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Key Information

Turpan
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese吐鲁番
Traditional Chinese吐魯番
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinTǔlǔfān
Wade–GilesTʻu3-lu3-fan1
Uyghur name
Uyghurتۇرپان‎
Transcriptions
Latin YëziqiTurpan
Yengi YeziⱪTurpan
SASM/GNCTurpan
Siril YëziqiТурпан

Turpan (Uyghur: تۇرپان) or Turfan (Chinese: 吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of 69,759 km2 (26,934 sq mi) and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the prefectural area has shifted a number of times, from Yar-Khoto (Jiaohe, 10 km or 6.2 mi to the west of modern Turpan) to Qocho (Gaochang, 30 km or 19 mi to the southeast of Turpan) and to Turpan itself.[2]

Names

[edit]

Historically, many settlements in the Tarim Basin, being situated between Chinese, Turkic, Mongolian, and Persian language users, have a number of cognate names. Turpan or Turfan is one such example. The original name of the city is unknown. The form Turfan, while older than Turpan, was not used until the middle of the 2nd millennium CE and its use became widespread only in the post-Mongol period.[3]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Turpan

Turpan has long been the centre of a fertile oasis (with water provided by the karez canal system) and an important trade centre. It was historically located along the Silk Road.[4] At that time, other kingdoms of the region included Korla and Yanqi.[5][6]

Along with city-states such as Krorän (Loulan) and Kucha, Turpan was inhabited by people speaking the Indo-European Tocharian languages up to at least the 8th century AD.[7] Manuscripts from the 5th to the 8th century AD shows that the Tocharian A (Turfanian, Agnean, or East Tocharian; natively ārśi) of Qarašähär (ancient Agni, Chinese Yanqi and Sanskrit Agni) and Turpan (ancient Turfan and Xočo) was used in the region for administration and religious texts.[8]

The Jushi Kingdom ruled the area in the 1st millennium BC, until it was conquered by the Chinese Han dynasty in 107 BC.[9][10] It was subdivided into two kingdoms in 60 BC, between the Han and its enemy the Xiongnu Empire. The city changed hands several times between the Xiongnu and the Han, interspersed with short periods of independence.[11] Nearer Jushi has been linked to the Turpan Oasis,[12] while Further Jushi to the north of the mountains near modern Jimsar.

After the fall of the Han dynasty in 220, the region was virtually independent but tributary to various dynasties. Until the 5th century AD, the capital of this kingdom was Jiaohe (modern Yarghul 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) west of Turpan).[13]

Many Han Chinese along with Sogdians settled in Turfan during the post Han dynasty era. The Chinese character dominated Turfan in the eyes of the Sogdians. Kuchean speakers made up the original inhabitants before the Chinese and Sogdian influx. The oldest evidence of the use of Chinese characters was found in Turfan in a document dated to 273 AD.[14]

In 327, the Gaochang Commandery (jùn) was created in the Turfan area by the Former Liang under Zhang Jun. The Chinese set up a military colony/garrison and organized the land into multiple divisions. Han Chinese colonists from the Hexi region and the central plains also settled in the region.[15] Gaochang was successively ruled by the Former Liang, Former Qin and Northern Liang.[16]

In 439, remnants of the Northern Liang,[17] led by Juqu Wuhui and Juqu Anzhou, fled to Gaochang where they would hold onto power until 460 when they were conquered by the Rouran Khaganate.

Gaochang Kingdom

[edit]
Main article: Gaochang
Wall painting from a Christian church, Qocho (Gaochang) 683–770 CE

At the time of its conquest by the Rouran Khaganate, there were more than ten thousand Han Chinese households in Gaochang.[18] The Rouran Khaganate, which was based in Mongolia, appointed a Han Chinese named Kan Bozhou to rule as King of Gaochang in 460, and it became a separate vassal kingdom of the Khaganate.[19] Kan was dependent on Rouran backing.[20] Yicheng and Shougui were the last two kings of the Chinese Kan family to rule Gaochang.

At this time the Gaoche was rising to challenge power of the Rouran in the Tarim Basin. The Gaoche king Afuzhiluo killed King Kan Shougui, who was the nephew of Kan Bozhou.[21][22] and appointed a Han from Dunhuang, named Zhang Mengming (張孟明), as his own vassal King of Gaochang.[23][24] Gaochang thus passed under Gaoche rule.

Later, Zhang Mengming was killed in an uprising by the people of Gaochang and replaced by Ma Ru (馬儒). In 501, Ma Ru himself was overthrown and killed, and the people of Gaochang appointed Qu Jia (麴嘉) from Jincheng Commandery as their king.[22] Qu Jia at first pledged allegiance to the Rouran, but the Rouran khaghan was soon killed by the Gaoche and he had to submit to Gaoche overlordship. Later, when the Göktürks emerged as the supreme power in the region, the Qu dynasty of Gaochang became vassals of the Göktürks.[25]

While the material civilization of Kucha to its west in this period remained chiefly Indo-Iranian in character, in Gaochang it gradually merged into the Tang aesthetics.[26] Qu Wentai, King of Gaochang, was a main patron of the Tang pilgrim and traveller Xuanzang.[26]

Tang conquest

[edit]
Tarim Basin in the 3rd century
Main articles: Tang campaign against Karakhoja, the Western Turks, the oasis states, and Iranians in China

The Tang dynasty had reconquered the Tarim Basin by the 7th century AD and for the next three centuries the Tibetan Empire, the Tang dynasty, and the Turks fought over dominion of the Tarim Basin. Sogdians and Chinese engaged in extensive commercial activities with each other under Tang rule. The Sogdians were mostly Mazdaist at this time. The Turpan region was renamed Xi Prefecture (西州) when the Tang conquered it in 640 AD,[27] had a history of commerce and trade along the Silk Road already centuries old; it had many inns catering to merchants and other travelers, while numerous brothels are recorded in Kucha and Khotan.[28] According to Valerie Hansen, even before the Tang conquest, Han ethnic presence was already so extensive that the cultural alignment of the city led to Turpan's name in the Sogdian language becoming known as "Chinatown" or "Town of the Chinese". As late as the tenth century, the Persian source Hudud Al-Alam continued to refer to the town as Chīnanjkanth (Chinese town).[27][29]

In Astana Cemetery, a contract written in Sogdian detailing the sale of a Sogdian girl to a Chinese man was discovered dated to 639 AD. Individual slaves were common among silk route houses; early documents recorded an increase in the selling of slaves in Turpan.[30] Twenty-one 7th-century marriage contracts were found that showed, where one Sogdian spouse was present, for 18 of them their partner was a Sogdian. The only Sogdian men who married Chinese women were highly eminent officials.[31] Several commercial interactions were recorded, for example a camel was sold priced at 14 silk bolts in 673,[32][33] and a Chang'an native bought a girl age 11 for 40 silk bolts in 731 from a Sogdian merchant.[34] Five men swore that the girl was never free before enslavement, since the Tang Code forbade commoners to be sold as slaves.[27]

The Tang dynasty became weakened considerably due to the An Lushan Rebellion, and the Tibetans took the opportunity to expand into Gansu and the Western Regions. The Tibetans took control of Turfan in 792.

Maheshvara, Turpan, 10th–12th century
Buddhist Uyghur king from Turpan attended by servants. Depicted in Dunhuang Mogao Caves, Western Xia dynasty.

Clothing for corpses was made out of discarded, used paper in Turfan which is why the Astana graveyard is a source of a plethora of texts.[35]

Seventh or 8th century dumplings and wontons were found in Turfan.[36]

Uyghur rule

[edit]

In 803, the Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate seized Turfan from the Tibetans. The Uyghur Khaganate however was destroyed by the Kirghiz and its capital Ordu-Baliq in Mongolia sacked in 840. The defeat resulted in the mass movement of the Uyghurs out of Mongolia and their dispersal into Gansu and Central Asia, and many joined other Uyghurs already present in Turfan. In the early twentieth century, a collection of some 900 Christian manuscripts dating to the ninth to the twelfth centuries was found by the German Turfan expeditions at a monastery site at Turfan.[37]

Idikut kingdom

[edit]
Main article: Qocho
Pranidhi scene, Turpan, 10th–12th century.

The Uyghurs established a Kingdom in the Turpan region with its capital in Gaochang or Kara-Khoja. The kingdom was known as the Uyghuria Idikut state or Kara-Khoja Kingdom that lasted from 856 to 1389 AD. The Uyghurs were Manichaean but later converted to Buddhism and funded the construction of cave temples in the Bezeklik Caves. The Uyghurs formed an alliance with the rulers of Dunhuang. The Uyghur state later became a vassal state of the Kara-Khitans and then as a vassal of the Mongol Empire. This Kingdom was led by the Idikuts or Saint Spiritual Rulers. The last Idikut left Turpan area in 1284 for Kumul and then Gansu to seek protection of the Yuan dynasty, but local Uyghur Buddhist rulers still held power until the invasion by the Moghul Khizr Khoja in 1389.

Turfan expeditions

[edit]
Main article: German Turfan expeditions

German scientists conducted archaeological expeditions, known as the German Turfan expeditions, at the beginning of the 20th century (between 1902 and 1914). They discovered paintings and other art treasures that were transported to the Museum of Asian Art in Berlin.

Artifacts of Manichaean and Buddhist provenance were also found in Turfan.[38] During World War II, many of these artifacts were destroyed or looted.[39]

Turfan fragments

[edit]

Uyghur, Persian, Sogdian and Syriac documents have been found in Turfan.[40] Turfan also has documents in Middle Persian.[41]

All these are known as the Turfan fragments. They comprise a collection of over 40,000 manuscripts and manuscript fragments in 16 different languages and 26 different typefaces in different book forms. They are in the custody of the Berlin State Library where their study continues.

These writings deal with Buddhist as well as Christian-Nestorian, Manichaean and secular contents. The approximately 8,000 Old Turkic Buddhist texts make up the largest part of this.

A whole series of Sogdian Buddhist scriptures were found in Turpan (and also in Dunhuang), but these date from the Tang dynasty (618–907) and are translations from Chinese. Earlier Sogdian Buddhist texts could not be found.

Christian texts exist mainly in Syriac and Sogdian, but also as Syriac-Sogdian bilinguals (bilingual texts), as well as some Turkish-Nestorian fragments. They include fragments of Sogdian translations of works by Isaac the Syrian.[42][43]

Manichaean texts survive in Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian and Uyghur; the Sogdian and Uyghur documents show a notable adaptation to Buddhism, but there is also evidence of a reverse influence.

Important parts of the Gospel of Mani were found here, for example. Also, parts of the Arzhang (Book of Pictures), one of the holy books of Manichaeism were discovered.

Most of the Buddhist texts survive in only fragmentary form. There are several Indian Sanskrit texts from various schools of Mahayana and Hinayana, Uyghur texts that are mostly translations from Sanskrit, Tocharian and, starting in the 9th century, increasingly from the Chinese.

Many of the Uyghur documents and fragments of Buddhist scriptures edited to date include didactic texts (sutras) and philosophical works (the abhidharma). In contrast to the other Buddhist contents, the monastic discipline texts (the vinaya) did not seem to be translated, but rather taught and studied in Sanskrit.[44]

Conversion to Islam

[edit]

The conversion of the local Buddhist population to Islam was completed in the second half of the 15th century.[45]

After being converted, the descendants of the previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" (Dzungars) were the ones who built Buddhist monuments in their area.[46]

15th and 16th centuries

[edit]
See also: Turpan Khanate and Ming–Turpan conflict

Buddhist images and temples in Turfan were described in 1414 by the Ming diplomat Chen Cheng.[47][48]

As late as 1420, the Timurid envoy Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh, who passed through Turpan on the way from Herat to Beijing, reported that many of the city's residents were "infidels". He visited a "very large and beautiful" temple with a statue of Shakyamuni; in one of the versions of his account it was also claimed that many Turpanians "worshipped the cross".[49]

"Mughal embassy", seen by the Dutch visitors in Beijing in 1656. According to Lach & Kley (1993), modern historians (namely, Luciano Petech) think that the emissaries portrayed had come from Turpan, rather than all the way from the Moghul India.[50]

The Moghul ruler of Turpan Yunus Khan, also known as Ḥājjī 'Ali (ruled 1462–1478), unified Moghulistan (roughly corresponding to today's Eastern Xinjiang) under his authority in 1472. Around that time, a conflict with the Ming China started over the issues of tribute trade: Turpanians benefited from sending "tribute missions" to China, which allowed them to receive valuable gifts from the Ming emperors and to do plenty of trading on the side; the Chinese, however, felt that receiving and entertaining these missions was just too expensive. (Muslim envoys to the early Ming China were impressed by the lavish reception offered to them along their route through China, from Suzhou to Beijing, such as described by Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh in 1420–1421.[51])

A model of the Turpan water system, (karez) in the Turpan Water Museum: Water is collected from mountains and channeled underground to grape vineyards.

Yunus Khan was irritated by the restrictions on the frequency and size of Turpanian missions (no more than one mission in 5 years, with no more than 10 members) imposed by the Ming government in 1465 and by the Ming's refusal to bestow sufficiently luxurious gifts on his envoys (1469). Accordingly, in 1473 he went to war against China, and succeeded in capturing Hami in 1473 from the Oirat Mongol Henshen and holding it for a while, until Ali was repulsed by the Ming dynasty into Turfan. He reoccupied Hami after Ming left. Henshen's Mongols recaptured Hami twice in 1482 and 1483, but the son of Ali, Ahmad Alaq, who ruled Eastern Moghulistan or Turpan Khanate, reconquered it in 1493 and captured the Hami leader and the resident of China in Hami (Hami was a vassal state to Ming). In response, the Ming dynasty imposed an economic blockade on Turfan and kicked out all the Uyghurs from Gansu. It became so harsh for Turfan that Ahmed left. Ahmed's son Mansur succeeded him and took over Hami in 1517.[52][53] These conflicts were called the Ming–Turpan conflict.

Several times, after occupying Hami, Mansur tried to attack China in 1524 with 20,000 men, but was beaten by Chinese forces. The Turpan kingdom under Mansur, in alliance with Oirat Mongols, tried to raid Suzhou in Gansu in 1528, but were severely defeated by Ming Chinese forces and suffered heavy casualties.[54] The Chinese refused to lift the economic blockade and restrictions that had led to the battles and continued restricting Turpan's tribute and trade with China. Turfan also annexed Hami.[55]

18th and 19th centuries

[edit]

The Imin mosque of Turfan was built in 1779.[56]

Francis Younghusband visited Turpan in 1887 on his overland journey from Beijing to India. He said it consisted of two walled towns, a Chinese one with a population of no more than 5,000 and, about a mile (1.6 km) to the west, a Turk town of "probably" 12,000 to 15,000 inhabitants. The town (presumably the "Turk town") had four gateways, one for each of the cardinal directions, of solid brickwork and massive wooden doors plated with iron and covered by a semicircular bastion. The well-kept walls were of mud and about 35 ft (10.7 m) tall and 20 to 30 feet (6 to 9 m) thick, with loopholes at the top. There was a level space about 15 yards (14 m) wide outside the main walls surrounded by a musketry wall about 8 ft (2.4 m) high, with a ditch around it some 12 ft (3.7 m) deep and 20 ft (6 m) wide. There were drumtowers over the gateways, small square towers at the corners and two small square bastions between the corners and the gateways, "two to each front". Wheat, cotton, poppies, melons and grapes were grown in the surrounding fields.[57]

Turpan grapes impressed other travelers to the region as well. The 19th-century Russian explorer Grigory Grum-Grshimailo, thought the local raisins may be "the best in the world" and noted the buildings of a "perfectly peculiar design" used for drying them called chunche.[58]

Mongols, Chinese and Chantos all lived in Turfan during this period.[59]

20th and 21st centuries

[edit]

In 1931, a Uyghur rebellion broke out in the region, after a Chinese commander tried to forcibly marry a local girl.[60] The Chinese responded by indiscriminately attacking Muslims; this turned the entire countryside against the Chinese administration and the Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz and Tungans joined the rebels.[60]

On 19 August 1981, Deng Xiaoping conducted an inspection in Turpan Prefecture.[61]

On 31 March 1995, Turpan and Dunhuang became sister cities.[61]

Geography

[edit]

Subdivisions

[edit]

Turpan directly controls one district and two counties.

Map
# Name Chinese characters Hanyu Pinyin Uyghur (UEY) Uyghur Latin (ULY) Population
(2020 Census) 		Area (km2) Density (/km2)
1 Gaochang District 高昌区 Gāochāng Qū قاراھوجا رايونى‎ Qarahoja Rayoni 317,443 13,651 23.25
2 Shanshan County 鄯善县 Shànshàn Xiàn پىچان ناھىيىسى‎ Pichan Nahiyisi 242,310 39,547 6.13
3 Toksun County 托克逊县 Tuōkèxùn Xiàn توقسۇن ناھىيىسى‎ Toqsun Nahiyisi 134,235 16,561 8.11
View of the "Flaming Mountains"

Turpan is located about 150 km (93 mi) southeast of Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital, in a mountain basin, on the northern side of the Turpan Depression, at an elevation of 30 m (98 ft) above sea level. Outside of Turpan is a small volcanic cone, the Turfan volcano, that is said to have erupted in 1120 as described in the Song dynasty.[62] In June 1995, a book of standard names for local geography was published.[61]

Climate

[edit]

Turpan has an extremely continental desert climate (Köppen Climate Classification BWk. Trewartha BWho), with long, extremely hot summers (resembling a hot desert climate or BWh) and somewhat short but very cold winters, with very brief spring and autumn in between. Annual precipitation is very low, amounting to only 15.7 millimetres (0.62 in). The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −6.7 °C (19.9 °F) in January to 33.1 °C (91.6 °F) in July, or a very large seasonal variation of 39.8 °C (71.6 °F); the annual mean is 15.7 °C (60.3 °F).[63] With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 48% in December to 75% in September, sunshine is abundant and the city receives 2,912 hours of bright sunshine annually.

Extremes have ranged from −28.9 °C (−20 °F) to 49.1 °C (120 °F) with Sanbu to its east having recorded a national all-time record high for China at 52.2 °C (126 °F),[64][65] although a reading of 49.6 °C (121 °F) in July 1975 is regarded as dubious.[66] However, the high heat and dryness of the summer, when combined with the area's ancient system of irrigation, allows the countryside around Turpan to produce great quantities of high-quality fruit.

Climate data for Turpan, elevation 39 m (128 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 8.5
(47.3) 		19.5
(67.1) 		31.7
(89.1) 		40.5
(104.9) 		43.6
(110.5) 		47.6
(117.7) 		49.1
(120.4) 		47.8
(118.0) 		43.4
(110.1) 		34.3
(93.7) 		23.0
(73.4) 		9.6
(49.3) 		49.1
(120.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −2.3
(27.9) 		7.0
(44.6) 		17.9
(64.2) 		27.8
(82.0) 		33.9
(93.0) 		38.8
(101.8) 		40.5
(104.9) 		39.0
(102.2) 		32.6
(90.7) 		22.5
(72.5) 		10.3
(50.5) 		−0.4
(31.3) 		22.3
(72.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) −6.7
(19.9) 		1.3
(34.3) 		11.6
(52.9) 		20.7
(69.3) 		26.6
(79.9) 		31.6
(88.9) 		33.1
(91.6) 		31.2
(88.2) 		24.6
(76.3) 		14.5
(58.1) 		4.4
(39.9) 		−4.4
(24.1) 		15.7
(60.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −10.3
(13.5) 		−3.5
(25.7) 		5.9
(42.6) 		14.2
(57.6) 		19.8
(67.6) 		24.7
(76.5) 		26.5
(79.7) 		24.6
(76.3) 		18.4
(65.1) 		9.1
(48.4) 		0.3
(32.5) 		−7.6
(18.3) 		10.2
(50.3)
Record low °C (°F) −28.9
(−20.0) 		−24.5
(−12.1) 		−10.4
(13.3) 		−1.8
(28.8) 		4.7
(40.5) 		11.5
(52.7) 		15.5
(59.9) 		11.6
(52.9) 		1.3
(34.3) 		−5.7
(21.7) 		−17.8
(0.0) 		−26.1
(−15.0) 		−28.9
(−20.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 0.9
(0.04) 		0.5
(0.02) 		0.7
(0.03) 		0.9
(0.04) 		1.0
(0.04) 		2.6
(0.10) 		2.0
(0.08) 		2.0
(0.08) 		1.4
(0.06) 		1.2
(0.05) 		0.6
(0.02) 		0.9
(0.04) 		14.7
(0.6)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.7 1.1 2.0 2.3 1.9 0.9 0.8 0.5 1.1 12.9
Average snowy days 2.5 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 2.6 6.2
Average relative humidity (%) 56 40 25 23 25 27 30 31 35 45 50 56 37
Mean monthly sunshine hours 121.8 172.0 234.2 263.7 308.4 301.6 303.3 299.6 273.5 238.6 163.7 108.2 2,788.6
Percentage possible sunshine 41 57 62 65 67 66 66 71 74 71 57 39 61
Source 1: China Meteorological Administration[67][68][69]
Source 2: [70]
Climate data for Turpan (Dongkan Station), elevation −49 m (−161 ft), (1991–2020 normals)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −1.9
(28.6) 		7.6
(45.7) 		18.6
(65.5) 		28.5
(83.3) 		34.5
(94.1) 		39.3
(102.7) 		40.8
(105.4) 		39.3
(102.7) 		33.2
(91.8) 		23.2
(73.8) 		10.9
(51.6) 		0.0
(32.0) 		22.8
(73.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) −8.0
(17.6) 		0.5
(32.9) 		11.1
(52.0) 		20.7
(69.3) 		26.8
(80.2) 		31.9
(89.4) 		33.3
(91.9) 		31.4
(88.5) 		24.8
(76.6) 		14.8
(58.6) 		3.8
(38.8) 		−5.7
(21.7) 		15.5
(59.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −12.8
(9.0) 		−5.5
(22.1) 		4.5
(40.1) 		13.8
(56.8) 		19.7
(67.5) 		24.9
(76.8) 		26.6
(79.9) 		24.7
(76.5) 		18.3
(64.9) 		8.6
(47.5) 		−1.3
(29.7) 		−9.9
(14.2) 		9.3
(48.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 0.8
(0.03) 		0.4
(0.02) 		0.6
(0.02) 		1.0
(0.04) 		1.0
(0.04) 		2.5
(0.10) 		2.0
(0.08) 		1.9
(0.07) 		1.3
(0.05) 		0.9
(0.04) 		0.4
(0.02) 		0.6
(0.02) 		13.4
(0.53)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.8 1.0 2.1 2.4 2.1 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.8 12.8
Average snowy days 2.2 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 2.0 4.9
Average relative humidity (%) 56 41 26 24 25 28 32 33 34 41 48 57 37
Mean monthly sunshine hours 161.9 193.2 246.9 267.1 307.9 304.8 306.1 302.3 282.0 254.7 186.0 140.0 2,952.9
Percentage possible sunshine 55 64 66 66 67 67 67 71 77 76 65 50 66
Source: China Meteorological Administration[67][71]

Demographics

[edit]

According to the 2015 government census,[72] the city of Turpan had a population of 651,853 (population density 15.99 inh./km2). Islam is largest religion. The breakdown by ethnicity was as follows:

2000 2015 2018
Nationality Percentage
Uyghurs
 
 70.0%
Han
 
 23.3%
Hui
 
 6.4%
Others
 
 0.3%
Percentage
 
 75.0%
 
 18.7%
 
 6.0%
 
 0.3%
Percentage
 
 77.0%
 
 16.8%
 
 5.9%
 
 0.3%

Language

[edit]

There is Chinese influence in the vocabulary of Uyghur dialect in Turpan.[73]

Assimilation

[edit]

Turpan Uyghurs have more Han Chinese features and looks than Uyghurs elsewhere and this is suggested to be due to intermarriage between Han Chinese and Uyghurs in the past according to the locals.[74] Due to physical features found in Uyghurs in Turpan it was claimed that Uyghurs married slaves sent to Turpan's Lukchun area by the Qing according to the Manchu Ji Dachun.[75][76]

Economy

[edit]
Youth Road (青年路), a Turpan street shaded by grapevine trellises

Turpan is an agricultural economy growing vegetables, cotton, and especially grapes being China's largest raisin producing area.[77] There is a steady increase in farming acreage devoted to grapes backed by strong local government support for increased production.[77] The local government has coordinated improvements in raisin distribution, offered preferential loans for grape cultivation, and free management training to growers.[77] The annual Turpan Grape festival includes a mass wedding of Uyghurs funded by the government.[78]

Transport

[edit]
Turpan North Railway Station
Turpan Railway Station

Turpan is served by the Lanzhou–Xinjiang High-Speed Railway through the Turpan North Railway Station. Turpan Railway Station is the junction for two conventional lines, the Lanzhou-Xinjiang and the Southern Xinjiang Railways. The Turpan Tram [zh] is currently under construction.

China National Highway 312 passes through Turpan.

The Tulufan Jiaohe Airport is close to Turpan North Railway Station.

Attractions

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Turpan is home to one of several caves associated with the pious Christian and Muslim legend of the Seven Sleepers.[79]

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Turpan

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Turpan (Chinese: 吐鲁番; pinyin: Tǔlǔfān) is a in the Uyghur Autonomous Region of , covering an area of 69,759 square kilometers with a population of 693,988 as of 2020. Located in the , it features an extreme arid characterized by scorching summers with average highs exceeding 40°C, minimal annual of about 20 mm, and reliance on the ancient karez underground network to support oasis . Historically a key oasis hub on the , Turpan facilitated trade and cultural exchange, evidenced by archaeological sites such as the , an ancient urban complex dating back over 2,000 years. The region's economy thrives on and melon production, yielding renowned grape varieties that underpin local wine-making and exports, sustained by the ingenuity of the karez system which channels without loss. Notable natural landmarks include the Flaming Mountains, dramatic red sandstone formations that intensify the area's heat and inspired elements of literature like .

Names and Etymology

Historical and Linguistic Origins

The toponym Turpan derives from the , a Turkic tongue, where it denotes either "fertile land" or "the lowest place," aptly describing the oasis amid the Turpan Basin's extreme depression, which reaches 154 meters below . This name entered official Chinese administrative records during the (1368–1644), when the area was formalized as a second-class under direct imperial control, though it likely circulated earlier among Uyghur speakers following their settlement in the region around the 9th century CE. Prior to the widespread adoption of Turpan, the locale bore earlier designations tied to its ancient inhabitants and political entities. During the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE–24 CE), it was known as Gushi, associated with indigenous settlements of Indo-European Tocharian-speaking peoples who engaged in agriculture and trade by 108 BCE. These Tocharian communities, speaking an Indo-European language distinct from later Turkic arrivals, left linguistic traces in the Turfan dialect (Tocharian A), documented in manuscripts from the area dating to the 5th–8th centuries CE, though the place name itself shifted with demographic changes. The transition to Turkic nomenclature reflects broader multilingual influences in the oases, where names evolved amid interactions between Indo-European, Turkic, Persian, and Chinese linguistic spheres, but Turpan solidified with Uyghur dominance post-9th century, supplanting prior terms like the Tang-era Xi Prefecture (西州) established after 640 CE conquest.

Modern Designations

Turpan is officially designated as a (地级市) in the Uyghur Autonomous Region of the , established under the administrative reforms of the region in 1970. Its name is 吐鲁番市 (Tǔlǔfān Shì), pronounced [tʰûlùfán ʂɨ̂], reflecting phonetic approximation of the Uyghur term. In Uyghur, it is rendered as تۇرپان شەھىرى (Turpan Shehiri), denoting the urban center in the local Turkic language. The city's administrative structure includes Gaochang District (高昌区) as its urban core, encompassing the main population and economic activities, alongside Shanshan County (鄯善县) to the south and Toksun County (托克逊县) to the west, covering a total land area of approximately 22,000 square kilometers. This subdivision aligns with China's hierarchical governance model, where the prefecture-level city reports to the Xinjiang regional government in Ürümqi, approximately 180 kilometers northwest. Population estimates for the administrative area stood at around 682,000 as of 2020, predominantly Uyghur with Han Chinese minorities. In international contexts, Turpan is commonly transliterated as "Turpan" or "Turfan" in English, with "Turpan" favored in Uyghur-influenced sources to preserve phonetic accuracy, while "Turfan" appears in older Pinyin-influenced mappings. No alternative modern designations exist beyond these official linguistic and administrative forms, though the region features UNESCO-recognized elements like the karez irrigation systems under the city's .

Geography

Location and Topography

Turpan is situated in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of northwestern China, approximately 180 kilometers southeast of . The city lies at coordinates 42°57′04″N 89°11′22″E. It occupies a strategic position along historical trade routes in the eastern region. The topography of Turpan is dominated by the , a fault-bounded intermontane basin covering roughly 50,000 square kilometers. This depression reaches China's lowest elevation at Ayding Lake, 155 meters below . The basin is enclosed by mountain ranges, including the Bogda Shan to the north with peaks exceeding 5,445 meters and the Kuruktag Mountains to the . These surrounding highlands, part of the broader system, create a stark elevational contrast, contributing to the area's extreme aridity and thermal extremes. The depression's formation stems from tectonic shearing during the Late Permian, resulting in a structure flanked by uplifted blocks. Eroded red formations, such as the Flaming Mountains, characterize the central basin's rugged , spanning 98 kilometers in length. This isolates the region, limiting moisture influx and fostering a continental desert landscape.

Climate and Environmental Features

Turpan lies within the , a fault-bounded basin that forms one of China's lowest and driest regions, with its lowest point at Ayding Lake approximately 154 meters below . This exacerbates extreme temperature variations, trapping heat and contributing to the area's reputation as China's hottest location. The climate is classified as an arid type (Köppen BWk), marked by continental extremes: summers with average July highs of 39.7 °C and lows of 28.3 °C, and winters with January averages around -7.6 °C. Annual averages just 15.7 mm, primarily in sparse winter or summer traces, underscoring the hyper-arid conditions that limit natural vegetation to desert shrubs and salt-tolerant species outside irrigated zones. The region routinely records blistering heat, with the national high of 52.2 °C measured in Sanbao township on July 16, 2023, surpassing the prior benchmark of 50.3 °C from 2015 near Ayding Lake. Such peaks stem from the depression's orographic —flanked by the mountains to the west and Bogda Shan to the northeast—which blocks moist air masses, while intense solar radiation on the basin floor amplifies ground temperatures exceeding 70 °C on exposed surfaces. Wind erosion shapes the landscape, sculpting dramatic formations like the Flaming Mountains, red-hued sandstone ridges formed by tectonic uplift and millennia of aeolian abrasion, which reflect the geological interplay of , , and arid . Human adaptation has long countered these rigors through the karez system, an ancient subterranean aqueduct network originating from Persian qanats but extensively developed in Turpan over two millennia. Comprising vertical wells, sloped tunnels, and open distribution channels, karezes passively convey from distant alluvial fans via , irrigating oases that produce grapes, melons, and cotton despite negligible surface runoff. Over 1,000 karez lines persist in the basin, though many have declined due to and modern pumping; their sustainable design historically stabilized and prevented salinization, enabling sparse but vital riparian ecosystems amid the encircling Gobi and fringes.

Administrative Subdivisions

Turpan City, a in Uyghur Autonomous Region, comprises one urban district and two counties as its county-level subdivisions. These are District, which forms the central urban area and seat of the prefectural government; Shanshan County to the southeast; and Toksun County to the southwest. Gaochang District encompasses the main built-up area of Turpan, including key infrastructure such as the Turpan Railway Station and major agricultural and industrial zones focused on cultivation and related processing. Shanshan County, known for its arid terrain and historical sites, administers rural townships emphasizing and mining activities. Toksun County covers expansive desert and mountainous regions, with economic activities centered on extraction and sparse oasis farming. This structure reflects the prefecture's integration into China's hierarchical administrative system, where the prefecture-level city oversees local governance, economic planning, and public services across its subdivisions, with coordination from the Xinjiang regional government.

History

Ancient Settlements and Early Kingdoms

The Turpan Depression, an oasis in eastern Xinjiang, featured ancient settlements from the 1st millennium BC, primarily inhabited by the Jushi people, who established the Jushi Kingdom in the Turpan Basin. This kingdom encompassed key oases and was characterized by fortified urban centers adapted to the arid environment. Archaeological evidence from sites like Jiaohe indicates early urban development focused on agriculture supported by irrigation systems. Jiaohe, the capital of the , was founded around 108 BC on a leaf-shaped plateau between two rivers, forming a natural fortress without walls. The city spanned over 2300 years of occupation, serving as a political, , and commercial hub with structures including granaries, temples, and residential areas built from . It functioned as the kingdom's center until approximately 450 AD, when political shifts led to its decline in prominence. Gaochang emerged as another significant early settlement in the , initially constructed as a military outpost amid conflicts with the . Positioned east of Jiaohe, it developed into a walled city with administrative and defensive features, reflecting early integration of Chinese influence in the region. By the Han period, the had split into Nearer Jushi (around Turpan) and Further Jushi, with evolving into a distinct power center. In 60 BC, the established the first permanent Chinese garrison in Turfan among the Jushi, marking the onset of sustained imperial oversight and cultural exchange, though local kingdoms retained autonomy until later consolidations. The Jushi, likely Indo-European speakers akin to , maintained distinct linguistic and cultural practices predating widespread .

Silk Road Era and Foreign Influences

Jiaohe, established around the 2nd century BCE as a fortified garrison town by the Jushi people, emerged as a vital northern Silk Road waypoint connecting the Tarim Basin to Central Asia and facilitating east-west commerce in silk, spices, and precious metals. The site's strategic location on a cliff between converging rivers provided natural defenses, supporting a population engaged in agriculture via irrigation and trade relay, with Han dynasty expansion in 108 BCE integrating it into Chinese administrative networks while preserving local Indo-European linguistic and cultural elements evidenced by Caucasian skeletal remains in nearby graves. Prosperity peaked during the Northern Wei and Tang periods, when Jiaohe served as a regional capital, but invasions led to its gradual abandonment by the 9th century CE. Gaochang, constructed concurrently in the 1st century BCE as a outpost east of Jiaohe, evolved into an independent kingdom by the CE under local rulers who balanced alliances between the Western Turks and Tang to maintain autonomy until its conquest in 640 CE. As a nexus, Gaochang hosted diverse merchants and missionaries, yielding archaeological evidence of extensive trade including Sasanian silver coins and imitations from Persian sources, indicative of direct economic ties to the between the 3rd and 7th centuries CE. The kingdom's elite adopted sedentary oasis lifestyles, with irrigation systems enabling and grain production that sustained caravan traffic, while administrative documents from the Astana cemetery reveal a multilingual blending Chinese imperial oversight with local governance. Foreign religious influences profoundly shaped Turpan's era, with arriving via Indian and Kushan intermediaries to dominate Gaochang's state cult, as attested by temple complexes and Xuanzang's 629 CE account of royal patronage including scriptural translations and monastic support. , originating in 3rd-century Sassanid Persia, gained adherents through Sogdian traders, evidenced by bilingual Mani texts in Middle Iranian and Chinese from Turpan sites, reflecting syncretic adaptations to local contexts. Nestorian spread from Syrian missions, with Tang-era ruins at Xipang yielding cross motifs and Syriac inscriptions dating to the 7th-10th centuries CE, underscoring ecclesiastical networks paralleling commercial routes. Zoroastrian fire altars and artifacts further highlight pre-Islamic Persian impacts, while multilingual manuscripts from Astana and Bezeklik—encompassing Sogdian, Tocharian, and —demonstrate cultural osmosis without supplanting indigenous practices, as no single faith achieved monopoly prior to later shifts.

Uyghur and Mongol Periods

Following the destruction of the by Kyrgyz forces in 840 CE, remnant Uyghur groups migrated westward to the Turpan oasis, where they established the , also known as the Idiqut state, around 843 CE. The capital was located at (Kara-Khoja), an archaeological site roughly 30 kilometers east of modern Turpan, in the ruins of the former kingdom. Ruled by hereditary idiquts, titled "spiritual lords," the kingdom controlled the eastern and maintained agricultural prosperity through irrigation systems like karez wells, supporting viticulture and trade along northern Silk Road routes. The Uyghurs initially retained as a from their khaganate era but transitioned toward by the 10th century, fostering a vibrant center for Buddhist literature, including translations of sutras and artistic expressions like cave murals at sites such as Bezeklik. Minorities practiced Nestorian Christianity and other faiths, reflecting the region's cosmopolitan interactions. Economically, Qocho served as a key intermediary in east-west commerce, exporting local produce and facilitating cultural exchanges, while politically allying with regional powers like the Liao and Kara-Khitai to preserve autonomy. In 1209 CE, Idiqut Barchuq submitted to during Mongol campaigns in Central Asia, transforming into a without direct conquest or widespread destruction. Under Mongol overlordship, the kingdom retained internal autonomy under idiqut rule, contributing troops and tribute to the empire. By the (1271–1368 CE), Turpan was administered as part of Hezhou (modern Karakhoja), with a pacification commission and brigade overseer (wanhu) overseeing a population of approximately 200,000, predominantly with Mongol settlers; the area fell under the Chagatai Khanate's influence post-Yuan fragmentation. Local Uyghur Buddhist rulers persisted until the late 14th century, when Islamization accelerated under Muslim Chagatai successors, leading the last idiqut to flee to around 1284 CE.

Islamic Era and Qing Integration

The adoption of Islam in the Turpan region accelerated after the Mongol era, as the eastern territories of the , including Turfan, transitioned from Tengriism and to under successive khans. Tarmashirin Khan's conversion around 1331 marked a pivotal shift, promoting Islamic and cultural integration among Turkic nomads and oasis dwellers, though resistance from traditionalist factions persisted. By this period, Turfan's Uyghur populations, previously influenced by and , began incorporating Islamic elements through trade and migration along eastern routes. From the 14th to 16th centuries, Islam solidified in Turfan, Hami, and adjacent oases via Sufi orders and political alliances under the Moghulistan khanate, successors to the eastern Chagatai. This era saw the construction of mosques and the veneration of Quranic sites, such as the Ashab al-Kahf mausoleum, which blended local traditions with Islamic hagiography, evidencing widespread conversion among sedentary communities by the 15th century. The process displaced prior Indic and Nestorian Christian remnants, establishing a predominantly Muslim demographic sustained by agricultural stability in the oasis. Qing integration commenced during the dynasty's campaigns against the , with Turfan's local begs, led by Emin Khoja, submitting to Emperor Qianlong in 1756 to counter Dzungar incursions, providing intelligence and resources that facilitated Qing advances. Following the Dzungars' decisive defeat by , Turfan was incorporated into the Qing administrative framework as part of Ili General's jurisdiction, with garrisons stationed to enforce tribute and suppress nomad raids. Local Muslim elites retained semi-autonomy under the beg system, but Qing oversight emphasized fiscal extraction and Han settlement, fostering economic ties while maintaining Islamic legal customs in personal matters. Early resistance, including the 1765 Ush-Turfan rebellion against a Qing-installed potentate, tested this structure but was quelled through military reprisals and co-optation of loyal begs, ensuring long-term stability until 19th-century upheavals. This integration preserved Turpan's role as an agricultural hub, with adapted under dual Manchu-Muslim administration, though it subordinated the region to imperial priorities over local .

20th Century Conflicts and PRC Consolidation

In the early 1930s, the Turfan Depression emerged as a primary hub for Muslim-led insurgencies during the , triggered by provincial governor Jin Shuren's imposition of exorbitant taxes, confiscation of livestock, and execution of local leaders in the adjacent region. Insurgents, including Uyghur forces under Ma Fuming and Hui Muslim troops commanded by General , captured key positions around Turpan, rallying disparate ethnic groups against Han-dominated provincial rule. By , Ma Zhongying's army had advanced through the area, clashing with government forces amid broader chaos that encompassed Soviet-backed interventions to prop up warlord , whose troops and units pushed rebels back, reaching but not exceeding Turpan in their counteroffensives. These conflicts, rooted in local grievances over resource extraction and ethnic favoritism under Republican-era , resulted in thousands of casualties and temporary shifts in control, though Soviet influence ultimately stabilized Sheng's regime until his ouster in 1944. The late 1940s saw escalating tensions across from the Second East Turkestan Republic's establishment in northern districts, but Turpan in the east remained under Kuomintang-aligned control with limited direct involvement in the Ili-based separatist push, which emphasized pan-Turkic and Soviet-supported autonomy rather than widespread eastern uprisings. As the concluded, (PLA) units advanced into eastern , arriving in Turpan by October 18, 1949, following negotiations with a that included former East Turkestan leaders like Ehmetjan Qasim, who pledged allegiance to the (PRC) to avert bloodshed. This incorporation faced negligible armed opposition in Turpan, contrasting with sporadic resistance elsewhere, as local elites prioritized stability amid the collapse of Nationalist authority. Post-1949 consolidation under the PRC involved rapid administrative reorganization, with Turpan integrated into the Xinjiang province structure by 1950, enabling land reforms that redistributed feudal holdings from remnants and absentee landlords to peasant cooperatives, boosting agricultural output in the oasis through collectivized systems. By 1955, the establishment of the Uyghur Autonomous Region formalized Turpan's status within a nominally ethnic-led framework, though central directives enforced class struggle campaigns against perceived counter-revolutionaries, including ex-warlord affiliates and tribal leaders, suppressing latent independence sentiments through purges and re-education. These measures, justified by as eradicating "feudal remnants" and foreign intrigue, prioritized Han cadre influx and infrastructure like roads linking Turpan to Urumqi, fostering economic dependence on the core while curtailing autonomous Islamist networks that had fueled prior revolts.

Post-1949 Development and Modern Stability

Following the establishment of the in 1949, Turpan was incorporated into the Uyghur Autonomous Region, with the prefecture-level administration formalized in 1954 amid land reforms that redistributed and expanded systems, building on ancient karez networks to support cotton, grape, and vegetable cultivation. The (XPCC) played a key role in agricultural and reclamation projects, increasing cultivated land in the Turpan Basin from approximately 20,000 hectares in the early 1950s to over 100,000 hectares by the through state-directed investment. Economic output surged post-1978 reforms, with Turpan's GDP growing at an average annual rate of around 10% from 2000 to 2020, driven by agro-processing industries like production—accounting for over 40% of China's total—and initial diversification into via local reserves. Infrastructure development accelerated in the 21st century, exemplified by the electrification and high-speed upgrades to the Lanzhou-Ürümqi railway line passing through Turpan, completed in phases between 2014 and 2017, reducing travel time to Ürümqi from hours to under 30 minutes and facilitating freight transport of agricultural goods. Highway networks expanded, with the G30 Lianyungang-Khorgas Expressway connecting Turpan to regional hubs by 2011, boosting trade volumes; per capita GDP reached 42,417 RMB (about 6,000 USD) by 2020, reflecting sustained investment in energy and tourism infrastructure, including a modern tourism tram project initiated in 2022. Poverty alleviation efforts culminated in the eradication of absolute poverty by 2020, with rural incomes in Turpan rising over 8% annually from 2013 to 2020 through targeted subsidies and vocational training programs. Social stability measures intensified after terrorist incidents in the 1990s and 2000s, including the 1997 bus bombings and 2014 attacks elsewhere in , leading to the establishment of and training centers starting in 2014, which PRC authorities credit with and skills enhancement for over 1 million participants region-wide by 2019. Empirical data indicate a sharp decline in violent incidents, with no terrorist attacks reported in since 2017, correlating with expanded grid-based policing and systems implemented from 2016 onward. These measures, while criticized by Western governments as repressive—claims PRC sources rebut as biased interference—have coincided with stability and economic continuity, as Turpan's urban grew from 254,000 in 2000 to over 700,000 by 2020, with Han migration stabilizing at low levels post-2010. Regional guidelines emphasize law-based to prevent , attributing sustained peace to integrated counter-terrorism frameworks rather than ethnic policies alone.

Demographics

Ethnic and Religious Composition

The ethnic composition of Turpan City features a substantial majority of non-Han groups, reflecting its location in Uyghur Autonomous Region. According to the 2010 national conducted by Chinese authorities, ethnic minorities comprised 74.98% of the (467,040 individuals), while accounted for 25.02% (155,863 individuals), in a total of approximately 622,903. By , statistics reported ethnic minorities at 83.2% (526,700 individuals) of the total , indicating a shift possibly influenced by differential birth rates and migration patterns, with Han proportions declining relative to minorities. The Uyghur ethnic group predominates among minorities, forming the core demographic in Turpan Prefecture, alongside smaller Hui, Kazakh, and other communities; consistently represent around 70% or more of the overall based on regional analyses. Han settlement has grown since the mid-20th century due to state-directed migration, but data show minorities retaining a clear majority, though critics note potential underreporting of Han influx in sensitive areas. Religiously, Islam dominates, aligned with the Uyghur and Hui majorities, who practice as their primary faith, rooted in historical adoption from the onward. No official census tracks religious affiliation in , but empirical correlations with ethnicity suggest Muslims exceed 70% of Turpan's residents, given the minority-heavy composition and near-universal adherence among Uyghurs and Hui. Han , comprising the largest non-Muslim group, predominantly follow state-promoted secularism, with minor adherence to folk traditions or ; Christianity and other faiths have negligible presence. Chinese government sources emphasize religious diversity and non-adherence among many, including some Uyghurs, but independent assessments highlight Islam's cultural centrality amid restrictions on practice. Historical residues of persist in archaeological sites, but current observance is marginal.

Language Usage and Cultural Practices

The primary language spoken in Turpan is Uyghur, a Karluk-branch Turkic language serving as the official local tongue alongside , with government documents required in both scripts—Uyghur in modified Perso-Arabic and Chinese in simplified characters. Uyghur predominates in daily interpersonal communication among the ethnic Uyghur majority, while Mandarin functions for official administration, , and commerce, reflecting China's policy that promotes bilingualism to facilitate integration without supplanting minority tongues. Public signage and media in Turpan typically feature dual-language displays, underscoring practical amid demographic shifts from Han migration. Cultural practices in Turpan draw from Uyghur traditions shaped by Central Asian Turkic roots, Islamic faith, and oasis agrarian life, emphasizing communal arts and seasonal rites over individualized expressions. The Xinjiang Uyghur Muqam, inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008, encompasses poetic song cycles, instrumental suites, and synchronized dances performed at gatherings, preserving oral repertoires tied to historical Silk Road exchanges. Meshrep assemblies, another UNESCO-listed practice since 2014, involve rhythmic music on instruments like the dutar and rawap, improvisational drama, acrobatics, and moral discourse to reinforce social cohesion and ethical norms within Uyghur communities. Islamic observance structures much of Turpan's cultural rhythm, with Sunni adhering to dietary customs, daily prayers at mosques, and major holidays like (Qurban Festival), marked by ritual animal sacrifice, feasting, and family visitations to affirm communal bonds and religious fidelity. Agricultural cycles inform secular traditions, such as grape harvesting rituals during the annual Turpan Grape Festival, where communal celebrations blend folklore, tastings of sun-dried raisins and wine (despite Islamic abstention preferences), and displays of ingenuity, echoing the region's millennia-old oasis heritage. These practices persist amid state-promoted adaptations, prioritizing empirical continuity of verifiable customs over ideologically filtered narratives from either advocacy groups or official channels. The population of Turpan Prefecture increased from 622,679 in the 2010 census to 693,988 in the 2020 census, reflecting an approximate 11.5% rise over the decade, or an average annual growth rate of about 1.1%. This growth aligns with broader patterns in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where the overall population expanded at a compound annual rate 1.15 percentage points above the national average between 2000 and 2020, driven by a combination of natural increase—particularly among ethnic minorities—and state-supported development initiatives. In Turpan, the urban core, with around 242,000 residents as of recent estimates, maintains a population density far below regional averages due to its expansive desert terrain, emphasizing rural and agricultural settlement patterns. Ethnic composition in Turpan has remained predominantly Uyghur, with approximately 71% of the urban population identifying as such in modern assessments, contrasting with more Han-dominant northern Xinjiang areas. However, post-1949 demographic shifts in Xinjiang, including Turpan, involved a marked increase in the Han Chinese share, rising region-wide from 6% in 1953 to over 40% by 2000, as natural growth rates among (historically higher due to larger family sizes) were supplemented by Han influxes. Turpan's Uyghur majority persisted due to its southern location and traditional agrarian base, but Han settlement grew during campaigns like the (1958–1962), when millions migrated to Xinjiang for reclamation and industrialization projects. Migration patterns feature state-encouraged Han relocation to since the 1950s, totaling around 1.5 million arrivals between 1954 and 1961 alone, aimed at bolstering agricultural production and infrastructure in arid zones like Turpan. Concurrently, some have engaged in labor migration to mainland Chinese cities or urban centers like for economic opportunities, mirroring patterns where Uyghur out-migration is often self-initiated and tied to rural , though return flows and local job creation in Turpan's and sectors mitigate net losses. Overall, these dynamics have contributed to stabilized growth without reversing Turpan's ethnic profile, as Han migrants concentrated in administrative and industrial roles while dominated traditional farming communities.

Economy

Agricultural Foundations and Innovations

Turpan's is constrained by its location in the hyper-arid , where annual precipitation averages less than 20 mm, necessitating reliance on for oasis-based farming. The foundational enabling this is the karez system, an ancient network of underground channels that taps alluvial fans from the Flaming Mountains, channeling water via gravity to surface canals for without significant evaporation losses. Originating likely during the Uyghur Huihe dynasty around 790 AD, though some evidence suggests earlier roots over 2,000 years ago, karez systems transformed the barren landscape into productive oases supporting settled . By 1957, Turpan hosted 1,237 karez systems spanning over 5,000 km in total length, irrigating fields and sustaining communities through sustainable, low-maintenance water delivery. These structures, comprising vertical wells for access, sloped tunnels, and open distribution channels, exemplify pre-modern adapted to local , where water flows from distant aquifers to low-elevation farmlands. Archaeological evidence from sites like Subeixi (ca. 500–300 BC) reveals early cultivation, including millet, alongside processed foods, indicating prehistoric adaptations that predated widespread karez but laid groundwork for intensified farming. However, numbers have declined to around 1,108 by 2009 due to competition from mechanized deep-well pumping, though remaining systems prove economically viable for and domestic use in marginal areas. Principal crops leverage the region's extreme diurnal temperature swings and long frost-free periods, fostering high-sugar fruits like grapes, for which Turpan is renowned. Vineyards cover over 38,000 hectares, cultivating more than 500 varieties and yielding 1.2 million tons in 2020, with raisins forming a key export. Ancient texts from the Jin to Tang dynasties document grape processing into wine and dried products, underscoring continuity in . Other staples include melons and cotton, supported by karez-fed fields, while modern cooperatives introduce machinery and techniques to enhance yields, though traditional systems persist for their resilience against drought. Innovations like for heat-tolerant strains and partial integration of complement karez, maintaining productivity amid climate pressures such as glacier retreat.

Industrial Growth and Energy Sector

Turpan's industrial sector remains relatively modest compared to its agricultural base, with growth concentrated in energy production and limited agro-processing activities. Key developments include fruit processing enterprises, such as Xinjiang Lianjie Fruit Industry Co., Ltd., which has operated for over a decade focusing on stable production of agricultural products derived from local grapes and other crops. Similarly, Turpan Silk Road Pearl Agricultural Bio-Technology Co., Ltd. processes approximately 8,000 tons of dried and fresh fruits annually, supporting value-added output from the region's vineyards. GDP in Turpan rose from 75,671 RMB in 2022 to 84,919 RMB in 2023, reflecting incremental industrial contributions amid broader economic improvements. The energy sector drives much of Turpan's industrial expansion, leveraging abundant solar resources and coal reserves in the Turpan-Hami coalfield. Coal-fired facilities include the Huadian Turpan power station, with two 135 MW units operational since 2006, and the Xinjiang Huadian Turpan Cogeneration Plant at 700 MW capacity. Coal mining activities feature underground gasification trials in the Aidinghu area to evaluate seam suitability for alternative extraction. In 2024, total power generation reached 25.77 billion kWh, with new energy sources contributing 6.561 billion kWh. Renewable energy has accelerated, with new installations comprising 74.2% of total capacity by June 2024, reaching 9.035 million kW. Major projects include a 1 GW (CSP) plus photovoltaic (PV) facility in , with 900 MW PV and the remainder CSP, backed by a 6 billion yuan investment to bolster local new growth. Two additional projects totaling 2 million kW connected to in 2024, enabling annual output of 10.5 billion kWh, equivalent to saving 4.2 million tons of standard . Projections target 10.96 million kW of grid-connected new capacity by end-2025, establishing Turpan as a million-kilowatt-scale renewable base. This shift supports a "heat economy" utilizing solar-thermal resources for industrial applications, though traditional remains integral to baseload supply.

Tourism and Commercial Development


Turpan's tourism sector leverages its 272 identified tourism resource units and 36 A-level scenic spots, including ancient sites like the , the engineering marvel of the karez underground irrigation system, and natural features such as the Flaming Mountains and Grape Valley. These attractions highlight the region's historical, cultural, and agricultural significance, with specialties like sand therapy at the Aiding Lake area drawing over 300,000 visitors annually for its purported therapeutic benefits derived from the area's extreme heat and mineral-rich sands. Visitor numbers surged in 2023, with 2.53 million tourists recorded from June 1 to 28 alone, reflecting a nearly 40 percent year-on-year increase amid post-pandemic recovery. Commercial development in Turpan is closely intertwined with tourism growth, emphasizing rural economies through activities like production and agricultural product sales at local markets. Night markets and guesthouses have expanded to support visitor influx, integrated into service frameworks such as the "Immediate Action" initiative by State Grid Turpan, which prioritizes reliable electricity supply for hotels, scenic areas, and commercial venues to sustain high-quality operations. This approach addresses seasonal limitations and management gaps, fostering sustained economic contributions from , including revenue from grape-related products and traditional crafts that bolster local livelihoods. Despite strengths in unique cultural assets like diverse grape varieties, challenges persist in extending tourism beyond peak summer periods and modernizing infrastructure to capitalize on broader regional heritage promotion.

Infrastructure and Connectivity

Transportation Networks

Turpan's primary rail connection is provided by the , which serves the city through Turpan North Railway Station, located approximately 17 kilometers north of the city center. This station handles high-speed trains connecting Turpan to major cities including Urumqi (about 1 hour travel time), (9.5 hours), (8 hours), and further east to destinations like . Additionally, Turpan Railway Station functions as a junction for conventional rail lines, accommodating slower trains to regional destinations such as and southern routes. The road network integrates Turpan into Xinjiang's broader highway system, with national and provincial roads facilitating bus and private vehicle travel. Long-distance buses operate from Turpan's bus stations to Urumqi (about 3 hours), , and other Silk Road cities, supported by expressways like those forming part of the regional trunk network linking to and provinces. Recent infrastructure upgrades, including highway expansions completed by 2025, have enhanced connectivity and economic integration. Air transport is available via Turpan Jiaohe Airport (IATA: TLQ), situated 10 kilometers northwest of the city and noted as one of China's lowest-elevation inland airports. The airport offers domestic flights primarily to Urumqi, , , , and other hubs, operated by airlines such as and , with passenger and cargo traffic showing significant growth as of August 2025. Within Turpan, local transportation relies on buses, taxis, and chartered vehicles, though the city lacks an extensive urban public transit system, emphasizing intercity networks for broader accessibility.

Water Management and Utilities

The karez system, an ancient underground irrigation network, has historically sustained agriculture in Turpan's arid environment by channeling meltwater from the Tianshan Mountains through gravity-fed tunnels, vertical wells, and horizontal canals, thereby minimizing evaporation losses in the desert climate. Originating from Persian qanat techniques but significantly expanded during the Qing Dynasty's 19th-century control of Xinjiang, the system supported oasis farming of grapes, melons, and other crops essential to local Uyghur communities. By the mid-20th century, approximately 600 karez were operational, irrigating vast farmlands, though their numbers have since declined to around 300 active channels, now providing only about 16% of Turpan's irrigation water due to competition from mechanized pumping. Modern water management in Turpan addresses severe scarcity exacerbated by agricultural expansion, mining, and dropping groundwater levels, with annual precipitation below 20 mm and reliance on limited mountain runoff. The Xinjiang Turfan Water Conservation Project, supported by the World Bank from 2010, aimed to reduce groundwater overdraft, mitigate flooding risks, and upgrade on-farm infrastructure through lined canals and efficient drip irrigation, achieving measurable declines in water use per hectare. Complementary strategies include structural adjustments in cropping—favoring drought-resistant varieties—and promotion of water-saving technologies across the Turpan-Hami Basin to counteract overexploitation. Utilities for domestic supply increasingly incorporate piped networks and treated groundwater, though challenges persist in rural areas where karez remnants supplement modern wells amid contamination risks from overuse. The "China Turpan Model" integrates traditional karez preservation with contemporary metering and allocation policies, offering replicable solutions for arid zones by balancing extraction with recharge via recharge ponds and reduced pumping. Despite these advances, ongoing threats from urbanization and inefficient legacy practices necessitate vigilant enforcement of quotas to prevent further depletion.

Cultural and Historical Significance

Archaeological Sites and Attractions

Turpan's archaeological landscape features well-preserved ruins from ancient Silk Road settlements, reflecting influences from Han Chinese, Tocharian, and later Uyghur cultures. Key sites include the Jiaohe and Gaochang ancient cities, the Astana tomb complex, and the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, which collectively span from the 2nd century BCE to the 14th century CE and illustrate urban planning, burial practices, and Buddhist artistry in a harsh desert environment. The , located 10 kilometers west of Turpan city on a cliff between two rivers, represent one of China's oldest and best-preserved earthen cities, originally constructed by the Jushi people around the BCE and flourishing through the (420–589 CE). Covering approximately 360,000 square meters, the site includes remnants of residences, temples, markets, and a Buddhist , with structures built from tamped earth that withstood floods and invasions until abandonment circa 1400 CE due to environmental shifts and Mongol incursions. Excavations have revealed artifacts like and coins, underscoring its role as a and hub on the northern branch. Gaochang Ruins, situated 30 kilometers southeast of Turpan amid the Flaming Mountains, encompass the largest ancient urban remains in , originating as a outpost known as bi in the 1st century BCE and evolving into a prosperous oasis kingdom by the CE. The walled city, spanning 1.65 million square meters with intact gates, palaces, and residential quarters, served as a vital nexus until its destruction by Mongol forces in the 13th–14th centuries, with peak activity under Uyghur rule from the . Archaeological work has uncovered Tang-era (618–907 CE) fortifications and remnants, highlighting adaptive to arid conditions. The Astana Tombs, an underground necropolis covering 10 square kilometers north of , contain over 1,000 graves primarily from Chinese settlers between the 4th and 8th centuries CE, yielding exceptionally preserved mummies, textiles, documents, and everyday items due to the dry climate. Systematic excavations since the 1950s have documented around 500 tombs, revealing Jin (265–420 CE) and artifacts such as silk fabrics, wooden slips with administrative records, and plant remains like Medicago seeds, which provide evidence of agricultural exchanges and burial customs blending Han and local traditions. Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, carved into cliffs 45 kilometers east of Turpan from the 5th to 14th centuries CE, comprise 83 grottoes adorned with vibrant murals depicting , donors, and narratives in Indo-Turkic styles influenced by Uyghur patronage. As Xinjiang's premier Buddhist cave complex, the site preserves over 40 accessible caves with frescoes illustrating the kingdom's religious synthesis, though many suffered damage from early 20th-century looting and natural erosion. Discoveries include polychrome clay figures and wall paintings offering insights into Central Asian iconography and monastic life.

Local Traditions and Festivals

The Turpan Grape Festival, initiated in 1990, occurs annually from late August to early September to celebrate the region's grape harvest, leveraging Turpan's arid climate that yields over 100 grape varieties with sugar content exceeding 20%. Events feature traditional Uyghur performances including mashrap folk dances, nazukum satirical storytelling, and kucha music, alongside government-sponsored mass weddings for over 100 couples dressed in colorful ethnic attire, drawing thousands to Grape Valley for tastings and cultural displays. Islamic holidays predominate among Turpan's Uyghur majority, with marking Ramadan's end through communal prayers, feasting on lamb pilaf and naan, and family gatherings, while (Qurban Festival) involves animal sacrifices shared with the needy, reflecting pastoral traditions in the oasis. These observances, aligned to the lunar Hijri , typically span three days each and integrate local customs like grape-infused sweets. Uyghur muqam, a UNESCO-recognized intangible heritage since 2005, encompasses classical suites of poetry, song, and dance performed at weddings, meshrep social assemblies, and festivals, preserving pre-Islamic Central Asian motifs amid regional musical diversity. Meshrep gatherings, rooted in communal ethics, feature improvised music on dutar lutes and rawap instruments, games, and moral discussions, often coinciding with holidays to reinforce social bonds in Turpan's villages. An Blossom Festival in spring highlights early fruit blooms with picnics and folk songs, though less formalized than the grape event.

Notable Individuals

Mahmud Muhiti (1887–1944/1945), born in Turpan to a middle-income Uyghur family, rose as a military leader and for East Turkistan . Educated locally before accompanying his brother to study in and , he commanded the 6th Uyghur Division and served as deputy chief of the Kashgar Military Region. In 1937, he organized an Islamic rebellion against the warlord Sheng Shicai's purges in , leading forces until defeat forced his flight to British India; later, he sought alliances in Japanese-occupied to revive the East Turkistan Republic. Emin Khoja (died c. 1776), a prominent 18th-century Uyghur leader from Turpan, allied with the against the Dzungar Khanate's incursions in 1720, contributing to their defeat in the region. Appointed hereditary governor of Turpan as reward, he maintained semi-autonomy under Qing oversight, traveled to —a notable for the era—and stabilized local rule amid ethnic tensions. His son constructed the Emin in 1777 to commemorate his achievements, symbolizing Uyghur-Qing collaboration. Abduhalik Uyghur (1901–1933), born in Turpan, emerged as a influential Uyghur poet and intellectual shaped by classical Arabic, Persian, and Uyghur studies begun in a local madrasah at age eight. Traveling with his father to , , and , he absorbed Jadidist reform ideas before returning to , where his poetry critiqued social injustices and promoted cultural revival; executed during regional unrest, his works remain emblematic of early 20th-century Uyghur literary resistance.

Political and Social Dynamics

Governance and Administrative Policies

Turpan functions as a within the Uyghur Autonomous Region, established through the administrative restructuring that converted Turpan Prefecture into city status on April 12, 2015. The city's governance adheres to China's hierarchical administrative system, led by the Communist Party of China (CPC) Turpan Municipal Committee, whose secretary holds ultimate authority over policy direction and implementation. The municipal people's government, headed by a , executes day-to-day administration, including , public services, and regulatory enforcement, all aligned with central CPC directives on regional stability and development. Administrative divisions under Turpan include District, which encompasses the urban core, along with County and Toksun County, covering rural and oasis areas. Local policies emphasize integrated military-civilian governance frameworks inherited from historical precedents and adapted for modern challenges, such as in arid conditions and promotion of agricultural specialties like cultivation under state-supported initiatives. These policies prioritize ethnic unity and , mandating equal treatment across groups while enforcing compliance with national laws on social order and anti-extremism measures. Economic administrative strategies focus on , including projects and tourism infrastructure, as outlined in prefectural plans reviewed by international bodies for environmental impact.

Security Measures and Counter-Terrorism Efforts

In response to violent incidents, including the June 26, 2013, attack in Lukqun township where a mob armed with knives targeted police stations and offices, resulting in 27 deaths after opened fire, Chinese authorities escalated counter-terrorism operations in Turpan . The incident, attributed to Uyghur separatists by , highlighted vulnerabilities in the region amid broader patterns of Islamist extremism linked to groups like the East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM), designated as terrorist by the UN Security Council. Following the 2014 wave of attacks across , Turpan implemented heightened physical security infrastructure as part of the national "Strike Hard Campaign against Violent ," including dense networks of convenience police stations spaced approximately every 200 meters, mandatory checkpoints for residents and vehicles, and expanded patrols by armed units. These measures aligned with 's 2018 implementing regulations for the People's Republic of China's Counter-Terrorism Law, emphasizing prevention through intelligence gathering, border controls, and restrictions on extremist materials. Official reports credit such deployments with dismantling terror cells and averting plots, contributing to zero major incidents in since 2017. Digital surveillance has been integral, with predictive policing apps and AI-driven monitoring of communications, , and daily activities enforced in Turpan to identify "extremist" behaviors like unusual religious practices or overseas contacts, justified by authorities as essential for preempting attacks akin to the 2013 event. Complementary programs include vocational centers in the prefecture aimed at , where participants undergo on Chinese laws, skills , and ideological reorientation; Chinese data indicate over 90% of attendees from such facilities in have reintegrated without , though independent verification is limited due to restricted access. These efforts reflect a community-focused strategy targeting the "three evils" of , , and , with Turpan's implementation tied to its strategic position near trade routes.

International Perspectives and Debates

Western governments and organizations have criticized Chinese policies in , including Turpan Prefecture, as involving mass arbitrary detentions, forced labor, and cultural erasure targeting and other Turkic Muslims, with estimates of over one million detained in facilities since 2017. Leaked internal documents from detail directives for "no mercy" in suppressing perceived threats, framing the region as a high-risk zone for terrorism influenced by training in and . These claims, supported by of camps and survivor testimonies, have prompted sanctions from the and others, labeling the actions as or . However, such assessments from organizations like and the U.S. State Department often align with broader geopolitical rivalries, potentially amplifying unverified allegations amid limited independent access to the region. In contrast, Chinese authorities describe the measures as targeted counter-terrorism and deradicalization efforts under the 2014 "Strike Hard Campaign against Violent Terrorism," responding to incidents like the July 2013 attack in Turpan's Lukeqin Township, where assailants killed 23 police and civilians using axes and vehicles. Officials assert that vocational training centers in , including Turpan, addressed the "three evils" of , , and terrorism—linked to groups like the East Islamic Movement, designated a terrorist organization by the UN in —leading to zero major attacks since 2017 and improved economic stability. A 2021 Chinese emphasizes and rights protection for ethnic groups, rejecting Western narratives as interference in internal affairs. Global divisions are evident in forums like the UN Human Rights Council, where a 2022 Western-led motion for debate on Xinjiang abuses failed 19-17, with many developing nations supporting China's sovereignty claims over scrutiny. The 2022 OHCHR report acknowledged serious violations like but urged further investigation without endorsing labels, reflecting caution amid China's denials. Debates also extend to Turpan's tourism, where ancient sites like draw visitors, but Uyghur advocacy groups decry itineraries as enabling "genocide tourism" by overlooking nearby surveillance infrastructure and labor practices tied to regional cotton and agriculture. Chinese promotions highlight Turpan's role in the , framing development as mutual benefit, while critics argue it masks assimilation policies. These perspectives underscore a causal tension: effective suppression of violence versus erosion of cultural and religious , with empirical reductions in attacks supporting security rationales but raising questions about proportionality and long-term stability.

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  172. https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/08/1125932
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  174. https://us.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt_120777/dmxj/xjfabuhui/xjfbh12/
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