khan, restoring a nominal representative from Baraq's house while ensuring continued loyalty through Duwa's participation in 's campaigns against Qubilai Khan's successors. This ascension, dated to around 681 AH (1282 CE), positioned Duwa as a initially but leveraged his hereditary legitimacy to consolidate Chagatai elites under 's eastern coalition, setting the stage for Duwa's later assertion of after 's death in 1301.

Reign and Governance

Consolidation of Power in

Upon his appointment as khan in 1282 by , following the instability caused by Baraq's overthrow and the subsequent ravages by Baraq's sons, Duwa focused on restoring order within the fragmented , which spanned , Semirechye, and eastern territories. His installation, as a son of Baraq, provided legitimacy among Chagatai lineages, while 's military backing suppressed immediate princely dissent, allowing Duwa to reassert control over nomadic appanages and sedentary regions like and Almaliq. This alliance with , who exerted de facto overlordship, enabled Duwa to redirect internal resources toward external campaigns, fostering loyalty among noyans through shared victories and tribute distribution, thereby stabilizing the khanate's core administration without major recorded revolts during the initial two decades. Kaidu's death in 1301 marked a pivotal shift, as Duwa maneuvered to end the Chagatai Khanate's subordination to the Ögedeid house. Initially, Duwa and Kaidu's successor Chapar jointly submitted to Yuan suzerainty in 1303, securing a temporary truce that permitted Duwa to consolidate forces internally. By 1304, however, Duwa rejected this arrangement, launching campaigns against Chapar; leveraging Chagatai superiority—estimated at tens of thousands—he defeated Chapar's armies in eastern engagements, forcing Chapar to flee westward and incorporating Kaidu's Semirechye holdings into the Chagatai domain. This victory, achieved without sustained Yuan intervention, enhanced Duwa's prestige among tribal elites, who pledged greater fealty, and unified the ulus under a single khan for the first time since the early post-conquest era, evidenced by renewed tribute flows from Transoxianan cities. Duwa's administrative measures further entrenched his authority, including the appointment of loyal kin to key military commands and the enforcement of yasa codes to curb emir factionalism in Mawarannahr. By integrating Qara'unas irregulars into regular tumens, he professionalized the army, reducing reliance on volatile alliances and enabling sustained control over trade routes that generated revenue for patronage networks. His 25-year reign, the longest in Chagatai history until then, reflected successful power consolidation, as no significant internal challenges disrupted governance until his final years, though this stability derived partly from external pressures that unified elites against common foes rather than deep institutional reforms.

Administrative and Economic Policies

Duwa's administrative approach emphasized consolidating khanly authority over the fragmented Chagatai ulus, where power was dispersed among appanage princes descended from . Appointed by in 1282 to pacify the sons of the deposed Baraq Khan, Duwa subdued rival Chagatayids through military campaigns and alliances, thereby restoring order after decades of civil war. This process strengthened central oversight while preserving the traditional Mongol system of decentralized territorial grants, with local noyans administering justice, taxation, and military obligations under the khan's suzerainty. Following 's death in 1301, Duwa renounced allegiance to the Ögedeids, submitted nominally to Yuan Great Khan Temür, and paid tribute, which secured eastern borders and enabled focus on internal unification. Economically, Duwa's rule prioritized stability over structural reforms, leveraging the khanate's position astride caravan routes connecting to the Islamic world. Agriculture thrived in irrigated oases like those of and the Ferghana Valley, producing grains, fruits, and cotton, while nomadic pastoralism supplied livestock and hides. Revenues derived from transit duties on merchants, agricultural taxes (qubchur and other levies), and plunder from expeditions, notably repeated incursions into the between 1297 and 1306, which captured slaves, treasure, and livestock to enrich the treasury. The long period of relative internal peace under Duwa's 25-year reign facilitated expanded trade in silk, spices, and horses, bolstering fiscal health without evidence of monetary standardization or fiscal overhauls during his tenure.

Military Campaigns

Conflicts with Ilkhanate and Yuan Dynasty

Duwa's conflicts with the and arose from the ongoing fragmentation of the , where he allied with against the Toluid khanates allied with the Yuan. As Khan of Chagatai from 1282, Duwa supported Kaidu's campaigns to challenge Yuan dominance in , leading joint forces in repeated clashes over disputed territories in the and regions. These engagements included the capture of Besh-Balïq, a key Yuan-held city in eastern Chagatai lands, during an expedition in the late 1280s. Tensions escalated in the 1290s, with Yuan generals launching counteroffensives; in 1298, Duwa captured the Yuan prince Körgüz, a son-in-law of , during raids into Yuan-controlled areas, though Körgüz later escaped. The decisive confrontation occurred in spring 1301 near the , where Yuan forces under commanders like Hgh Témür defeated the coalition, resulting in Kaidu's death from wounds and Duwa's injury. Facing defeat, Duwa shifted strategy, dispatching envoys to to negotiate peace and nominally acknowledge Yuan as Great Khan. A formal was concluded in 1304 between Yuan Emperor Chengzong and Duwa, alongside Ögedeid leader Chapar, ending hostilities and stabilizing borders. Relations with the , under rulers like and , were strained due to overlapping claims in and , where Chagatai forces sought to reassert influence. In early 1295, Duwa exploited internal instability in the —amid the overthrow of by —to launch an invasion, targeting Persian territories allied with the Yuan. This incursion aimed to weaken Ilkhanid support for Yuan campaigns but achieved limited gains before Ghazan's consolidation forced withdrawal. Following Kaidu's death, Duwa extended peace overtures to the in 1301, securing non-aggression pacts that allowed focus on internal consolidation and southern expeditions. These truces reflected pragmatic recognition of military exhaustion and the need to counterbalance rival Mongol factions.

Invasions of the Delhi Sultanate

During Duwa's consolidation of power in the around 1301, he intensified raids from into the region of the , seeking to expand Mongol influence southward and exploit perceived weaknesses under Sultan Alauddin Khilji. These incursions, involving tumens of mounted archers, targeted border forts and supply lines, with Duwa coordinating from his base near the Hindu Kush to avenge prior setbacks and test 's defenses. The most ambitious campaign occurred in late 1299, when Duwa dispatched his son Qutlugh Khwaja with an estimated 100,000-200,000 troops, including elite noyan-led units, aiming to capture itself. The invaders advanced to Kili, 10 kilometers east of , where Khilji's 300,000-man army, bolstered by war elephants and fortified positions, engaged them in the on December 24, 1299; despite initial Mongol gains through archery barrages, Khilji's counterattacks forced a retreat, with Qutlugh Khwaja wounded and dying shortly after. This defeat highlighted the limits of Mongol cavalry against 's tactics, though it prompted Duwa to regroup for revenge. Subsequent invasions followed in 1303 at Amroha, where a Mongol force under Iqbalmand was routed by Khilji's general Zafar Khan, resulting in heavy casualties and captives trampled by elephants. In 1305, another expedition met defeat near the Ravi River, further depleting Chagatai resources. The final major raid in 1306, led by Kopek with three tumens to avenge prior losses, advanced to the Ravi but was decisively crushed by Khilji's commander Malik Kafur, who captured and executed thousands, including leaders Iqbalmand and Tai Bu. These repeated failures stemmed from overextended supply lines, harsh terrain, and Khilji's preemptive fortification of passes like Sivistan, underscoring the logistical challenges of sustaining steppe warfare in the subcontinent. Duwa's death in 1307 ended the immediate threat, as succession disputes fragmented Chagatai unity and shifted focus northward, allowing to fortify its northwest frontier without further large-scale Chagatai incursions until Timur's campaign decades later. Overall, these invasions inflicted localized devastation in but failed to breach core Sultanate territories, demonstrating the resilience of settled empires against nomadic incursions when supported by intelligence networks and rapid mobilization.

Death, Succession, and Legacy

Final Years and Death in 1307

In the closing years of his reign, Duwa withdrew from aggressive expansion following devastating setbacks in the campaigns against the . Between 1303 and 1306, Chagatai forces under his command launched multiple incursions, including a 1305 expedition led by his son Taliqu that mobilized over 20,000 troops but ended in near-total annihilation due to ambushes and scorched-earth tactics employed by Sultan Alauddin Khalji's army. These failures, compounded by logistical strains across the Hindu Kush, prompted Duwa to prioritize recovery within the khanate's core territories in and the , temporarily halting further southern offensives. Duwa died in 1307 of natural causes after ruling for 25 years, the longest tenure among early Chagatai khans. His passing, likely from age-related ailments given his approximate birth around 1265, occurred amid fragile truces with the and forged earlier in the decade. The khan's death immediately triggered a succession dispute among his six sons, with Konchek briefly assuming power before his own demise in 1308, followed by rapid turnovers to Taliqu and Kebek. This infighting eroded the khanate's cohesion, curtailing organized raids into for over a decade and shifting focus inward.

Immediate Successors and Long-term Impact

Duwa's death in 1307 precipitated a period of instability in the , marked by rapid successions among his relatives. His son Könchek briefly succeeded him as khan, reigning from 1307 to 1308, but was soon overthrown and killed amid factional strife. This was followed by the short rule of another claimant, Taliqu, in 1309, before Kebek, a nephew of Duwa, assumed power temporarily; Kebek's brother, Esen Buqa I, then consolidated control from 1309 to 1318, suppressing rebellions and restoring order. The volatility persisted into the 1320s, with Kebek returning to the throne around 1318 and implementing administrative reforms, including a standardized silver (the kebek som) to stabilize the , before yielding to his brother in 1326. Tarmashirin, who succeeded in 1326, marked a shift by converting to , which alienated nomadic Mongol elements and contributed to his deposition and murder by 1334, exacerbating east-west divisions within the . Duwa's long-term impact lay in solidifying the Chagatai Khanate's de facto independence from the and through strategic peaces forged after Kaidu's death in 1301, allowing it to function despite nominal Mongol overlordship. This enabled the khanate's gradual Turkicization and Islamization, evolving from a Mongol domain into a culturally hybrid state that influenced Central Asian polities. By the mid-14th century, internal fragmentation and the rise of (Tamerlane), a chieftain within the khanate, led to the absorption of its western territories () into Timurid rule around 1370, while eastern remnants persisted as until the 15th century. Duwa's military assertiveness against neighbors, including halted invasions of post-1307, redirected resources inward, fostering administrative precedents later built upon by successors like Kebek.

Genealogy and Descendants

Immediate Family and Key Heirs

Duwa was the second son of Baraq Khan, who ruled the from 1266 to 1269 before being deposed. No records detail Duwa's wives or daughters, though Mongol khans typically maintained multiple consorts from allied tribes to secure political ties. Duwa fathered numerous sons, several of whom ascended to the khanate's throne amid post-1307 instability. His eldest recorded son, Qutlugh Khwaja (also Qutluḡ Qoča), served as a joint administrator over regions including Ghazna and , leading military campaigns such as invasions into before his death around 1299. Upon Duwa's death in 1307, his son Konchek (or Könchek) immediately succeeded him as khan, reigning until his own death in 1308, which triggered factional strife among Duwa's descendants and relatives. Following a brief involving non-direct heirs like Taliqu (son of Qadami), Duwa's son Esen Buqa I consolidated power through a qurultai in 1309, ruling until approximately 1318–1320 while pursuing diplomacy with the and containing internal revolts. Another son, Kebek, briefly held the throne in 1309 before yielding to Esen Buqa; he later reascended around 1318–1320, reigning until 1326 and implementing administrative reforms, including coinage standardization, to stabilize the khanate. Additional sons, such as Eljigidey (who ruled briefly in 1326) and Duwa Temur (who claimed the throne around the same period before deposition), perpetuated Duwa's line but contributed to ongoing succession disputes that fragmented the khanate. These heirs' rapid turnover underscored the Chagatai Khanate's reliance on familial consensus via qurultai assemblies, often marred by rivalries with eastern Mongol factions.

References

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  23. https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/55032/why-did-the-chagatai-khanate-cease-invasions-of-india
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