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Early Turkic Khaganates
Man of Gaochang (高昌國, Turfan) in Entrance of the foreign visitors (番客入朝圖, 937–976 CE)

Qocho or Kara-Khoja (Chinese: 高昌回鶻; pinyin: Gāochāng Huíhú; lit. 'Gaochang Uyghurs'),[4] also known as Idiqut,[5][6][7][8] ("holy wealth"; "glory"; "lord of fortune"[9]) was a Uyghur kingdom created in 843, with strong Chinese Buddhist and Tocharian influences. It was founded by refugees fleeing the destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate after being driven out by the Yenisei Kirghiz. They made their winter capital in Qocho (also called Gaochang or Qara-Khoja, near modern Turpan) and summer capital in Beshbalik (modern Jimsar County, also known as Tingzhou).[10] Its population is referred to as the "Xizhou Uyghurs" after the old Tang Chinese name for Gaochang, the "Qocho Uyghurs" after their capital, the "Kucha Uyghurs" after another city they controlled, or the "Arslan ("Lion") Uyghurs" after their king's title.

History

[edit]
class=notpageimage|
Qocho Kingdom and main neighbouring polities c. 1000

In 843, a group of Uyghurs migrated southward under the leadership of Pangtele, and occupied Karasahr and Kucha, taking them from the Tibetan Empire.[11]

In 856, this group of Uyghurs received royal recognition from the Tang dynasty.[12] At this time, their capital was in Karasahr (Yanqi).[13]

The land of the Uighurs is very large, so large that to the west it appears boundless. In the fourth and fifth months, all vegetation dries up as if it were winter. The mountains are snow-covered even in summer. When the sun rises it becomes hot, but as soon as it sets, it grows cold. Even in the sixth lunar month (i.e., the peak of summer), people must use wadded coverlets to sleep. It does not rain in summer. The rain only starts to fall in autumn, and then the vegetation begins to sprout. Come winter, the rivers and plains are like our spring, with flowers in full bloom.[14]

— Wugusun Zhongduan

In 866, Pugu Jun declared himself khan and adopted the title of idiqut. The Kingdom of Qocho captured Xizhou (Gaochang), Tingzhou (Beshbalik, or Beiting), Changbaliq (near Ürümqi) and Luntai (Bugur) from the Guiyi Circuit. The Uyghur capital was moved to Xizhou, which the Uyghurs called Idiqutshari. Beshbalik became their summer residence.[11][15]

On the southern end of the Altai Mountains is a city of the Uighurs, called Bieshiba (Beshbaliq). There is a Tang-era stele there that identifies it as the former Vast Sea (Hanhai) Military Prefecture. The Vast Sea is several hundred li northwest of this city. In that sea is a small island covered with feathers shed by birds. Over two hundred li west of this city is the county of Luntai, which also has a Tang-era stele. Five hundred li south of this city (Beshbaliq) is Hezhou (Qocho), known as Gaochang in the Tang. It is also known as Yizhou. Three to four thousand li west of Gaochang is the city of Wuduan (Khotan), which was known as the kingdom of Yutian in the Tang. The two rivers that produce black and white jade are located there.[14]

— Yelü Chucai

In 869 and 870, the Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled.[16] In 876, the Kingdom of Qocho seized Yizhou from the Guiyi Circuit.[16] In 880, Qocho attacked Shazhou (Dunhuang) but was repelled.[15] By 887, they were settled under an agrarian lifestyle in Qocho.

In 904, Zhang Chengfeng of the Guiyi Circuit (later renamed Jinshan Kingdom) attacked Qocho and seized Yizhou (Hami/Kumul) and Xizhou (Gaochang).[17] This occupation ended after the Jinshan Kingdom's loss to the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in 911.[15] In 954, Ilig Bilgä Tengri rose to power.[11] In 981, Arslan Bilgä Tengri ilig rose to power.[11] From 981, the Idiqut of Qocho sent tribute missions to the Song dynasty under the title "Nephew Lion King Arslan Khan of the West Prefecture." The addition of the title "Nephew" (外甥) was intended as a show of sincerity to the Han people of the Central Plains, as "nephew" referred to the traditional relationship between the Uyghur Khans and the previous Tang dynasty, who referred to each other as uncle and nephew. Meanwhile, West Prefecture (西州) referred to Qocho's designation under Tang administration.[18] In 984, Arslan Bilgä Tengri ilig became Süngülüg Khagan.[11] In the same year, a Song Chinese envoy reached Qocho and gave an account of the city:

There is no rain or snow here and it is extremely hot. Each year at the hottest time, the inhabitants dig holes in the ground to live in ... The earth here produces all the five grains except buckwheat. The nobility eat horseflesh, while the rest eat mutton, wild ducks and geese. Their music is largely played on the pipa and harp. They produce sables, fine white cotton cloth, and an embroidered cloth made from flower stamens. By custom they enjoy horseback riding and archery ... They use the [Tang] calendar produced in the seventh year of the Kaiyuan reign (719). They fashion pipes of silver or brass and channel flowing water to shoot at each other; or they sprinkle water on each other as a game, which they call pressing out the sun's heat to chase off sickness. They like to take walks, and the strollers always carry a musical instrument with them. There are over fifty Buddhist temples here, the names inscribed over their gates all presented by the Tang court. The temples house copies of the Buddhist scriptures (da zang jing) and the dictionaries Tang yun, Yupian and Jingyun. On spring nights the locals pass the time milling about between the temples. There's an "Imperial Writings Tower' which houses edicts written by the Tang emperor Taizong kept carefully secured. There's also a Manichaean temple, with Persian monks who keep their own religious law and call the Buddhist scriptures the 'foreign Way' ... In this land there are no poor people; anyone short of food is given public aid. People live to an advanced age, generally over one hundred years. No one dies young.[19]

In 996, Bügü Bilgä Tengri ilig succeeded Süngülüg Khagan.[11]

Bögü Qaghan, third khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, converting to Manichaeism in 762. Detail of Bögü Qaghan in a suit of armour, kneeling to a Manichean high priest. Eighth-century Manichean manuscript (MIK III 4979).[20]
Mural of Turkic cavalry from Beshbalik, 10th c.

In 1007, Alp Arsla Qutlugh Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan succeeded Bügü Bilgä Tengri ilig.[11] In 1008, Manichaean temples were converted to Buddhist temples.[21] In 1024, Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan succeeded Alp Arsla Qutlugh Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan.[11] In 1068, Tengri Bügü il Bilgä Arslan Tengri Uighur Tärkän succeeded Kül Bilgä Tengri Khan.[11] By 1096, Qocho had lost Aksu, Tumshuk, and Kucha to the Kara-Khanid Khanate.[15]

In 1123, Bilgä rose to power. He was succeeded by Yur Temur at some point.[11] In 1128, the Kingdom of Qocho became a vassal of the Qara Khitai.[22]

In 1128, during the reign of Bilge Tekin, the Uighur Kingdom became a vassal state of the Western Liao established by the Khitan. Originally the Western Liao exercised only a loose control over the Uighur state, but soon started to extort excessive taxes and levies in the Uighur lands. In 1209, the Uighur Iduq-qut ("Lord of happiness") Barchuk Art Tegin ordered the death of the Khitan magistrate (shangjian) in an attempt to free his people from the rule of the Western Liao. It just so happened that Chinggis Khan's envoys arrived at this juncture, and fearing retaliation from the Liao, he immediately sent envoys to Mongolia to express his willingness to acknowledge allegiance to Chinggis in exchange from protection.[22]

— George Qingzhi Zhao

In 1209, the Kingdom of Qocho became a vassal of the Mongol Empire.[9]

I must, however, point out that, although Chinggis Khan adopted the ruler of the Uighur state Barchukh Art Tegin as his "fifth son", the Uighur state never became the "fifth khanate", as has been suggested by some scholars. The Uighur state was not independent, but was part of the Mongol empire. During the early Yuan dynasty, at least before the Princes' rebellions, the Yuan central government exercised a tight control over the Uighur state. Although the Mongol royal family maintained a marriage relationship with the Uighur Idu-qut family for almost a century, the women who were married into Uighurstan were not the daughters of the Yuan emperors, but were mostly descendants of Ogedei Khan who had lost the throne to the descendants of Tolui, his younger brother. At the same time, although the Mongol royal family continued to marry their Princesses to the Uighur Iduqut, not a single one of the Mongol Khans or Yuan Emperors married a Uighur Princess.[23]

— George Qingzhi Zhao

In 1229, Barčuq Art iduq-qut succeeded Yur Temur.[11] In, 1242 Kesmez iduq-qut succeeded Barčuq Art iduq-qut.[11] In 1246, Salïndï Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Kesmez iduq-qut.[11] In 1253, Ögrünch Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Salïndï Tigin iduq-qut.[11] In 1257, Mamuraq Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Ögrünch Tigin iduq-qut, who was executed for supporting the Ogodeid branch of the Genghisid family.[11] In 1266, Qosqar Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Mamuraq Tigin iduq-qut.[11] In 1280, Negüril Tigin iduq-qut succeeded Qosqar Tigin iduq-qut.[11]

In 1318, Negüril Tigin iduq-qut died.[11] Later, the Kingdom of Qocho became part of the Chagatai Khanate. In 1322, Tämir Buqa iduq-qut rose to power.[11] In 1330, Senggi iduq-qut succeeded Tämir Buqa iduq-qut.[11] In 1332, Taipindu iduq-qut succeeded Senggi iduq-qut.[11] In 1352, Ching Timür iduq-qut succeeded Taipindu iduq-qut and was the last known ruler governor of the kingdom.[11] By the 1370s, the Kingdom of Qocho ceased to exist.

Religion

[edit]
10th century Manichaean Electae in Gaochang (Khocho), China.
A Church of the East epitaph with two lines of Syriac at the top and four lines of Old Uyghur script on either side at the bottom

Mainly Turkic and Tocharian, but also Chinese and Iranian peoples such as the Sogdians were assimilated into the Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho.[24] Chinese were among the population of Qocho.[25] Peter B. Golden writes that the Uyghurs not only adopted the writing system and religious faiths of the Sogdians, such as Manichaeism, Buddhism, and Christianity, but also looked to the Sogdians as "mentors" while gradually replacing them in their roles as Silk Road traders and purveyors of culture.[26]

During the rule of the Qocho Kingdom, some of their subjects also began adopting Islam, as evident when the Idiqut threatened to retaliate against the Muslims of his lands and "destroy the mosques" if Manichaeans were persecuted in neighbouring Khorasan. He emphasized that Muslims in Qocho were "more numerous" than Manichaeans under Islamic rule, and he was ultimately successful in staying the persecutions in Khorasan. This episode was recorded by Arab bibliographer Ibn Al-Nadim, although he referred to the Qocho Idiqut as the "King of China".[27][28]

Manichaeism

[edit]

The Uyghur ruling family of Qocho were mainly practitioners of Manichaeism until the early 11th century, although by the 960s, they also supported Buddhism. When Al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932) of the Abbasid Caliphate began persecuting Manichaeans in what is now Iraq, the ruler of Qocho sent a letter to Nasr II of the Samanid Empire threatening to retaliate against Muslims in his realm.[27][28] Manichaean monks accompanied Uyghur embassies from 934 to 951, while between 965 and 1022, the accompanying monks were Buddhists. Manichaeism in Qocho probably reached its peak in 866 and was gradually replaced by Buddhism afterward. This shift was noticeable by 1008 when Manichaean temples were converted to Buddhist temples. Part of the reason for Manichaeism's decline may have been the lifestyle of the Manichaean clergy. A decree discovered in Turpan reports that Manichaean clerics lived in great comfort, possessed estates with serfs and slaves, ate fine food, and wore expensive garments.[29] One of the most important medieval Uyghur documents is a 9th-century decree to a Manichaean monastery affixed with 11 seals in Chinese characters saying: "Seal of the cabinet minister and of the Il Ugasi ministers of the great, fortunate Uyghur government." The document details a dramatized dialogue between Mani and a prince, and testifies to the rich cultural life of the Qocho kingdom.[30]

Chinese Buddhism

[edit]

Tang rule over Qocho and Turfan left a lasting Chinese Buddhist influence on the area. Tang names remained on more than 50 Buddhist temples with Emperor Taizong of Tang's edicts stored in the "Imperial Writings Tower" and Chinese dictionaries like Jingyun, Yupian, Tang yun, and da zang jing (Buddhist scriptures) stored inside the Buddhist temples. Uyghur Buddhists studied the Chinese language and used Chinese books like the Thousand Character Classic and the Qieyun. It was written that "In Qocho city were more than fifty monasteries, all titles of which are granted by the emperors of the Tang dynasty, which keep many Buddhist texts as the Tripiṭaka, Tangyun, Yupuan, Jingyin etc."[31]

The Uyghurs of Qocho continued to produce the Chinese Qieyun rime dictionary and developed their own pronunciations of Chinese characters.[32][better source needed] They viewed the Chinese script as "very prestigious" so when they developed the Old Uyghur alphabet, based on the Syriac script, they deliberately switched it to vertical like Chinese writing from its original horizontal position in Syriac.[33]

While Persian monks still maintained a Manichaean temple in the kingdom, there was continued respect for Tang dynasty legacies and Buddhism. There were over fifty Buddhist temples, the name inscriptions on their gates all presented by the Tang court. The edicts of Emperor Taizong of Tang were carefully stored in an "Imperial Writings Tower." Indeed, the 10th century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam called Qocho, the capital city, "Chinese town".[34]

Ethnicity

[edit]

James A. Millward claimed that the Uyghurs were generally "Mongoloid" (a term meaning "appearing ethnically Eastern or Inner Asian"), giving as an example the images of Uyghur patrons of Buddhism in Bezeklik, temple 9, until they began to mix with the Tarim Basin's original, Indo-European-speaking "Caucasoid" inhabitants,[35] such as the so-called Tocharians. Buddhist Uyghurs created the Bezeklik murals.[36]

Religious conflict

[edit]
Painted silk fragments of men in armour, from a Manichaean Temple near Qocho. Turkish, 8th century or 9th century CE. Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Berlin.[37]
Leaf from Manichean book, mid-9th century
Manichean Bema Scene, 8th–9th centuries (Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4979)

Kara-Khanid Khanate

[edit]

The Uyghurs of Qocho were Buddhists whose religious identity were intertwined with their religion. Qocho was a Buddhist state with both state-sponsored Mahayana Buddhism and Manichaeism. The Uyghurs sponsored the construction of many of the temple-caves in what is now called the Bezeklik Caves. Although they retained some of their culture, they were heavily influenced by the indigenous peoples of western China and abandoned the Old Turkic alphabet in favor of a modified Sogdian alphabet, which later came to be known as the Old Uyghur alphabet.[38] The Idiquts (the title of the Qocho rulers) ruled independently until they become a vassal state of the Qara Khitai (Chinese: "Western Liao").

They do not cremate their dead, but bury the dead without coffins. They always bury the dead with the head facing west. Their monks do not shave their heads, and there are no painted or sculpted images in their temples. The language of their scriptures is also unintelligible to us. Only in Hezhou (i.e., Gaochang/Qocho) and Shazhou (i.e., Dunhuang) are the temples and images like those of the Central Lands, and in those temples they recite Buddhist scriptures written in the Chinese (Han) script.[14]

— Wugusun Zhongduan

The Buddhist Uyghurs frequently came into conflict with their western Muslim neighbors.[39] Muslim Turks described the Uyghurs in a number of derogatory ways. For example, the "Compendium of the Turkic Dialects" by Mahmud al-Kashgari states that "just as the thorn should be cut at its root, so the Uighur should be struck on the eye".[40] They also used the derogatory word "Tat" to describe the Buddhist Uyghurs, which means "infidels". Uyghurs were also called dogs.[41][42][43] While al-Kashgari displayed a different attitude towards the Turk diviners beliefs and "national customs", he expressed towards Buddhism a hatred in his Diwan where he wrote the verse cycle on the war against Uyghur Buddhists. Buddhist origin words like toyin (a cleric or priest) and Burxān or Furxan[44][45] (meaning Buddha,[46][47] acquiring the generic meaning of "idol" in the Turkic language of Kashgari) had negative connotations to Muslim Turks.[48][49]

The Uyghurs were subjected to attacks by Muslim Turks, according to Kashgari's work.[50] The Kara-Khanid Khanate's ruler Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan razed Qocho's Buddhist temples in the Minglaq province across the Ili region.[51][52][53][54] Buddhist murals at the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves were damaged by local Muslim population whose religion proscribed figurative images of sentient beings, the eyes and mouths in particular were often gouged out. Pieces of murals were also broken off for use as fertilizer by the locals.[55] The Islamic–Buddhist conflict from the 11th to 12th centuries is still recalled in the forms of the Khotan Imam Asim Sufi shrine celebration and other Sufi holy site celebrations. Bezeklik's Thousand Buddha Caves are an example of religiously motivated vandalism against portraits of religious and human figures.[56]

According to Kashgari's Three Turkic Verse Cycles, the "infidel tribes" suffered three defeats, one at the hands of the Karakhanids in the Irtysh Valley, one by unspecified Muslim Turks, and one inflicted upon "a city between the Tangut and China", Qatun Sini, at the hands of the Tangut Khan.[57][58] The war against Buddhist, shamanist, and Manichaean Uyghurs was considered a jihad by the Kara-Khanids.[59][60][61][62] Imams and soldiers who died in the battles against the Uyghur Buddhists and Khotan are revered as saints.[63] It is possible the Muslims drove some Uyghur Buddhist monks towards taking asylum in the Tangut Western Xia dynasty.[64]

There are many varieties of people in that country. Their hair and beards are thick and curly like wool, and vary widely in shade from black to yellow. One sees only the eyes and noses on their faces [because of all the facial hair]. Their tastes and habits are also different from ours. There are Mosuluman (Muslim) Uighurs who are cruel by nature and eat only meat from animals that they have just killed with their own hands. Even when fasting, they drink wine and eat without any sense of unease. There are Yilizhu (Christian) Uighurs who are quite weak and cowardly and dislike killing; when fasting, they do not eat meat. There are Yindu (Indian) Uighurs who have black skin and are simple and honest. There are too many other kinds for me to list them all. Their king selects his eunuchs from those of the Yindu (Indians) who are dark and ugly and uses fire to brand their faces.[14]

— Wugusun Zhongduan

Mongol rule

[edit]
Pranidhi scene, Turpan, 10th–12th centuries.

In 1209, the Kara-Khoja ruler Baurchuk Art Tekin declared his allegiance to the Mongols under Genghis Khan and the kingdom existed as a vassal state until 1335. After submitting to the Mongols, the Uyghurs served the Mongol rulers as bureaucrats, providing the expertise that the initially illiterate nomads lacked.[65] Qocho continued exist as a vassal to the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty, and were allied to the Yuan against the Chagatai Khanate. Eventually the Chagatai khan Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq eliminated Yuan influence over Qocho. When the Mongols placed the Uyghurs in control of the Koreans at court, the Korean king objected. Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean king, saying that the Uyghur king ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uyghurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uyghurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uyghurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.[66][67] A hybrid court was used when Han Chinese and Uyghurs were in involved in legal issues.[68]

Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called the Asud or "Right Alan Guard", which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former kingdom of Qocho. In Beshbalik (now Jimsar County), the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi.[69]

Conquest by Muslim Chagatais

[edit]

The last Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho and Turpan were converted to Islam by force during a Jihad (holy war) at the hands of the Chagatai Khanate ruler Khizr Khoja (r. 1389–1399).[70] Mirza Haidar Dughlat's Tarikh-i-Rashidi (c. 1540, in Persian) wrote, "(Khizr Khoja) undertook a campaign against Karakhodja [Qocho] and Turfan, two very important towns in China, and forced their inhabitants to become Muslims".[71] The Chagatai Khanate also conquered Hami, where the Buddhist religion was also purged and replaced with Islam.[72] Ironically after being converted to Islam, the descendants of the Uyghurs in Turpan failed to retain memory of their Buddhist legacy and were led to believe that the "infidel Kalmuks" (Dzungar people) were the ones who built Buddhist monuments in their area. The Encyclopaedia of Islam wrote "By then the Turks of the Turfan ... forgetting all the other highlights of their past, they attributed the Buddhist and other monuments to the 'infidel Kalmuks'."[73][74][75][76]

The Islamic conversion forced on the Buddhist city of Hami was the final blow to Uyghur Buddhism,[59][77][78] although some Buddhist influence in the names of Turpan Muslims still remained.[79] Since Islam reached them much after other cities in the Tarim Basin, personal names of pre-Islamic Old Uyghur origin are still used in Hami and Turpan while Uyghurs to the west use mostly Islamic names of Arabic origin.[80] Cherrypicking of history of Xinjiang with the intention of projecting an image of either irreligiosity or piousness of Islam in Uyghur culture has been done for various reasons.[81]

After the conversion to Islam by Uyghurs, the term "Uyghur" fell out of use until it was revived in 1921.[82][83]

List of kings (idiquts)

[edit]
History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century
Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE.
Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE.
Turkic peoples
Onogurs
Oghuz Turks
Saragurs
Utigurs
Bulgars
Sabir
Kutrigurs
Karluks
Kimek
Kipchaks
Cherniye Klobuki
Uyghurs
Tatars
Kumyks
Yakuts
Dolgans
Krymchaks
Crimean Karaites
Turkic languages
Turkish
Azerbaijani
Uzbek
Kazakh
Uyghur
Turkmen
Tatar
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Bashkir
Chuvash
Qasgqai
Karakalpak
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Karachay-Balkar
Tuvan
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Turkic mythology
Belief system: Tengrism and Shamanism
Chief gods and goddesses: Kayra and Ülgen
Epics and heroes: Ergenekon and Asena
Major concepts: Sheka and Grey wolf
Pre-14th century
Yenisei Kyrgyz People 202 BCE–13th CE
Dingling 71 BC–?? AD
Göktürks

(Tokhara Yabghus, Turk Shahis)

Sabiri People
Khazar Khaganate 618–1048
Xueyantuo 628–646
Kangar Union 659–750
Turk Shahi 665-850
Türgesh Khaganate 699–766
Kimek–Kipchak Confederation 743–1035
Uyghur Khaganate 744–840
Oghuz Yabgu State 750–1055
Karluk Yabgu State 756–940
Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036
Qocho 856–1335
Pecheneg Khanates 860–1091
Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186
Seljuk Empire 1037–1194
Cuman–Kipchak Confederation 1067–1239
Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231
Kerait Khanate 11th century–13th century
Atabegs of Azerbaijan 1136–1225
Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526
Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266
Golden Horde 1242–1502
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517
Ottoman State 1299–1922
Part of a series on the
History of Xinjiang
Prehistoric and ancient period
Medieval and early modern period
Modern period

The Kingdom of Qocho's rulers trace their lineage to Qutlugh of the Ediz dynasty of the Uyghur Khaganate. There are numerous gaps in our knowledge of the Uyghur rulers of Qocho prior to the thirteenth century. The title of the ruler of Qocho was idiqut or iduq qut. In 1308, Nolen Tekin was granted the title Prince of Gaochang by the Yuan Emperor Ayurbarwada. The following list of rulers is drawn mostly from Turghun Almas, Uyghurlar (Almaty, 1992), vol. 1, pp. 180–85.[84] Named rulers based on various sources of other languages are also included.[85][11]

  • 850–866: Pan Tekin (Pangtele)
  • 866–871: Boko Tekin
    ...
  • 940–948: Irdimin Khan
  • 948–985: Arslan (Zhihai) Khan
    ...
  • 954: Ilig Bilgä T[e]ngri
  • 981: Arslan Bilgä T[e]ngri ilig
  • 996-1007: Bügü Bilgä T[e]ngri ilig
  • 1007-1024: Alp Arsla Qutlugh Kül Bilgä T[e]ngri Qan
  • 1024: Kül Bilgä T[e]ngri Qan
  • 1068: T[e]ngri Bügü il Bilgä Arslan Tngri Uighur Tärkän
  • 1123: Bilgä
  • 1126–????: Bilge (Biliege/Bilgä) Tekin
    ...
  • ????–????: Isen Tomur
    ...
  • 1208/1229–1235/1241: Baurchuq (Barchukh) Art Tekin
  • 1229: Yue-er Tie-mu-er
  • 1235/1242–1245/1246: Qusmayin (Kesmez)
  • 1246–1253/1255: Salun (Salindi) Tekin
  • 1253/1255–1257/1265: Oghrunzh (Ogrunch) Tekin
  • 1257/1265–1265/1266: Mamuraq Tekin
  • 1266–1276/1280: Qozhighar (Qosqar) Tekin
  • 1276/1280–1318: Nolen (Neguril) Tekin
  • 1309/1318: Kiräsiz iduq-qut
  • 1309/1318-1326/1334: Köncök iduq-qut
  • 1318/1322–1327/1330: Tomur (Tamir) Buqa
  • 1327/1330–1331/1332: Sunggi (Senggi) Tekin
  • 1331/1332–1335/1352: Taypan (Taipingnu)
  • 1335–1353: Yuelutiemur
  • 1352-1360: Ching Timür iduq-qut
  • 1353–????: Sangge
[edit]
  • Uyghur king from Turfan
    Uyghur king from Turfan
  • Uyghur Prince from the Bezeklik murals
    Uyghur Prince from the Bezeklik murals
  • Uyghur noble from the Bezeklik murals
    Uyghur noble from the Bezeklik murals
  • Uyghur Manichaean Elect depicted on a temple banner from Qocho
    Uyghur Manichaean Elect depicted on a temple banner from Qocho
  • Uyghur Princesses from the Bezeklik murals
    Uyghur Princesses from the Bezeklik murals
  • Uyghur Princes from the Bezeklik murals
    Uyghur Princes from the Bezeklik murals
  • Uyghur donor from the Bezeklik murals
    Uyghur donor from the Bezeklik murals
  • Uyghur Manichaean Electae from Qocho
    Uyghur Manichaean Electae from Qocho
  • Uyghur Manichaean clergymen from Qocho
    Uyghur Manichaean clergymen from Qocho
  • Manicheans from Qocho
    Manicheans from Qocho
  • Mural from a Christian temple in Qocho
    Mural from a Christian temple in Qocho

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Qocho

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Qocho, also known as the Idiqut State or Kara-Khocho, was a sedentary Uyghur kingdom established in the mid-9th century in the eastern , centered on the oases of and nearby Qocho (modern-day region in , ). It emerged from the western migration of Uyghur elites and tribes following the collapse of the nomadic in 840 CE due to Kyrgyz invasions, marking a shift from steppe to urbanized and in the arid fringes. The kingdom's rulers, titled idiqut (meaning "fortunate sovereign"), maintained sovereignty over a multi-ethnic domain incorporating Uyghur, Tocharian, and Sogdian elements, fostering a vibrant economy through commerce in commodities like , horses, and grapes. Initially adherents to —adopted during the Khaganate era under Bögü Qaghan's influence in the 8th century—the Idiquts later transitioned to by the 11th century, while tolerating Nestorian and other faiths, as evidenced by archaeological finds of diverse religious artifacts in ruins. Qocho's cultural legacy includes script documents and temple art, reflecting syncretic influences from Central Asian and Iranian traditions, preserved in sites like Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves. Qocho endured as an independent polity until 1209, when Idiqut Barchuq submitted to Genghis Khan's Mongol forces, transitioning into a vassal under the ; it retained partial autonomy until the , when Islamization under Timurid pressures ended its Buddhist era. This state's adaptation to oasis agriculture and exemplified causal adaptations to environmental constraints, enabling resilience amid nomadic incursions and imperial shifts, though primary Chinese and chronicles, often filtered through Tang or Abbasid lenses, may understate its internal dynamism due to external diplomatic biases.

Origins and Historical Development

Collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate and Migration Westward

The , which had dominated the Mongolian since its establishment in 744 AD, disintegrated in 840 AD following a catastrophic invasion by the . A severe winter in 839–840 AD caused widespread deaths, triggering , , and social unrest among the nomadic Uyghur population, whose economy relied heavily on . This environmental shock eroded military cohesion and invited external aggression; the Kyrgyz, originating from southern , capitalized on the disarray to launch a decisive campaign, sacking the Uyghur capital of and executing the reigning , possibly Culay or his successor. The Khaganate's fall marked the end of Uyghur hegemony in the eastern steppes, with the Kyrgyz assuming control over former Uyghur territories by 840–842 AD. Surviving Uyghur elites and tribes, facing enslavement or subjugation, initiated mass migrations southward and westward to evade Kyrgyz pursuit. These movements dispersed Uyghur groups across regions including northern , the corridor, and , but a substantial faction directed toward the Tarim Basin's eastern oases, particularly Turfan and the abandoned city of (later Qocho). In the Turfan depression, Uyghur refugees occupied depopulated urban sites previously held by Tibetan forces or Tang Chinese garrisons, leveraging the region's irrigation systems and agricultural potential for sedentary settlement. This migration, occurring primarily in the decade following 840 AD, transplanted steppe administrative practices, Manichaean religious institutions, and Rung script usage into an oasis environment, laying the groundwork for the independent Qocho polity by the mid-9th century. The influx destabilized local dynamics, displacing indigenous Tocharian and Sogdian communities while fostering Uyghur cultural dominance in the eastern .

Foundation as an Independent Kingdom

The collapsed in 840 CE following a devastating invasion by the , who sacked the capital and killed the last , leading to the dispersal of Uyghur elites and populations. Various Uyghur factions migrated southward and westward, seeking refuge in regions previously influenced by their empire, including the and the eastern . One such group, led by Pan Tekin of the Ädiz clan, relocated to the , where they seized control of the oases around (ancient Qocho) from local rulers and Tibetan garrisons weakened by prior conflicts. This migration capitalized on earlier Uyghur military expeditions, such as the 792 CE campaign that temporarily captured from Tibetan forces, facilitating a . By approximately 850 CE, Pan Tekin had consolidated power, establishing the foundations of an independent Uyghur polity with administrative centers at Qocho (winter capital, near modern ) and Beshbalik (summer capital). The kingdom's formal independence crystallized around 866 CE, when the ruler—likely Pan Tekin or his successor—adopted the title Idiqut ("fortunate sovereign" or "lord of happiness"), signifying sovereignty and drawing on pre-existing Turkic titulature. This marked Qocho's emergence as a sedentary state blending nomadic Uyghur traditions with local Buddhist and Manichaean influences, distinct from the established concurrently in by another migrant faction. The new realm controlled key routes, leveraging agriculture in fertile oases and trade to sustain its autonomy amid regional powers like the and emerging Qarakhanids.

Diplomatic and Economic Ties with Chinese Dynasties

Following the migration of Uyghur remnants to the Turfan region after the Uyghur Khaganate's collapse in 840 CE, the newly founded Kingdom of Qocho maintained de facto independence amid the Tang dynasty's (618–907 CE) internal fragmentation and loss of western control, with no documented formal tribute or envoys exchanged specifically between Qocho rulers and the Tang court. Earlier Khaganate-era alliances, including military aid against the (755–763 CE), had elevated Uyghur prestige but dissolved post-840, leaving Qocho to consolidate power locally without Tang . Tang cultural legacies, such as administrative scripts and Buddhist iconography, influenced Qocho's sedentary economy and governance, yet diplomatic records emphasize rather than subordination. Diplomatic engagement intensified with the (960–1279 CE), beginning in 981 CE when Idiqut Arslan Khan dispatched missions to the Song court, adopting the self-designated title "Nephew Lion King Arslan Khan of the West Prefecture" to signal hierarchical deference within the Sinocentric framework. The Song emperor was styled as "Uncle," a framing Qocho as a peripheral kin-state, which secured imperial recognition, calendar bestowal, and prestige titles in exchange for nominal goods like horses and regional products. The Song reciprocated by sending official envoy Wang Yande to (Qocho's capital) in 981 CE, marking formal reciprocity and periodic embassies thereafter, though interactions waned amid Song's northern threats from Liao and Jin. These ties persisted until Qocho's Mongol submission circa 1209 CE, underscoring pragmatic diplomacy over ideological alignment. Economically, Song-Qocho relations channeled commerce, with Qocho's oasis agriculture—producing grapes, melons, and grains—and control of eastern Tarim routes enabling exports of horses, furs, , and spices to in tribute convoys, offset by Song gifts of bolts, , and monetary silver that exceeded tribute value, effectively subsidizing . This exchange bolstered Qocho's mercantile prosperity, integrating it into Song's expansive market networks, where western luxuries supplemented domestic shortages, while Qocho accessed Chinese manufactures to diversify beyond pastoral-nomadic dependencies. missions doubled as trade fairs, fostering merchant networks despite intermittent disruptions from rivals, and highlighting Qocho's role as a buffer facilitating 's indirect access to Central Asian goods without direct territorial overextension.

Submission and Role under Mongol Rule

In 1209, Idiqut Barchuq Art Tegin of Qocho received an envoy from and pledged voluntary allegiance, becoming one of the earliest states to submit to Mongol authority without conquest. This submission included executing the Kara-Khitai-appointed overseer (shiḥna) to demonstrate loyalty, thereby ending Qocho's nominal vassalage to the . In recognition, adopted Barchuq as a fictive son and granted the kingdom privileged status, allowing the Idiqut line to continue ruling semi-autonomously while providing tribute, troops, and administrative expertise to the . Qocho's played a pivotal role in Mongol governance due to their established bureaucratic traditions and literacy in the script, which was adapted into the vertical for imperial records, decrees, and diplomacy. Uyghur elites served as baghshi (teachers and administrators) and secretaries across the empire, contributing to the organization of vast territories from scribes in the imperial chancery to provincial overseers. Under the (1271–1368), this integration deepened, with at least six appointed as provincial governors among seventy such positions, reflecting their reliability in fiscal and judicial roles. The kingdom allied with the Yuan against the , supplying military contingents and logistical support during conflicts in . This relationship preserved Qocho's internal administration and religious practices until 1335, when it was annexed by Chagatai forces amid Mongol successor state rivalries, ending the Idiqut dynasty's rule.

Governance and Administration

The Idiqut Title and Royal Lineage

The Idiqut (Old Uyghur: Iduq Qut), meaning "sacred fortune" or "holy majesty," served as the primary title for Qocho's rulers, marking a departure from the imperial khagan designation used by their Khaganate predecessors to signify the kingdom's more localized authority after the 840 CE collapse. This title, a compound of iduq ("sacred" or "fortunate") and qut ("fortune" or "glory"), reflected the ruler's perceived divine favor and wealth, aligning with Manichaean and later Buddhist influences in the court's religious syncretism. The royal lineage of the Idiquts descended from Qutlugh of the Ediz clan, the second imperial dynasty of the , rather than the primary Yaghlakar line that dominated the eastern empire. Ediz migrants, fleeing the Kirghiz conquest in 840, established around by the 850s, with the clan's hereditary claims legitimizing their rule over settled Uyghur populations and assimilated locals. This descent preserved Khaganate prestige, evidenced by inscriptions and diplomatic ties asserting continuity from steppe khagans to sovereigns. Succession followed patrilineal hereditary patterns typical of Turkic dynasties, passing from father to son or close male kin, though records indicate occasional interregnums due to external pressures like vassalage (1120s–1210s), during which Idiqut family members resided as hostages in the suzerain's court. Post-1209 Mongol overlordship reinforced the lineage's stability, as Idiqut Barchuq's allegiance to integrated the family into the imperial network without disrupting internal heredity. The dynasty endured until Qocho's conquest by the in 1318, after which surviving Ediz descendants dispersed or assimilated.

List of Idiquts and Key Rulers

The idiqut (also spelled idiqut or iduq qut, meaning "lord of fortune" or "holy wealth") was the title borne by the rulers of Qocho, tracing descent from the Ediz dynasty of the earlier . Historical records for the kingdom's rulers are fragmentary, with significant gaps especially before the 13th century due to limited surviving inscriptions and chronicles; no comprehensive chronology exists from primary sources. Known Idiquts are primarily attested in Mongol-era contexts following the kingdom's vassalage.
NameApproximate ReignKey Events and Notes
Barchuq Art Teginc. 1208–1235Submitted allegiance to Genghis Khan in 1209, facilitating Uyghur administrative roles in the Mongol Empire; adopted as Genghis's symbolic fifth son, solidifying Qocho's vassal status.
Qochkar TeginLate 13th centuryAllied with Kublai Khan through dynastic marriage, reinforcing ties during Yuan oversight; involved in regional conflicts against Chaghadaid forces.
Nolen TekinEarly 14th centuryGranted the Chinese title "Prince of Gaochang" by Yuan Emperor Ayurbarwada in 1308, reflecting formalized Mongol-Yuan integration of Qocho's governance.
Post-1308 rulers continued under Yuan suzerainty until the kingdom's dissolution amid rebellions in the 1310s–1320s, after which direct Idiqut authority waned.

Administrative and Military Organization

The Kingdom of Qocho was ruled by an idiqut, a title denoting "holy " or "glory," who exercised centralized authority over the realm. This position succeeded the earlier kaghan title and may have been adopted from the Basmil tribe. The administrative framework drew from the Gök Türk model, lacking the east-west divisions seen in the prior . A hierarchy of officials supported the idiqut, including ministers with titles such as sängün, ülchi, tutuq, tarqan, bägi, and älchi, though their specific duties are not well-documented. Tutuqs, frequently kin to the , oversaw 11 principal tribes—comprising the nine Tokuz Oghuz groups alongside the Basmil and Karluk—and managed collection. The idiqut and maintained a semi-nomadic , wintering in Qocho while summering in higher elevations. Militarily, Qocho relied on tribal levies organized along ethnic lines, akin to Gök Türk and earlier Uyghur forces, with an emphasis on suited to their origins. Detailed records of composition are scarce, but the kingdom prioritized and over expansion, subordinating military endeavors after defeats by powers like the Kara-Khitai in the . Following submission to the around 1211, Qocho shifted focus to bureaucratic roles, supplying scribes and administrators who adapted the Uyghur script for imperial records rather than fielding large contingents.

Society and Ethnicity

Ethnic Composition and Assimilation

The Kingdom of Qocho's population was primarily composed of , a Turkic ethnic group that migrated westward from the Mongolian steppes following the collapse of the in 840 CE. These migrants, numbering in the tens of thousands, settled in the Turfan oasis and region, establishing themselves as the dominant group by 843 CE when the kingdom was founded. The ruling idiquts and were Uyghur, maintaining a distinct Turkic identity evidenced in contemporary art and inscriptions. Pre-existing inhabitants included remnants of Tocharian-speaking populations and other oasis dwellers of Indo-European descent, who had occupied the prior to Uyghur arrival. These groups, along with Sogdian merchants and Buddhist communities, formed a multicultural substrate that the incoming gradually assimilated through intermarriage, language replacement with (a Turkic script and dialect), and shared economic reliance on and trade. This assimilation process fused local Indo-European elements with Turkic migrants, laying the foundation for the of the historical Uyghur people in eastern . By the 13th century, under Mongol after Qocho's submission in 1209 CE, limited Mongol integration occurred, but constituted the majority, with the Turfan area's population estimated at approximately 200,000 individuals predominantly of Uyghur stock. Religious diversity, including , , and Nestorian , reflected ethnic mixing but did not alter the overarching Turkic dominance. The kingdom's end in the via Chagatai conquest accelerated further blending, as surviving Uyghur communities retained their identity amid shifting overlords.

Social Hierarchy and Daily Life

The social hierarchy of Qocho society retained elements of Turkic nomadic traditions while adapting to a sedentary oasis-based structure, with the Idiqut and at the apex, followed by religious elites, free commoners including merchants and peasants, and slaves at the base..pdf) The consisted of the royal lineage and nobles, often bearing titles like , who held administrative and military roles, as evidenced by inscriptions and documents from Turfan. Religious leaders, such as Manichaean elect or Buddhist monks, occupied a privileged due to their spiritual and land holdings, influencing both elite and popular customs. Free commoners formed the bulk of the population, comprising urban artisans, merchants active in trade, and rural peasants reliant on oasis agriculture. Society was patriarchal, with extended paternal families as the basic unit; males dominated economic transactions, serving as primary debtors and guarantors in contracts, while women had limited independent agency. Property was often shared among brothers, and kinship ties structured social obligations, as seen in legal documents. Slavery persisted, with individuals, including relatives, bought, sold, or mortgaged for debts; for instance, one contract records a father selling his son for 60 gold coins, reflecting economic pressures and inherited practices from earlier Turkic societies. Marriage was predominantly monogamous among civilians, though patriarchal testaments allowed husbands to restrict widows' remarriage. Daily life centered on oasis settlements like and Turfan, where inhabitants maintained systems for cultivating wheat, grapes, and melons, supplemented by among semi-nomadic groups. Civil documents from Turfan reveal routine activities such as agreements, disputes, and dealings, particularly illuminating lower-class existence through contracts and testaments. Urban dwellers engaged in craftsmanship and , while religious observances and community festivals integrated spiritual and social elements, as depicted in frescoes portraying hierarchical lifestyles from to laborers. Family-centric routines emphasized labor and kin support, with secular enabling widespread documentation of personal and economic matters.

Linguistic Identity and Old Uyghur Language

The inhabitants of Qocho, known as Gaochang Uyghurs, maintained a distinct Turkic linguistic identity through Old Uyghur, the primary language spoken and written from the kingdom's founding around 843 CE until the 14th century. This language, a direct descendant of the Old Turkic dialects used in the preceding Uyghur Khaganate, functioned as the medium for administration, diplomacy, and daily communication among the ruling elite and populace, reinforcing their ethnic cohesion amid assimilation of local Indo-European groups like Tocharians. Old Uyghur exhibited phonological and morphological traits typical of early , including , agglutinative structure, and subject-object-verb , though it incorporated loanwords from Sogdian, Chinese, and due to trade and religious exchanges along the . The script employed was the , an adaptation of the Sogdian cursive derived ultimately from , which replaced earlier runic forms after the Uyghurs' migration to the post-840 CE; this vertical script enabled the transcription of phonetic values suited to Turkic sounds, facilitating widespread literacy in religious contexts. Extant manuscripts from Turfan sites, numbering in the thousands, attest to 's role as a , particularly in translating Buddhist sutras from Chinese and Tocharian into Uyghur for dissemination under royal patronage after the shift from around 965 CE. These texts, including commentaries and hagiographies, preserved phonological shifts and syntactic innovations distinguishing from its northern antecedents, while administrative documents in script underscore its use in governance and legal affairs. The persistence of into the Mongol era, even as influences grew through tributary relations, highlights its centrality to Uyghur cultural continuity until Turkic migrations introduced Karluk dialects, altering the by the 15th century.

Religion

Persistence of Manichaeism


Manichaeism, adopted as the state religion of the Uyghur Khaganate in 762 CE under Bögü Khagan following his encounter with Sogdian Manichaean priests during a campaign in Tang China, persisted after the Khaganate's collapse in 840 CE and the Uyghur migration to the Turim Basin. The refugees established Qocho around 850 CE, transplanting Manichaean institutions including temples, a clerical hierarchy of Elect (priests adhering to strict asceticism) and Hearers (lay supporters), and doctrinal texts translated into the Old Uyghur script. This continuity is evidenced by archaeological finds from Turfan, such as wall paintings, silk fragments, and manuscript leaves depicting Manichaean rituals like the Bema festival, dating primarily from the 8th to 10th centuries CE. In Qocho, retained royal patronage and cultural influence among the Uyghur elite, coexisting with indigenous practices and emerging communities, though it faced gradual erosion from the 10th century onward as gained prominence through local adoption and exchanges. Uyghur Manichaean texts, including cosmological treatises and hymnals, continued production into the 11th century, reflecting doctrinal adaptation and syncretic elements with and , as seen in bilingual manuscripts and artistic motifs blending light-dark dualism with native motifs. Temples near Kocho served as centers for communities, with epitaphs and banners illustrating armored devotees and ritual scenes, underscoring institutional vitality despite demographic shifts toward . The religion's decline accelerated under Mongol overlordship from the 13th century, as imperial policies favored and , though isolated Manichaean practices lingered until the Chagatai Khanate's Islamic conquests in the supplanted remaining dualist holdouts. No records indicate forced suppression in Qocho prior to these external pressures; instead, persistence stemmed from Uyghur cultural inertia and the faith's adaptability, evidenced by over 1,000 Manichaean fragments recovered from Turfan sites, far outnumbering steppe-era survivals. This archaeological corpus, analyzed through and paleography, confirms Manichaeism's role as a bridge between imperial Uyghur identity and oasis settlement, even as it yielded to Buddhist dominance by the .

Dominance of Mahayana Buddhism

![Pranidhi Scene, Replica, Turpan, 10th-12th Century.jpg][float-right] The Uyghurs of Qocho transitioned to Mahayana Buddhism as the dominant religion in the second half of the 10th century, supplanting Manichaeism which had been the state faith of their earlier khaganate. This shift aligned with the kingdom's integration into the existing Buddhist cultural landscape of the Turfan oasis, where Mahayana traditions had flourished under prior Tocharian rulers since at least the 4th century CE. State patronage under the Idiqut kings facilitated the construction and maintenance of temple complexes, including the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, which featured murals depicting Uyghur royalty in Buddhist iconography. Mahayana Buddhism's preeminence is evidenced by extensive translations of canonical texts, such as the and Agama sutras, preserved in Turfan manuscripts discovered during early 20th-century expeditions. These translations, numbering over 3,000 fragments, indicate a vibrant scholastic tradition emphasizing ideals and tantric elements adapted to local Uyghur contexts. Royal inscriptions and donor colophons in cave temples confirm Idiqut support, with rulers like Satok Bögü (r. circa 856–866) initially tolerating but later successors fully embracing , leading to its institutional dominance by the . This religious hegemony persisted through the 13th century, even under Mongol overlordship, as Qocho Idiquts maintained autonomy in religious affairs and transmitted Uyghur Buddhist script and texts to the Yuan court. Archaeological finds, including stelae and artifacts from sites like the Southwest Grand Buddha Temple in Qocho city, underscore the centrality of practices, such as pranidhana vows and Avalokiteshvara worship, until the kingdom's conquest by the in 1353 CE, which imposed .

Syncretism and External Influences

The religious landscape of Qocho exhibited significant between its dominant faiths, and , shaped by the kingdom's adoption of from Sogdian intermediaries following the Uyghur migration to the Turfan oasis around 840 CE. Manichaean texts excavated from Turfan, such as those in script, demonstrate the incorporation of Buddhist concepts like karma, rebirth, and merit transfer, with () engaging in scripture copying akin to Buddhist monastic practices to accrue spiritual benefits. This blending extended to terminology, where Uyghur Buddhist texts adopted Manichaean terms for divine entities and cosmology, while Manichaean art and hymns drew on Buddhist imagery, including motifs of enlightenment and paradise realms, reflecting a pragmatic in a multi-confessional society. Indigenous Turkic elements from pre-conversion Tengriism and shamanism further permeated both religions, evident in shared ritual terminology for sky gods and ancestral spirits within Uyghur Manichaean and Buddhist nomenclature, as seen in Turfan manuscripts dating from the 9th to 12th centuries. Manichaeism's inherent syncretism—originally fusing Zoroastrian dualism, Christian soteriology, and Buddhist ethics—facilitated this local hybridization, allowing Uyghur rulers to patronize multiple temples without doctrinal exclusivity. External influences arrived via commerce and migration, introducing through Sogdian merchants who established fire altars and observed festivals like in Turfan by the 8th-9th centuries, influencing local cosmology with and purity rites that echoed in Manichaean observances. Nestorian , propagated by Syriac-speaking missionaries, maintained small communities among diverse ethnic groups, as attested by bilingual epitaphs from the 8th-10th centuries unearthed in Qocho cemeteries, indicating ritual burials and cross-pollination with Manichaean views on . These minority faiths coexisted under royal tolerance until the 13th century, when Mongol overlordship amplified Buddhist ascendancy, though syncretic traces lingered in Uyghur religious art and texts.

Economy, Culture, and Achievements

Agricultural Base and Oasis Economy

The economy of Qocho centered on oasis agriculture in the Turfan Depression, where sedentary Uyghur communities cultivated amid an arid environment, marking a shift from their prior nomadic traditions after the khaganate's collapse in 840 CE. Water necessitated advanced infrastructure, including karez systems—underground aqueducts comprising vertical shafts linked by gently sloping tunnels that tapped alluvial from the Tianshan and delivered it to fields with reduced evaporation losses. These networks, spanning up to several kilometers, supported across the kingdom's core territories from eastward to the Hami Basin, sustaining populations estimated in the tens of thousands during the 9th–12th centuries. Key crops included grains like and for subsistence, alongside and mulberry trees for production, which integrated with broader exchanges. Viticulture thrived particularly in the Turfan oases, yielding grapes processed into wine for ritual, medicinal, and trade purposes, even as Manichaean doctrine nominally proscribed alcohol; archaeological residues from Qocho monasteries confirm production persisted into the , reflecting pragmatic adaptations. Fruit orchards—featuring apricots, melons, and vines—capitalized on the region's extreme diurnal temperature fluctuations, fostering high yields that bolstered local markets and tribute systems under idiqut rulers. This agricultural base underpinned Qocho's resilience, enabling surplus generation that funded military defenses, complexes, and manuscript production, though vulnerability to or periodically strained resources, as evidenced by historical disruptions during Kara-Khanid incursions. Land grants documented in Turfan texts from the period highlight royal oversight of orchards and fields, often allocated to elites or religious institutions, reinforcing a hierarchical agrarian order intertwined with the kingdom's longevity until the Mongol era.

Silk Road Trade Networks

The Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho, established in 843 CE following the migration of Uyghur tribes to the Turfan Basin after the collapse of the , controlled key oases along the corridor, serving as a vital intermediary in Eurasian overland commerce. This position enabled Qocho to link trade routes extending from the Chinese heartland via the through to Turfan and further westward toward the Ili Valley and , encompassing a network spanning approximately 5,000 kilometers. The kingdom's urban centers, particularly , with a population nearing 40,000, functioned as major trading hubs where merchants exchanged goods under Uyghur oversight, benefiting from relative security compared to earlier periods of nomadic disruption. Trade in Qocho emphasized high-value commodities, including and exported eastward from in return for Central Asian horses, furs, , and precious metals, with often serving as a along these routes. Western imports such as glassware, spices, and textiles from Persia and the Mediterranean reached Qocho via Sogdian and other intermediaries, who maintained communities in Turfan despite the shift to Uyghur political dominance. Agricultural surpluses from oasis systems, like grapes and grains, supplemented transit , supporting caravanserais and markets that sustained economic prosperity through tolls and tariffs imposed by Qocho rulers. Qocho's networks fostered not only material exchange but also technological and administrative adaptations, such as the adoption of Chinese bureaucratic elements for managing , which enhanced efficiency in handling diverse merchant groups including , , and Indians. By the 10th-11th centuries, these routes supported in the eastern Tianshan region, with Qocho's Idiqut kings leveraging revenues to maintain forces that protected passages against , ensuring the corridor's viability until Mongol incursions disrupted flows in the early .

Literary, Artistic, and Architectural Contributions

The literary output of Qocho centered on religious manuscripts in the language, preserved through extensive finds from Turfan oasis excavations conducted between 1902 and 1914 by German scholars. These texts, numbering in the thousands, encompass Manichaean scriptures, Buddhist sutras, and occasional Christian works, reflecting the kingdom's syncretic religious environment. Key examples include fragments of the translated into , demonstrating adaptation of Buddhist literature for local use. Manichaean manuscripts, such as leaves from codices and liturgical texts, highlight the persistence of this faith's doctrinal writings into the 10th century. Artistic contributions are prominently featured in murals and portable artifacts from Qocho's of religious sites. The Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, active under Uyghur rule from the 9th to 13th centuries, contain wall paintings depicting Uyghur princes, princesses, and donors in Buddhist scenes, blending Indo-Iranian, Chinese, and local Turkic stylistic elements. Manichaean art from the region includes silk fragments with armored figures and temple banners portraying elect members, recovered from sites near Kocho, dating to the 8th-9th centuries. These works, often in on dry or painted textiles, served didactic purposes within temples. Architecturally, Qocho maintained and expanded the fortified city of , originally dating to the 1st century BCE but fortified with rammed-earth walls up to 12 meters high during Uyghur rule, enclosing an area of approximately 2 square kilometers with administrative palaces, temples, and residential quarters. The kingdom sponsored rock-cut complexes like Bezeklik, featuring over 80 grottoes with vaulted ceilings and niche shrines for Buddhist icons, constructed primarily from the onward. Manichaean temple remains, though less intact, included wooden structures with wall paintings, as evidenced by fragments from Bulayïq near Qocho. These elements underscore Qocho's role in sustaining oasis-based monumental architecture amid arid conditions.

Conflicts, Decline, and Fall

Clashes with the

The , after its rulers' beginning with Satuq Bughra Khan around 934 CE, pursued expansionist campaigns against non-Muslim states in eastern , including the predominantly Buddhist and Manichaean Kingdom of Qocho centered in the . These efforts were characterized as religious jihads by contemporary Muslim sources, motivated by the aim to eradicate infidel practices and extend Islamic rule, though territorial control over core Qocho lands in remained elusive. An early documented clash occurred under Satuq Bughra Khan (r. circa 920–955 CE), who led raids into Qocho's peripheral Minglaq province across the Ili River region, where he systematically destroyed Buddhist temples as part of broader anti-infidel operations. This incursion targeted outlying areas rather than the fortified heartland of Gaochang, reflecting the Khanate's initial focus on border destabilization over direct conquest. Subsequent rulers continued such hostilities, with Kara-Khanid forces launching intermittent invasions into Qocho territory to enforce conversion or subjugation, often met with determined Uyghur resistance that preserved the kingdom's religious syncretism. By the 11th century, the conflicts intensified into a pattern of reciprocal victories and defeats, as noted in accounts of frequent warfare between the two powers. A significant engagement around 1017 CE involved massive mobilizations, with reports indicating participation by approximately 300,000 combatants on combined sides, underscoring the scale of resources committed to these frontier struggles. Kara-Khanid scholar (d. 1090 CE), in his geographical and linguistic compendium , portrayed Qocho's as among the most resolute "infidels" linguistically akin to Turks yet religiously opposed, justifying against them while acknowledging their martial prowess. Despite these pressures, Qocho's strategic oases, defensive alliances, and cultural resilience prevented Kara-Khanid dominance, allowing the kingdom to retain until the Mongol invasions of century disrupted the regional balance. The clashes highlighted a broader civilizational fault line between Islamic Turkic and the persisting Indo-Iranian-influenced Buddhist traditions of the , with no decisive Kara-Khanid victory altering Qocho's confessional landscape.

Internal Strains and External Pressures

The vassalage to the , initiated in 1209 after Qocho's submission to without major resistance, required the kingdom to furnish tribute in goods, horses, and agricultural produce, as well as military contingents for imperial campaigns across . This ongoing extraction imposed fiscal burdens on Qocho's fragile oasis economy, reliant on irrigation from the Turfan Depression and limited , potentially exacerbating vulnerabilities to droughts or poor harvests that periodically afflicted the region. Uyghur elites, valued for their literacy and administrative expertise, were extensively recruited into Mongol service as scribes, accountants, and officials, adopting the Uyghur script as the basis for the imperial Mongolian alphabet and aiding in governance from to Dadu. While this elevated Qocho's influence within the empire, it likely contributed to internal strains through the temporary or permanent relocation of skilled personnel, reducing local institutional capacity and fostering potential factionalism between cosmopolitan court elements oriented toward Mongol patrons and more insular agrarian or mercantile groups focused on regional stability. As the Mongol Empire fragmented after the 1260s, Qocho became a frontier polity caught between the Yuan dynasty's eastern domains and the western Chagatai Khanate, enduring cross-border raids, shifting tribute demands, and diplomatic maneuvering during intermittent Yuan-Chagatai hostilities that disrupted Silk Road commerce. The Chagatai realm's deepening Islamization from the late 13th century onward—accelerated under khans promoting Muslim jurists and Turkic nomad alliances—intensified external cultural and religious pressures, with proselytizing efforts and alliances with Muslim traders eroding Buddhist dominance in border areas and sowing seeds of internal conversion among urban populations exposed to western influences. These dynamics weakened Qocho's cohesion, rendering it susceptible to the Chagataids' eventual military campaigns in the 1330s.

Conquest by the Muslim Chagatai Khanate

In the late , the eastern branch of the , known as , had undergone Islamization under khans such as (r. 1347–1363), who enforced conversion among Mongol nomads and expanded southward. By the reign of Khizr Khoja (r. 1389–1399), a descendant in the line, the khanate pursued aggressive campaigns to subjugate remaining non-Muslim territories in the , viewing them as opportunities for religious expansion through ghazat (holy war). Khizr Khoja launched a targeted of the Qocho region, centered on Karahoja (ancient ) and Turfan, between 1392 and 1393. These oases, long under loose Mongol since their voluntary submission to in 1209, had preserved Buddhist and lingering Manichaean practices amid Uyghur cultural continuity, resisting full integration into the increasingly Islamic Chagatai sphere. The campaign involved direct military assaults, culminating in the occupation of key settlements and the destruction or appropriation of non-Islamic religious sites. Contemporary accounts, such as Mirza Haydar Dughlat's Tarikh-i-Rashidi (16th century), describe this as a temporary but decisive , emphasizing the khan's role in breaking local resistance. The conquest enforced mass conversion to Islam, with inhabitants of Qocho and Turfan compelled to abandon Buddhism under threat of death or enslavement; resisters fled eastward to areas like Hami (Qomul) or Gansu, though Hami later faced similar pressure. This marked the definitive end of organized Buddhism in the region, extinguishing Qocho's distinct Uyghur-Buddhist polity after over five centuries and integrating it into the Muslim Chagatai framework, paving the way for Turkic-Islamic dominance in eastern Central Asia. No significant Uyghur Buddhist revival occurred thereafter, as Islamic norms supplanted prior syncretic traditions.

References

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