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Eochaid ab Rhun (fl. 853-889) was a ninth century King of Strathclyde, who may have also been King of the Picts.[note 1] He was a son of Rhun ab Arthgal, King of Strathclyde, and descended from a long line of British kings. Eochaid's mother is recorded to have been a daughter of Cináed mac Ailpín, King of the Picts.[6] This maternal descent from the royal Alpínid dynasty may well account for the record of Eochaid reigning over the Pictish realm after the death of Cináed's son, Áed, in 878. According to various sources, Áed was slain by Giric, whose ancestry is uncertain and who then proceeded to usurp the Alban throne.

Key Information

Heir to the Brythonic kingdom of Strathclyde and a claimant to the Gaelic throne of the Picts, Eochaid was of mixed blood.[6] Indeed, the name Eochaid is Gaelic and may indicate his maternal descent from the Alpínid dynasty. It is uncertain if Eochaid and Giric were relatives, unrelated allies, or even rivals. Whilst it is possible that they held the Pictish kingship concurrently as allies, it is also conceivable that they ruled successively as opponents. Another possibility is that, whilst Giric reigned as King of the Picts, Eochaid reigned as King of Strathclyde. Eochaid's floruit dates about the time when the Kingdom of Strathclyde seems to have expanded southwards into lands formerly possessed by the Kingdom of Northumbria. The catalyst for this extension of British influence appears to have been the Viking conquest of this northern English realm.

According to various sources, Eochaid and Giric were driven from the kingship in 889. The succeeding king, Domnall mac Custantín, was an Alpínid, and could well have been responsible for the forced regime change. The terminology employed by various sources suggests that during the reigns of Eochaid and Giric, or during that of Domnall and his successors, the wavering Pictish kingdom — weakened by political upheaval and Viking invasions — redefined itself as a Gaelic realm: the Kingdom of Alba.

Eochaid is not attested after 889. Likewise, nothing is recorded of the Kingdom of Strathclyde until the first quarter of the next century, when a certain Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde is reported to have died. Whilst the parentage of this man is unknown, it is probable that he was a member of Eochaid's kindred, and possibly a descendant of him. A daughter of Eochaid may have been Lann, a woman recorded to have been the mother of Muirchertach mac Néill, King of Ailech.

Ancestors

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Simplified pedigree illustrating the kinship between Eochaid's family and the Pictish Alpínid dynasty.[7] The latter kindred is highlighted, and women are italicised.
Arthgal ap DyfnwalCináed mac Ailpín
Rhun ab ArthgaldaughterÁed Findliath mac NéillMáel Muire ingen CináedaFlann Sinna mac Maíl ShechnaillCustantín mac CináedaÁed mac Cináeda
EochaidNiall Glúndub mac ÁedaDomnall mac CustantínCustantín mac Áeda
Map of northern Britain, locations relating to the life and times of Eochaid.

Eochaid was a son of Rhun ab Arthgal, King of Strathclyde.[8] Rhun's patrilineal ancestry is evidenced by a pedigree preserved within a collection of tenth century Welsh genealogical material known as the Harleian genealogies. According to this source, he was descended from a long line of kings of Al Clud.[9] The ninth to twelfth century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba evinces that Rhun was married to a daughter of Cináed mac Ailpín, King of the Picts,[10] and states that a product of the union was Eochaid himself.[11][note 2] Eochaid's maternal ancestry may be exemplified in the name he bore.[13] There is no known British form of the Gaelic Eochaid. In theory, a Pictish form of the name would be *Ebid or *Ebdei.[14][note 3]

Photograph of the fortress of Al Clud occupied Al Clud ("the rock of the Clyde").[18] The mediaeval citadel that sat atop this geological formation formed the capital of the Kingdom of Al Clud until the late ninth century.

In 870, during the reign of Rhun's father, Arthgal ap Dyfnwal, King of Al Clud, the fortress of Al Clud was captured and destroyed by the insular Scandinavian kings Amlaíb and Ímar.[19] In the following year, Amlaíb and Ímar returned to Ireland with a fleet of two hundred ships, and a mass of captives identified as English, British, and Pictish.[20] Arthgal died in 872.[21] The Annals of Ulster[22] and Chronicon Scotorum reveal that he was slain at the behest of Rhun's brother-in-law, Custantín mac Cináeda, King of the Picts.[23][note 4] The circumstances surrounding Arthgal's assassination are unknown,[25] and Rhun's reign probably commenced not long after his death.[26]

An eighteenth century engraving of the southern bank of the River Clyde at Govan. The scene shows a now-nonexistent artificial hill that could have been the royal assembly site of the Kingdom of Strathclyde following the fall of Al Clud.[27][note 5]

Prior to its fall, the fortress of Al Clud served as the capital of Arthgal's Kingdom of Al Clud, and afterwards the capital appears to have relocated up the River Clyde to the vicinity of Govan[30] and Partick.[31][note 6] The relocation is partly exemplified by a shift in royal terminology. Until the fall of Al Clud, for example, the rulers of the realm were styled after the fortress; whereas following the loss of the site, the Kingdom of Al Clud came to be known as the Kingdom of Strathclyde in consequence to its reorientation towards Ystrad Clud (Strathclyde), the valley of the River Clyde.[33] Either Arthgal or Rhun could have been the first monarch to rule the reconstructed realm of Strathclyde.[34]

It is uncertain when Rhun's reign and life ended.[35] One possibility is that Rhun died in 876 when Custantín seems to have been slain by Vikings.[36] Custantín's death is dated to 876 by the Annals of Ulster.[37] The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba appears to locate his fall in Atholl,[38] whilst several king-lists locate his demise to a place variously called Inverdufat,[39] an otherwise uncertain location[40] that might refer to Inverdovat in Fife.[41][note 7]

Sources of the royal succession

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The title of Áed mac Cináeda as it appears on folio 26r of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 489 (the Annals of Ulster).[43] As far as the Irish annals are concerned, Áed was the last King of the Picts. Nevertheless, other sources report that Áed was succeeded by Eochaid and Giric.[44]

It is uncertain who assumed the kingship of Strathclyde after Rhun.[45] If Rhun and Custantín both died in 876, Eochaid could well have succeeded his father.[46] Certainly, Custantín's brother, Áed mac Cináeda, succeeded as King of the Picts and ruled as such upon his death two years later.[47] Whilst the Annals of Ulster reports that Áed was killed by his own companions,[48] several mediaeval king-lists state that he was slain by a certain Giric.[49] Quite who reigned as king after Áed is uncertain, although there are several plausible possibilities.[50]

Photo of a stone high cross
Barochan Cross, a stone high cross,[51] dating between the eighth and tenth century.[52] This British monument is an example of the so-called 'Govan School' of sculpture.[53]

According to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, Eochaid succeeded Áed and held the kingship for eleven years. The chronicle adds that it was further said that Giric also reigned during this period because he was Eochaid's alumnus[54] ("foster father",[55] "guardian")[50] and ordinator[54] ("guardian",[56] "governor",[57] or "king-maker").[58] A solar eclipse is also noted during their reigns—an event dated to the feast of St Ciricius—and the two are stated to have been ejected from the kingdom.[54]

The chronicle reports that Áed Findliath mac Néill died in the second year of Eochaid's reign. Since Áed indeed expired in 879, the chronicle's chronology is evidently accurate for the outset of Eochaid's reign.[59] As for the eclipse, the chronicle appears to place it in the context of the final year of Eochaid's kingship.[60] Nevertheless, it is clear that the eclipse is identical to that which took place on 16 June 885,[61] as 16 June is certainly the feast day of at least one saint named Ciricius.[62][note 8] Since the dates given by the chronicle and the Annals of Ulster show that there was an eleven-year gap between the previous reign and the next, it is evident that the eclipse indeed occurred in the midst of Eochaid's reign.[68] The chronicle's inconsistency in regard to the eclipse may owe itself to an attempt to increase the dramatic effect of the regime change by associating a remarkable astronomical event with Eochaid's expulsion.[69]

Other than the chronicle, the only source to associate both Eochaid and Giric as kings is the twelfth century The Prophecy of Berchán.[70] According to the latter, Eochaid ruled as king for thirteen years until he was expelled and succeeded by Giric (described as "the son of fortune").[71] The discrepancies between the two sources may partly stem from an ethnic bias. Certainly, The Prophecy of Berchán is critical of Eochaid's British heritage whilst Giric is celebrated as a Scot.[72]

Relationship with Giric

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The name of Giric as it appears on folio 30v of Lat. 4126: "Grig filius Dunegal".[73]

Giric's familial origins are uncertain.[74] According to several versions of the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba his father's name was Dúngal,[75] whereas certain versions of the Verse Chronicle equate his father's name to Domnall.[76] Although it is possible that Giric's association with kingship stems from an ancestral claim, the evidence for this is uncertain.[77] Giric need not have possessed any claim of his own,[78] and could have merely played the role of kingmaker, by orchestrating the removal of Áed, and installing Eochaid in his place.[79]

Photograph of a mounted warrior, the most prominent figure displayed upon the Govan sarcophagus.[80] This monument is perhaps the finest example of the "Govan School" of sculpture. The sarcophagus could be that of Custantín mac Cináeda,[81] the Pictish king who orchestrated the death of Eochaid's paternal grandfather.

Nevertheless, there is also reason to suspect that Giric's patronym, "son of Dúngal", may actually refer to an early form of the Welsh Dyfnwal rather than the Gaelic Dúngal.[82][note 9] If correct, Giric's patronym could be evidence that his father was Dyfnwal ap Rhydderch, King of Al Clud and that Giric was a brother of Arthgal.[87] Such a relationship could indicate that Giric's apparent killing of Áed was undertaken in the context of avenging Arthgal's demise at Custantín's behest.[88] If Giric and Eochaid were indeed both descendants of Dyfnwal, Eochaid could well have ruled as king under the tutelage of Giric, his granduncle.[89][note 10]

Giric's patronym may instead identify him as a son of Domnall mac Ailpín.[92] If such a parentage is correct, it would certainly mean that Giric possessed a strong claim to the Pictish throne.[93] The fact that Áed seems to have succeeded Custantín could indicate that Giric had been denied the kingship. Such a possibility could account for Giric's apparent killing of Áed. It could also reveal that Giric received or was reliant upon significant assistance from Eochaid — in this case his maternal kinsman[94] — which would in turn account for the evidence that Giric and Eochaid shared the Pictish kingship in some manner.[95]

The name of Eochaid's maternal grandfather, Cináed mac Ailpín, as it appears on folio 30v of Lat. 4126: "Kynedus filius Alpini".[73] Eochaid's maternal Alpínid ancestry could well account for his association with the Pictish kingship.

Conversely, it could have been Eochaid who claimed the kingship by right of his maternal Alpínid ancestry.[96] If this was indeed the case, one possibility is that Eochaid was only able to hold authority in conjunction with Giric — either as an ally or client,[97] or perhaps as a youthful ward under Giric's guardianship.[46] In the ninth century, the term ordinator was used to describe the relationship between a powerful ruler and a satellite. One such example is the establishment of Bran mac Fáeláin as King of Leinster by Niall Caille mac Áeda, King of Tara.[98] As such, the terminology employed by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba could reveal that Giric — as ordinator — similarly established Eochaid as king.[99]

It is conceivable that Eochaid ruled over both the Strathclyde Britons and Picts.[100] If so, he could have initiated his royal career as King of Strathclyde before succeeding as King of the Picts.[101] In fact, the evidence of shared kingship may merely mean that Eochaid ruled the British kingdom whilst Giric ruled the Pictish realm.[102] As such, it is possible that Giric was successful in imposing some form of authority over the Kingdom of Strathclyde during Eochaid's floruit.[103][note 11] If correct, the price for Eochaid's assistance may have been the preservation of the British realm from other descendants of Cináed.[105] The fact that Eochaid's grandfather died in 872 could indicate that, if his father died soon after, Eochaid may have succeeded to the kingship of Strathclyde as a youth.[106][note 12]

The remarkable uncertainty surrounding the Pictish kingship during this period means that it is also possible that Eochaid and Giric were rivals rather than allies.[108] An adversarial relationship between the two may well be evidenced by The Prophecy of Berchán which gives a negative account of the Britons during Giric's tenure.[109]

Expansion of the British realm

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Photograph of several hogbacks on display in Govan. These massive sculpted monuments show influence of Scandinavian, Pictish, English, and Gaelic artistry.[110] They probably marked the graves of the royalty and nobility of the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Such stones are found in regions of northern Britain settled by Vikings.[81]

It is not until the turn of the tenth century before sources cast light upon the history of the Kingdom of Strathclyde.[111][note 13] At some point after the loss of Al Clud, the Kingdom of Strathclyde appears to have undergone a period of expansion.[115] Although the precise chronology is uncertain, by 927 the southern frontier appears to have reached the River Eamont, close to Penrith.[116][note 14] The catalyst for this southern extension may have been the dramatic decline of the Kingdom of Northumbria at the hands of conquering Scandinavians,[119] and the expansion may have been facilitated by cooperation between the Cumbrians and insular Scandinavians in the late ninth- and early tenth centuries.[120][note 15] Amiable relations between these powers may be evidenced by the remarkable collection of contemporary Scandinavian-influenced sculpture at Govan.[122] There is reason to suspect that Eochaid reigned during this expansion of the Kingdom of Strathclyde.[123] The Pictish and British realms are certainly not recorded to have been assailed by Vikings during Eochaid's floruit.[124] Furthermore, a union of the Pictish and British kingdoms could well have allowed him to extend British authority southward.[125]

Transformation of the Pictish realm

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The title of Domnall mac Custantín, the first recorded King of Alba, as it appears on folio 27v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 489.[126]

As for the Scottish kingdom, the succeeding king is identified as Domnall mac Custantín by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba.[127] Domnall's kingship is corroborated by the Annals of Ulster and Chronicon Scotorum which report his death in 900.[128] The fact the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba accords Domnall an eleven-year reign places the inception of his rule in 889 and therefore corroborates the eleven-year reign accorded to Eochaid.[127] Domnall is the first monarch to be styled King of Alba by a contemporary annalistic source.[129] Prior to about this period, the Gaelic Alba stood for "Britain".[130] In fact, the shifting terminology employed by various English, Irish, and Scottish sources may be evidence that the Pictish realm underwent a radical transformation during this period in history.[131]

An excerpt from folio 124r of British Library Cotton Tiberius B I (the "C" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle): "Peohtas".[132] The excerpt refers to eighth century Picts of the Kingdom of the Picts.

For example, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle identifies the Irish as Scottas up until the 890s.[133] By the 920s, this term came to be accorded to the people formerly regarded as Pictish[134] (and last recorded as such in the 870s).[135][note 16] As for the Irish annals—specifically the hypothesised Chronicle of Ireland—the terms Picti and rex Pictorum ("king of the Picts") are last accorded to the Picts and their kings in the 870s.[137] In fact, the last Pictish king to be styled thus was Domnall's uncle, Áed.[138] By the 900s, the terms fir Alban ("men of Alba") and rí Alban ("king of Alba") are utilised for these people.[139] The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba last utilises the term Pictavia in the midst of Domnall's reign. Thereafter, the realm is called Albania.[140]

An excerpt from folio 141r of British Library Cotton Tiberius B I: "Scotta leode".[141] The excerpt refers to tenth-century Scottish people of the Kingdom of Alba.

There is reason to suspect that the political and dynastic upheaval endured by the Pictish realm in the last quarter of the ninth century was the catalyst for a radically new political order based upon the reestablishment of the Alpínids in the kingship.[142] Alternately, the transformation could have taken place specifically during the floruit of Giric and Eochaid. For instance, it is conceivable that Giric gained the throne by seizing upon the upheaval caused by the incessant Viking depredations that assailed Pictavia. At an earlier date, the Gaelic realm of Dál Riata appears to have crumbled under such pressures, and it is possible that Giric drew military power from this broken polity to forcefully seize the Pictish throne. In any case, the accommodation of significant Gaelic aristocratic power in the wavering Pictish realm could account for the eventual transformation of Pictavia into Alba.[143][note 17]

Refer to caption
The name of Eochaid's maternal aunt, Máel Muire ingen Cináeda, as it appears on folio 28v of Oxford Bodleian Library Rawlinson B 489.[145]

The temporary exclusion of the Alpínids from the Pictish throne could well have meant that they endured exile in Ireland.[146] Certainly, Domnall's paternal aunt, Máel Muire ingen Cináeda, possessed significant Irish connections as the wife of two successive kings of Tara—Áed Findliath and Flann Sinna mac Maíl Shechnaill[147]—and the mother of another—Niall Glúndub mac Áeda.[148] If Domnall and his succeeding first cousin, Custantín mac Áeda, indeed spent their youth in Ireland prior to assuming the kingship of Alba, their Gaelic upbringing could well have ensured the continuation of Pictavia's Gaelicisation.[146] If the eventual Alpínid successors of Eochaid and Giric were indeed sheltered in Ireland, this could account for the fact that the Chronicle of Ireland fails to acknowledge their usurpation.[149]

Map od the kingdoms of Alba and Strathclyde, and the Scandinavian and Northumbrian territories in about 900.[150]

Furthermore, if the Pictish transformation indeed stems from the floruit of Giric and Eochaid, the new terminology could indicate that the Kingdom of Alba was envisioned to include Pictish, Gaelic, British, and English inhabitants.[151] Several king-lists allege that Giric subjugated Ireland and England during his reign,[152] an outlandish claim that could instead evince a multi-ethnic northern alliance under his authority. As such, there is reason to suspect that Alba — a term previously used for Britain — may have been meant to encapsulate a new political construction, a polity of "North Britain".[151][note 18]

Legacy

[edit]
Photograph of the site of the mediaeval fortress of Dundurn, said to be the site of Giric's last stand. One possibility is that Eochaid perished with Giric here.

Although the apparent reigns of Eochaid and Giric are obscure and uncertain, Giric eventually came to remembered as a legendary figure, credited as the liberator of the Gaelic Church from the Picts,[155] and the architect of military conquests of Ireland and England.[156][note 19] Eochaid, on the other hand, is only attested by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba and The Prophecy of Berchán.[161] Unlike Giric, later mediaeval king-lists and chronicles fail to include Eochaid within their accounts of Scottish history.[162] In fact, Eochaid, and the later Alpínid Amlaíb mac Illuilb, King of Alba, are the only Scottish kings not noted by the king-lists.[163] The window within which Eochaid and Giric appear to have reigned marks the only point between the careers of Cináed and Máel Coluim mac Cináeda, King of Alba that a patrilineal Alpínid is not known to have ruled the Pictish/Alban realm.[164]

Eochaid is unattested after his apparent expulsion in 889,[165] and the date of his death is unrecorded[166] and unknown.[167] According to various king-lists, Giric was slain at Dundurn.[168][note 20] Evidence of extensive burning at the site may relate to this event, and may mark the end of the fort's use.[172][note 21] If the accounts of Giric's downfall are to be believed, and if both he and Eochaid were allied together at the time, it is conceivable that both Eochaid and Giric fell together.[176] Alternately, Giric's killing could have contributed to Eochaid's ejection from the kingship.[177] Although it is unknown who was responsible for Giric's reported demise, one candidate is the succeeding Domnall.[178] Alternately, Domnall's path to throne could have been paved by magnates who afterwards sent for him.[179]

Refer to caption
The title of Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, a possible descendant of Eochaid, as it appears on folio 29r of Paris Bibliothèque Nationale Latin 4126: "rex Britanniorum".[180]

Certainly, nothing is recorded concerning the kingship of Strathclyde until the turn of the tenth century, when the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba notes the passing of a certain Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde.[181] Dyfnwal's parentage is uncertain. On one hand, he could have been another son of Rhun.[182] On the other hand, he could have been descended from Eochaid:[183] either as a son[184] or grandson. Alternately, Dyfnwal could have represented a more distant branch of the same dynasty.[185] Eochaid may have also had a daughter, Lann, the wife of Niall Glúndub attested by the Great Book of Lecan version of the twelfth century Banshenchas.[186] As such, if the Banshenchas is to be believed, a maternal grandson of Eochaid was Lann's son, Muirchertach mac Néill.[187][note 22]

Ancestry

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See also

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Notes

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Hudson, BT (1998) p. 149; Skene (1867) p. 9; Lat. 4126 (n.d.) fol. 29r.
  2. ^ Guy (2016); Broun (2015a); Broun (2015c); Broun (2015d); Evans (2015); Walker (2013); Clarkson (2012a); Clarkson (2012b); Oram (2011); Anderson, MO (2010); Clarkson (2010); Bartrum (2009); Charles-Edwards (2008); Jackson (2008); Downham (2007); Woolf (2007); Clancy (2006a); Clancy (2006b); Bhreathnach (2005); Dennison (2005); Broun (2004a); Broun (2004c); Broun (2004d); Hicks (2003); Calise (2002); Davidson (2002); Hudson, BT (2002); Bruford (2000); Woolf (2000); Hudson, BT (1998); Macquarrie (1998); Ó Corráin (1998a); Ó Corráin (1998b); Duncan (1996); Hudson, BT (1996); Hudson, BT (1994); Lynch (1991); Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991).
  3. ^ Dumville, D (2000).
  4. ^ Clarkson (2010); Bhreathnach (2005); Calise (2002); Hudson, BT (2002); Hudson, BT (1996); Hudson, BT (1994); Hudson, BT (1990).
  5. ^ Snyder (2003); Macquarrie (1990).
  6. ^ a b Clarkson, Tim (28 September 2012). The Men of the North: The Britons of Southern Scotland. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1-907909-02-3.
  7. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Walker (2013) ch. family trees tabs. 1, 5; Clarkson (2012a) ch. appendix a; Clarkson (2012b) ch. genealogical tables; Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Broun (2004d) p. 135 tab.; Woolf (2007) pp. 257 tab. 6.6; Woolf (2002) p. 35 tab.; Lynch (2001) p. 680 tab.; Macquarrie (1998) p. 6 tab.; Duncan (1996) pp. 628–629 genealogical tree 1; Lynch (1991) p. 487 tab.; Collingwood (1920) p. 56 tab.
  8. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Walker (2013) ch. family trees tab. 5; Clarkson (2012a) ch. appendix a; Clarkson (2012b) ch. genealogical tables; Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Broun (2004d) p. 135 tab.; Lynch (2001) p. 680 tab.; Macquarrie (1998) p. 6 tab.; Duncan (1996) pp. 628–629 genealogical tree 1; Collingwood (1920) p. 56 tab.
  9. ^ Guy (2016) pp. 6 tab. 1, 22–23; Clarkson (2014) chs. genealogical tables, 1 ¶ 23, 2 ¶ 21; Clarkson (2010) chs. genealogical tables, introduction ¶ 12, 2 ¶ 35; Broun (2004d) p. 117; Dumville, DN (1999) p. 110; Ó Corráin (1998a) § 38; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 331; Woolf (1998) pp. 159–160; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 134; Macquarrie (1990) p. 7; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. clvii–clviii; Phillimore (1888) pp. 172–173; Skene (1867) p. 15.
  10. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123; Bartrum (2009) p. 286; Downham (2007) p. 163; Bhreathnach (2005) p. 269; Broun (2004d) p. 127; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 149, 154; Ó Corráin (1998a) § 38; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 331; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 52, 55, 164 tab. 2a, 173 genealogy 6, 174 n. 3; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 363; Skene (1867) p. 9.
  11. ^ Bartrum (2009) pp. 286, 642; Clancy (2006b); Davidson (2002) p. 126; Hudson, BT (2002) p. 48; Woolf (2000) p. 147 n. 8; Macquarrie (1998) p. 13; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 149, 154; Smyth (1989) p. 217; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 363; Skene (1867) p. 9.
  12. ^ Evans (2015) p. 150; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 441; Skene (1867) p. 116; Colganvm (1645) p. 497 § xvii.
  13. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Oram (2011) ch. 2.
  14. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 62–63, 63 n. 32.
  15. ^ a b Koch (2006d).
  16. ^ Busse; Koch (2006); Ó Corráin; Maguire (1981) pp. 86–87.
  17. ^ Fraser (2009) p. 148.
  18. ^ Yorke (2009) p. 49.
  19. ^ Jorgensen (2017) 48, 48 n. 145; The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 870.6; McLeod, S (2015) pp. 3, 11; Edmonds (2014) p. 200; Hudson, B (2014) p. 203; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 480; Downham (2013) p. 17; Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 40; Fraser (2012) p. 71; Downham (2011) p. 192; Gigov (2011) p. 23; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 123–124; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 20; Fragmentary Annals of Ireland (2010) § 388; Davies (2009) p. 73, 73 n. 35; Ó Corráin (2008) p. 430; Fragmentary Annals of Ireland (2008) § 388; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 870.6; Downham (2007) pp. 66–67, 142, 240, 258; Woolf (2007) p. 109; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 88; Costambeys (2004); Valante (1998–1999) p. 245; Hicks (2003) p. 34; Driscoll, ST (1998a) p. 112; Macquarrie (1998) p. 12; Ó Corráin (1998a) § 38, 38 n. 141; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 331, 331 n. 149; Crawford (1997) p. 50; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 50; Smyth (1989) p. 215; Holm (1986) p. 321; Brooks (1979) p. 6; Alcock (1975–1976) p. 106; McTurk (1976) p. 117 n. 173; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 301–302; Beaven (1918) p. 337 n. 36.
  20. ^ Downham (2018) p. 49; The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 871.2; Wadden (2016) p. 176; McLeod, S (2015) pp. 3, 11; Edmonds (2014) p. 200; Hudson, B (2014) p. 204; Downham (2013) p. 17, 17 n. 38; Chronicon Scotorum (2012) § 871; Downham (2011) p. 192; Gigov (2011) p. 23; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 123–124, 171–172 n. 339; Chronicon Scotorum (2010) § 871; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 20; Fragmentary Annals of Ireland (2010) § 393; Fragmentary Annals of Ireland (2008) § 393; Ó Corráin (2008) p. 430; Sheehan (2008) p. 289; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 871.2; Broun (2007) p. 80; Downham (2007) pp. 22–23, 66–67, 142, 240, 259; Woolf (2007) p. 109; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 88; Costambeys (2004); Hicks (2003) p. 34; Hudson, BT (2002) p. 33; Sawyer (2001) p. 10; Kelly; Maas (1999) p. 144; Driscoll, ST (1998a) p. 112; Macquarrie (1998) p. 12; Ó Corráin (1998a) § 38, 38 n. 142; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 331, 331 n. 150; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 51; Ó Murchadha (1992–1993) p. 59; Smyth (1989) p. 215; Holm (1986) p. 321, 321 n. 10; Pelteret (1980) p. 106, 106 n. 64; Ó Corráin (1979) p. 319; Alcock (1975–1976) p. 106; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 302–303, 303 n. 1.
  21. ^ Guy (2016) p. 5 n. 15; Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Evans (2015) p. 150; Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 11; Edmonds (2014) p. 200; Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 42; Woolf (2010) p. 225; Bartrum (2009) p. 29; Downham (2007) p. 163; Clancy (2006a); Clancy (2006c); Calise (2002) p. 197; Hicks (2003) pp. 16, 30; Dumville, DN (1999) pp. 110–111; Macquarrie (1998) p. 12; Ó Corráin (1998a) § 38; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 331; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 52, 174 n. 1.
  22. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 872.5; Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Evans (2015) p. 150; Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 11, 3 n. 10; Edmonds (2014) p. 200; Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 42; Woolf (2010) p. 225; Bartrum (2009) p. 29; Clancy (2009) p. 28; Davies (2009) p. 73, 73 n. 36; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 872.5; Downham (2007) p. 163; Clancy (2006a); Clancy (2006c); Hicks (2003) pp. 16, 30; Calise (2002) p. 197; Hudson, BT (2002) p. 41; Dumville, DN (1999) pp. 110–111; Macquarrie (1998) p. 12; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 52, 174 n. 1; Ó Murchadha (1992–1993) p. 60; Macquarrie (1990) p. 7; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 304.
  23. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Evans (2015) p. 150; Edmonds (2014) p. 200; Chronicon Scotorum (2012) § 872; Chronicon Scotorum (2010) § 872; Calise (2002) p. 197; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 304 n. 2.
  24. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Evans (2015) p. 150; Edmonds (2014) p. 200; Charles-Edwards (2006) p. 324 § 872.5.
  25. ^ Clancy (2006a); Hudson, BT (1994) p. 52.
  26. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 23; Woolf (2007) p. 111.
  27. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 13; Crawford (2014) p. 77; Driscoll, S (2006); Driscoll, ST (2003) p. 80 ill. 32.
  28. ^ Clarkson (2014) chs. 2 ¶ 50, 3 ¶ 13; Driscoll, ST (2003) p. 80; Driscoll, ST (2001c) Driscoll, ST (1998a) p. 101.
  29. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 13; Driscoll, S (2006); Driscoll, ST (2001c); Driscoll, ST (1998a) pp. 102–103.
  30. ^ Foley (2017); Driscoll, ST (2015) pp. 5, 7; Clarkson (2014) chs. 1 ¶ 23, 3 ¶ 11–12; Edmonds (2014) p. 201; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 480–481; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 23; Clarkson (2012b) ch. 11 ¶ 46; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 22; Davies (2009) p. 73; Oram (2008) p. 169; Downham (2007) p. 169; Clancy (2006c); Driscoll, S (2006); Forsyth (2005) p. 31; Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) pp. 8, 10; Driscoll, ST (2003) pp. 81–82; Hicks (2003) pp. 32, 34; Driscoll, ST (2001a); Driscoll, ST (2001c); Driscoll, ST (1998a) p. 112.
  31. ^ Driscoll, ST (2015) pp. 5, 7; Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 13; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 23; Clarkson (2012b) ch. 11 ¶ 46; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 22; Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) pp. 8, 10.
  32. ^ Fraser (2012) p. 70 fig. 2.2.
  33. ^ Driscoll, ST (2015) p. 5; Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 11; Edmonds (2014) pp. 200–201; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 23; Clarkson (2012b) ch. 11 ¶ 46; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 26; Downham (2007) p. 162 n. 158; Clancy (2006c); Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) pp. 8, 10; Hicks (2003) pp. 15, 16, 30.
  34. ^ Clarkson (2014) chs. 1 ¶ 23, 3 ¶ 18.
  35. ^ Broun (2004d) p. 127 n. 61; Macquarrie (1998) p. 13 n. 2.
  36. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25.
  37. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 876.1; Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 46; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 876.1; Calise (2002) p. 197; Duncan (2002) p. 11; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 352; Inverdovat (n.d.).
  38. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 111–112; Smyth (1989) p. 195; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 148–149, 154; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 353, 353 n. 1; Skene (1867) p. 8.
  39. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 46; Woolf (2007) p. 112; Duncan (2002) p. 11; Ó Corráin (1998a) § 40, § 40 n. 50; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 333, 333 n. 161; Smyth (1989) p. 195; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 353, 353 n. 3, 355 n. 4; Skene (1886) pp. 327–328 n. 103; Skene (1867) pp. 151, 174, 288, 301; Inverdovat (n.d.).
  40. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 112; Broun (2004a); Ó Corráin (1998a) § 40 n. 50; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 333 n. 161.
  41. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 46; Clarkson (2012b) ch. 11 ¶ 47; Duncan (2002) p. 11; Crawford (2000) p. 125; Ó Corráin (1998a) § 40 n. 50; Ó Corráin (1998b) p. 333 n. 161; Smyth (1989) p. 195; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 353 n. 3; Skene (1886) pp. 327, 327–328 n. 103; Inverdovat (n.d.).
  42. ^ Hudson, BT (2002) p. 41; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 43 § 130, 85 § 130, 85 n. 81; Anderson, AO (1930) p. 40 § 128; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 355, 355 n. 4; Skene (1886) pp. 327, 327–328 n. 103; Skene (1867) p. 86; Inverdovat (n.d.).
  43. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 878.2; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 878.2; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.).
  44. ^ Woolf (2009) pp. 251–252.
  45. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24; Downham (2007) p. 163.
  46. ^ a b Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25.
  47. ^ Broun (2015a); Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Woolf (2007) p. 116; Broun (2004a); Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 54–55; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 4; Smyth (1989) p. 215.
  48. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 878.2; Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Anderson, MO (2010) p. 124 n. 69; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Woolf (2009) p. 251; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 878.2; Woolf (2007) p. 116; Calise (2002) p. 172; Duncan (2002) p. 11; Broun (1997) p. 122, 122 n. 50; Wormald (1996) p. 149; Lynch (1991) p. 44; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 356.
  49. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 116; Calise (2002) pp. 166–167, 173, 233; Duncan (2002) p. 11; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 357, 357 n. 2; Skene (1867) pp. 151, 204, 288, 301, 400.
  50. ^ a b Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24.
  51. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ill.; Driscoll; O'Grady; Forsyth (2005); Allen; Anderson (1903) pp. 456 fig. 475a, 458–459 fig. 475b.
  52. ^ Laing (2000) p. 97; Keppie; Newall; Alldrit et al. (1996) p. 41 n. 2.
  53. ^ Driscoll; O'Grady; Forsyth (2005); Laing (2000) p. 97.
  54. ^ a b c Broun (2015c); Evans (2015) p. 150; Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24; Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Woolf (2009) pp. 252; Downham (2007) p. 163; Woolf (2007) pp. 118–119; Clancy (2006b); Broun (2004c); Broun (2004d) p. 127; Duncan (2002) pp. 11–12; Dumville, D (2000) p. 78; Woolf (2000) p. 147 n. 8; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 149, 154–155, 155 n. 26; Macquarrie (1998) p. 13, 13 n. 3; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206; Smyth (1989) p. 216; Cowan (1981) pp. 10–11; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 363–364, 364 n. 1; Collingwood (1920) p. 58; Skene (1867) p. 9.
  55. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24; Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Broun (2004c); Duncan (2002) pp. 11–12; Dumville, D (2000) p. 78; Hudson, BT (1998) p. 141, 155, 155 n. 26; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206; Smyth (1989) p. 217; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 364, 364 n. 1.
  56. ^ Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123; Broun (2004c); Smyth (1989) p. 217; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 364.
  57. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Woolf (2007) p. 120.
  58. ^ a b Woolf (2007) p. 120.
  59. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 118–119.
  60. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 118–119; Cowan (1981) p. 10.
  61. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 119; Clancy (2006b); Broun (2004c); Dumville, D (2000) p. 78; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 134, 155 n. 27; McCarthy; Breen (1997) p. 16; Cowan (1981) p. 10; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 364 n. 3.
  62. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 119; Thurston; Attwater (1990) pp. xviii, 553; Cowan (1981) p. 10; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 364 n. 3; Stokes (1895) p. 117; Ciric the Child Martyr (n.d.).
  63. ^ Farmer (2004) § Cyricus and Julitta; Thurston; Attwater (1990) pp. xviii, 553; Cowan (1981) p. 10; Forbes (1872) p. 117; Ciric the Child Martyr (n.d.).
  64. ^ Taylor (1998) p. 20.
  65. ^ Clancy (2013) p. 20; Taylor (1998) p. 20; Cowan (1981) p. 10; Ciric the Child Martyr (n.d.).
  66. ^ Clancy (2013) p. 20.
  67. ^ Jackson (2008) p. 48; Cowan (1981) p. 10; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 364 n. 3; Ciric the Child Martyr (n.d.).
  68. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 119.
  69. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 119; Clancy (2006b).
  70. ^ Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 44–45 §§ 134–140, 85–86 §§ 134–140; Anderson, AO (1930) pp. 40–42 §§ 132–138; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 366–367; Skene (1867) pp. 87–88.
  71. ^ Macquarrie (1998) p. 13; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 44–45 §§ 134–140, 85–86 §§ 134–140; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 55–57; Macquarrie (1990) p. 7; Anderson, AO (1930) pp. 40–42 §§ 132–138; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 366–367, 366 n. 3; Skene (1867) pp. 87–88.
  72. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 25; Hudson, BT (1998) p. 154 n. 23; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 55–56; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 44–45 §§ 134–140, 85–86 §§ 134–140; Anderson, AO (1930) pp. 40–42 §§ 132–138; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 366–367; Skene (1867) pp. 87–88.
  73. ^ a b Skene (1867) p. 131; Lat. 4126 (n.d.) fol. 30v.
  74. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 24; Jackson (2008) p. 47; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 56.
  75. ^ Jackson (2008) p. 47; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 357, 357 n. 2; Skene (1867) pp. 151, 174, 288, 301.
  76. ^ Jackson (2008) p. 47; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 56; Stevenson (1835) p. 224; Skene (1867) p. 178 nn. 4–5.
  77. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123.
  78. ^ Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Broun (2004c); Duncan (1996) pp. 115–116 n. 29.
  79. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Woolf (2007) pp. 120–121.
  80. ^ Driscoll, S (2006); Driscoll, ST (1998a) pp. 108–109; Renwick; Lindsay (1921) pp. 38–39 pl. 10.
  81. ^ a b Driscoll, ST (2014).
  82. ^ Anderson, MO (2010) pp. 123–124 n. 68; Jackson (2008) pp. 47-48; Bruford (2000) p. 65, 65 n. 76; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 56; Skene (1886) p. 330.
  83. ^ Jackson (2008) p. 47; Ó Corráin; Maguire (1981) pp. 75, 80.
  84. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. xiii, 184, 184 n. 17; Koch (2006b); Bruford (2000) pp. 64, 65 n. 76; Schrijver (1995) p. 81.
  85. ^ Koch; Minard (2006a); Koch (2006c); Jackson (2008) p. 47; Bruford (2000) p. 65 n. 76.
  86. ^ Koch; Minard (2006a).
  87. ^ Jackson (2008) pp. 47–48; Bruford (2000) p. 65; Collingwood (1920) p. 56 tab.; Skene (1886) p. 330.
  88. ^ Bruford (2000) p. 65 n. 76.
  89. ^ Jackson (2008) pp. 47-48; Bruford (2000) p. 65.
  90. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Hudson, BT (2002) p. 49; Grant (2000) p. 97; Hudson, BT (1998) p. 142; Broun (1996); Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 57, 166 tab. 2b, 170 tab. genealogy 3.
  91. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 57.
  92. ^ Walker (2013) ch. family trees tab. 1; Oram (2011) ch. 5; Anderson, MO (2010) pp. 123–124 n. 68; Jackson (2008) p. 47; Bruford (2000) p. 65 n. 76; Duncan (1996) pp. 115–116 n. 29, 628–629 genealogical tree 1; Lynch (1991) p. 487 tab.; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 134, 143; Smyth (1989) pp. 220–221 tab 4.
  93. ^ Jackson (2008) p. 47.
  94. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 48; Oram (2011) chs. 2, 5; Smyth (1989) p. 216.
  95. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 48; Oram (2011) chs. 2, 5.
  96. ^ Anderson, MO (2010) p. 123; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Macquarrie (1998) p. 13; Lynch (1991) p. 453 n. 18; Macquarrie (1990) p. 8.
  97. ^ Macquarrie (1998) p. 13; Macquarrie (1990) p. 8.
  98. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 835.1; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 835.1; Hudson, BT (2004a); Hudson, BT (1998) p. 142; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206.
  99. ^ Hudson, BT (1998) p. 142; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206.
  100. ^ Downham (2007) p. 163.
  101. ^ Clancy (2006b); Collingwood (1920) p. 57.
  102. ^ Oram (2011) ch. 5; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 25; Duncan (2002) p. 12; Smyth (1989) p. 216.
  103. ^ Oram (2011) ch. 5.
  104. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 26; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 44 §§ 136–138, 85 §§ 136–138; Anderson, AO (1930) pp. 41 §§ 134–136; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 366–367; Skene (1867) pp. 87–88.
  105. ^ Smyth (1989) p. 216.
  106. ^ Duncan (2002) p. 12.
  107. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 § 25; Duncan (2002) p. 12; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 149, 154–155; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 363–364; Skene (1867) p. 9.
  108. ^ Broun (2004c).
  109. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 25; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 44–45 §§ 134–140, 85–86 §§ 134–140, 206; Anderson, AO (1930) pp. 40–42 §§ 132–138; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 366–367; Skene (1867) pp. 87–88.
  110. ^ Downham (2007) p. 170.
  111. ^ Evans (2015) p. 150; Clarkson (2014) chs. 3 ¶ 26, 4 ¶ 12.
  112. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶¶ 27–30; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 482 n. 68; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 27; Woolf (2007) pp. 155–156; Hicks (2003) pp. 34–35, 34 n. 76; Macquarrie (1998) p. 13; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 57–58, 56 n. 69; Macquarrie (1990) pp. 7–8; Smyth (1989) pp. 217–218; Macquarrie (1986) pp. 14–15; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 368; Jones; Williams; Pughe (1870) p. 688; Skene (1868) pp. 181–182.
  113. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 28; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 482 n. 68; Woolf (2007) pp. 155–156; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 57–58, 56 n. 69.
  114. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 30; Hicks (2003) p. 35.
  115. ^ Dumville, DN (2018) p. 118; Driscoll, ST (2015) pp. 6–7; Edmonds (2015) p. 44; James (2013) pp. 71–72; Parsons (2011) p. 123; Davies (2009) p. 73; Downham (2007) pp. 160–161, 161 n. 146; Woolf (2007) p. 153; Breeze (2006) pp. 327, 331; Clancy (2006c); Ewart; Pringle; Caldwell et al. (2004) pp. 9–10; Hicks (2003) pp. 35–38, 36 n. 78.
  116. ^ Dumville, DN (2018) pp. 72, 110, 118; Edmonds (2015) pp. 44, 53, 62; Charles-Edwards (2013a) p. 20; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 481; Davies (2009) p. 73, 73 n. 40; Oram (2011) ch. 2; Parsons (2011) p. 138 n. 62; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 10; Downham (2007) p. 165; Woolf (2007) p. 154; Clancy (2006c); Todd (2005) p. 96; Hicks (2003) pp. 35–38; Stenton (1963) p. 328.
  117. ^ Clancy (2009) pp. 28–29; Davies (2009) p. 76; Edmonds (2009) pp. 60–61.
  118. ^ Davies (2009).
  119. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 15; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 9, 481–482; Oram (2011) ch. 2; Breeze (2006) pp. 327, 331; Hicks (2003) pp. 35–38, 36 n. 78; Woolf (2001); Macquarrie (1998) p. 19; Fellows-Jensen (1991) p. 80.
  120. ^ Evans (2015) pp. 150–151; Charles-Edwards (2013b) pp. 481–482.
  121. ^ James (2013) p. 72; James (2011); James (2009) p. 144, 144 n. 27; Millar (2009) p. 164.
  122. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 482; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 24; Downham (2007) pp. 162, 170.
  123. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Downham (2007) p. 163; Macquarrie (1998) p. 19; Collingwood (1920) pp. 57–58.
  124. ^ Evans (2015) pp. 150–151.
  125. ^ Downham (2007) p. 163; Hicks (2003) p. 35.
  126. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 900.6; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 900.6; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.).
  127. ^ a b Woolf (2007) pp. 122–123; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 149, 155; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 395–396; Skene (1867) p. 9.
  128. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 900.6; Chronicon Scotorum (2012) § 900; Chronicon Scotorum (2010) § 900; Woolf (2007) p. 122; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 900.6.
  129. ^ Evans (2015) p. 151 n. 96; Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 50; Clarkson (2012a) ch. 8 ¶ 24; Clarkson (2012b) ch. 11 ¶ 48; Anderson, MO (2010) p. 124; Clarkson (2010) ch. 8 ¶ 26; Hadley (2009) p. 203; Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 170; Broun (2007) pp. 21, 33 n. 115; Woolf (2007) p. 320 n. 18; Charles-Edwards (2006) p. 343 n. 2; Clancy (2006a); Forsyth (2005) p. 32; Broun (2004b); Foster (2004) p. 108; Davidson (2002) p. 128; Bruford (2000) p. 59; Woolf (2000) p. 151; Veitch (1998) p. 199 n. 34; Bannerman (1997) p. 35; Lynch (1991) p. 40; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 103.
  130. ^ Downham (2017) p. 91; Koch (2006a); Broun (1997) p. 113 n. 6.
  131. ^ Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 170; Broun (2007) pp. 72–75; Broun (2004b); Broun (1997) p. 113 n. 6.
  132. ^ O'Keeffe (2001) p. 43; Cotton MS Tiberius B I (n.d.).
  133. ^ Woolf (2009) p. 251; Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 170, 187; Swanton (1998) p. 82; Thorpe (1861) pp. 160–161.
  134. ^ Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 170, 187; Swanton (1998) pp. 104–105; Thorpe (1861) pp. 196–197.
  135. ^ Woolf (2009) p. 251; Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 170, 187; Woolf (2007) pp. 117, 124; Swanton (1998) pp. 74–75; Thorpe (1861) pp. 144–145.
  136. ^ The Irish Version of (2015) § historia 27; The Irish Version of (2009) § historia 27; Woolf (2007) p. 124.
  137. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) §§ 875.3, 876.1, 878.2; Broun (2015b) p. 120; Chronicon Scotorum (2012) § 876; Chronicon Scotorum (2010) § 876; Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 170, 187; The Annals of Ulster (2008) §§ 875.3, 876.1, 878.2; Broun (2007) pp. 84, 89 n. 6; Charles-Edwards (2006) pp. 326 § 875.3, 326 § 876.1, 328 § 878.3, 343 n. 2; Davidson (2002) p. 128; Bruford (2000) p. 59 n. 52; Broun (1997) p. 112, 122 nn. 2–3, 122 n. 50.
  138. ^ Woolf (2009) pp. 251–252; Broun (2007) p. 72; Woolf (2007) pp. 117, 340; Broun (1997) p. 112.
  139. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) §§ 900.6, 918.4; Broun (2015b) pp. 119–120; Chronicon Scotorum (2012) § 900; Chronicon Scotorum (2010) § 900; Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 170, 187; The Annals of Ulster (2008) §§ 900.6, 918.4; Broun (2007) pp. 21, 33 n. 115, 72, 84, 89 n. 6; Charles-Edwards (2006) p. 343 § 900.9, 343 n. 2; Broun (2004b); Duncan (2002) p. 14; Davidson (2002) p. 128; Bruford (2000) p. 59, 59 n. 52; Broun (1997) pp. 112, nn. 2–3, 124 n. 56; Ó Murchadha (1992–1993) p. 59.
  140. ^ Anderson, MO (2010) p. 124; Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 170, 180, 187; Broun (2007) pp. 72–73, 84–85; Charles-Edwards (2006) p. 343 n. 2; Foster (2004) p. 108; Woolf (2000) pp. 151–152; Broun (1997) p. 118 n. 33; Lynch (1991) p. 40.
  141. ^ O'Keeffe (2001) p. 77; Cotton MS Tiberius B I (n.d.).
  142. ^ Broun (2007) p. 73; Broun (2004b); Broun (1997) pp. 115, 123–124.
  143. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 321, 340–342, 351.
  144. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 807.3; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 807.3; Woolf (2007) p. 59.
  145. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 913.1; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 913.1; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.).
  146. ^ a b Woolf (2007) pp. 321–322.
  147. ^ Clarkson (2012a) ch. appendix a; Clarkson (2012b) ch. genealogical tables; Broun (2007) p. 96 n. 84; Woolf (2007) pp. 257 tab. 6.6, 321–322; Herbert (2000) pp. 68–69; Broun (1997) p. 117; Hudson, BT (1998) p. 157 nn. 41–42; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 120, 134; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 171 genealogy 4.
  148. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 257 tab. 6.6, 321–322; Bhreathnach (2005) p. 269; Hudson, BT (2004b); Herbert (2000) pp. 69–70; Hudson, BT (1998) p. 157 n. 42; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 120, 134, 148; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 171 genealogy 4.
  149. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 124.
  150. ^ Foster (2004) p. 8 ill. 1.
  151. ^ a b Evans (2015) 151 n. 96; Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 178–179.
  152. ^ Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 177, 179; Woolf (2007) p. 120; Veitch (1998) p. 211; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206; Macquarrie (1990) p. 7; Cowan (1981) p. 10; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 364–365, 365 n. 2; Skene (1867) pp. 151, 174, 204, 288, 301, 305.
  153. ^ Davidson (2002) pp. 128–129, 159; Herbert (2000).
  154. ^ Evans (2015) p. 151 n. 96; Broun (2015b) pp. 122–124; Broun (2007) pp. 86–87; Broun (1997) p. 123 n. 54.
  155. ^ Broun (2015d); Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 48; Woolf (2007) pp. 120, 320; Broun (2004c); Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206.
  156. ^ Broun (2015d); Terrell (2011) p. 338, 338 n. 50; Charles-Edwards (2008) pp. 177, 179; Broun (2004c); Woolf (2007) p. 120; Veitch (1998) p. 211; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206; Clancy (1996) p. 125; Anderson, AO (1922) pp. 364–365, 365 n. 2; Skene (1867) pp. 151, 174, 204, 288, 301, 305.
  157. ^ a b Woolf (2007) p. 120 n. 55.
  158. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 120 n. 55; Watson (2002) pp. 175, 183.
  159. ^ Edmonds (2015) p. 60; Hudson, B (2014) p. 89; Woolf (2007) p. 120; Clancy (1996) p. 121.
  160. ^ Hudson, B (2014) p. 89; Woolf (2007) p. 120; Veitch (1998) pp. 198, 207; Clancy (1996) p. 122; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206; Wormald (1996) pp. 142, 150; Haddan; Stubbs (1873) p. 283; Forbes (1872) p. xliii.
  161. ^ Hudson, BT (2002) p. 49; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 206.
  162. ^ Hudson, BT (2002) p. 49.
  163. ^ Hudson, BT (1990) p. 107 n. 21.
  164. ^ Broun (2015b) p. 187; Lynch (1991) p. 42.
  165. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 3.
  166. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 123; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 13–14; Macquarrie (1990) p. 8.
  167. ^ Hudson, BT (1994) p. 163 tab. 1a.
  168. ^ Hudson, B (2014) p. 99; Konstam (2010) p. 36; Woolf (2007) pp. 120 n. 55, 125; Clancy (1996) p. 125; Alcock; Alcock; Driscoll (1989) pp. 192–194; Driscoll, ST (1987) pp. 178–179, 193; Skene (1867) pp. 151, 174, 178, 288, 301.
  169. ^ Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 45 § 139, 86 § 139, 206–207; Anderson, AO (1930) p. 41 § 137; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 367; Skene (1886) p. 330 n. 107; Skene (1867) p. 88.
  170. ^ Grant (2000) p. 97.
  171. ^ Alcock; Alcock; Driscoll (1989) p. 194.
  172. ^ Driscoll, ST (2001b).
  173. ^ Clancy (2009) p. 28; Woolf (2007) p. 109; Driscoll, ST (2003) p. 81; Driscoll, ST (2001a); Duncan (1996) p. 90.
  174. ^ Oram (2008) p. 169; Driscoll, ST (1998b) p. 40.
  175. ^ Oram (2008) p. 169.
  176. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 26; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 143.
  177. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 1 ¶ 48.
  178. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 3 ¶ 26; Woolf (2007) p. 125; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) p. 143.
  179. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 125.
  180. ^ Hudson, BT (1998) p. 150; Skene (1867) p. 9; Lat. 4126 (n.d.) fol. 29v.
  181. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 4; Downham (2007) p. 163; Davidson (2002) p. 130; Hudson, BT (1998) pp. 150, 156–157; Anderson, AO (1922) p. 445; Skene (1867) p. 9.
  182. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Charles-Edwards (2013b) p. 572 fig. 17.4; Oram (2011) ch. 2; Clarkson (2010) chs. genealogical tables, 9 ¶ 4; Broun (2004d) p. 135 tab.
  183. ^ Hudson, BT (1998) p. 157 n. 39.
  184. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 4; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 56, 72, 173 genealogy 6; Collingwood (1920) pp. 56 tab., 58.
  185. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9 ¶ 4.
  186. ^ Bartrum (2009) p. 286; Clancy (2006b); Bhreathnach (2005) p. 270; Hudson, BT (2004b); Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 56, 171 genealogy 4, 173 genealogy 6, 174 n. 6; Dobbs (1931) p. 188.
  187. ^ Bartrum (2009) p. 286; Hudson, BT (2006); Bhreathnach (2005) p. 270; Hudson, BT (2004b); Hudson, BT (1994) p. 171 genealogy 4; Dobbs (1931) p. 188.
  188. ^ Bhreathnach (2005) p. 270; Dobbs (1931) pp. 187, 226; Dobbs (1930) pp. 312, 336.
  189. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Clarkson (2012b) ch. genealogical tables; Clarkson (2010) ch. genealogical tables; Macquarrie (1998) p. 6 tab.; Collingwood (1920) p. 56 tab.
  190. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. genealogical tables; Walker (2013) ch. family trees tab. 1; Clarkson (2012a) ch. appendix a; Clarkson (2012b) ch. genealogical tables; Lynch (2001) p. 680 tab.; Macquarrie (1998) p. 6 tab.; Duncan (1996) pp. 628–629 genealogical tree 1.
  191. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 96.

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Eochaid ab Rhun

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Eochaid ab Rhun (fl. 878–889) was a ninth-century Brittonic ruler identified as king of the Britons of Strathclyde and, per the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, king over the Picts for eleven years succeeding Áed mac Cináeda's death in 878. The son of Rhun, king of Strathclyde, and a daughter of Cináed mac Ailpín, he linked the Brittonic kingdom of Alt Clut with the emerging Gaelic-Pictish realm through maternal descent from the Alpin dynasty's founder. This chronicle, a primary tenth-century source compiled in Gaelic monastic circles, records his accession but notes variant traditions attributing the period's rule to Giric, reflecting historical uncertainty in early medieval Scottish regnal sequences where Brittonic influence waned amid Viking pressures and dynastic shifts. Later king-lists often omit Eochaid, underscoring reliance on sparse annalistic evidence for his Pictish claim, though his Strathclyde kingship aligns with dynastic succession from his father, whose rule ended amid Norse incursions on Dumbarton Rock in 871.

Origins and Background

Ancestry and Lineage

Eochaid ab Rhun was the son of Rhun, a king of Strathclyde who ruled in the mid-ninth century, and thus belonged to the royal dynasty of the Britons of Alt Clut (later known as Strathclyde). Rhun himself was the son of Arthgal ap Dyfnwal, king of Alt Clut, continuing a lineage traceable to earlier British rulers of the Clyde valley region, including Dyfnwal and earlier kings documented in Welsh and Irish annals. This paternal heritage positioned Eochaid within the indigenous British (Cumbrian) aristocracy, distinct from the Gaelic Scots of Dál Riata, with roots in the post-Roman successor states of northern Britain. Eochaid's mother was a daughter of Cináed mac Ailpín, king of the (r. 841–858), linking him maternally to the Alpínid dynasty that would dominate Gaelic . This connection, recorded in medieval Scottish chronicles such as the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, provided Eochaid with a claim to Pictish or pan-Albanian kingship through his grandfather's line, blending British and Pictish-Gaelic elements amid the cultural fusions of ninth-century northern Britain. The reliability of such maternal attributions rests on these late-compiled annals, which prioritize dynastic legitimacy but may reflect retrospective Alpínid propaganda to legitimize hybrid rule.

Historical Context of Ninth-Century Britain

Ninth-century Britain comprised fragmented polities facing external threats from incursions and internal dynastic strife. The northern regions featured the Pictish kingdom north of the Forth, the Gaelic in , and the Brittonic realm of Alt Clut (later ) centered on Rock, while southern Anglo-Saxon included , , , , , , and ; Welsh principalities like persisted in the west. Kenneth mac Alpin's accession around 843 unified Picts and Scots under a single ruler, initiating the Kingdom of Alba amid raids that had sacked in 795 and escalated thereafter. Viking activity intensified in the mid-ninth century, with the landing in 865 to conquer by 867 and partition , establishing the across eastern England by the 870s. In the north, a Norse-Gaelic force from under Óláfr and Ívarr besieged and sacked Dumbarton Rock in 870 after four months, capturing slaves and treasure, which precipitated the decline of Alt Clut's power and a southward shift of Brittonic authority toward and the Clyde valley. These assaults disrupted trade, monastic centers, and royal strongholds, fostering alliances and migrations among Celtic peoples while Anglo-Saxon under mounted resistance, preserving southern independence. By the late ninth century, succession crises in Alba following Áed mac Cináeda's death in 878 highlighted ongoing instability, with claims intersecting Pictish, Scottish, and Brittonic lineages amid persistent Norse threats. This era's causal pressures—raids depleting resources and elites—drove consolidations, such as Alba's expansion, yet left peripheral kingdoms like vulnerable to both Scandinavian settlers and emerging Scottish hegemony.

Early Life and Familial Influences

Eochaid was the son of Rhun, king of the Britons of , and through his mother a grandson of Cináed mac Ailpín, who ruled the from 841 to 858. This parentage linked him to the British royal dynasty of Alt Clut on his father's side and the emergent Gaelic Alpínid house on his mother's, positioning him at the intersection of Brittonic and Gaelic political spheres in ninth-century northern Britain. Little is recorded of Eochaid's personal early years, which likely unfolded amid the turbulent context of Strathclyde's interactions with neighboring Scots, Picts, and Vikings following the sack of Dumbarton Rock in 870. Rhun's kingship, commencing after the death of his father Arthgal ap Dyfnwal around 872–873, would have shaped Eochaid's upbringing in a court maintaining continuity with the ancient kings of , emphasizing Brittonic traditions while forging alliances with Gaelic elites through marriage ties to Cináed's lineage. These familial connections not only provided potential claims to broader authority but also exposed Eochaid to the cultural and martial influences of both Brittonic resilience against incursions and the expansive ambitions of the Alpínids.

Sources and Historiography

Primary Historical Sources

The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, a Latin chronicle compiled in the late tenth or early eleventh century and preserved in the fourteenth-century Poppleton Manuscript, provides the sole direct attestation to Eochaid ab Rhun's reign. It records his accession following the death of Áed mac Cináeda in 878, stating: "And Eochodius son of Run king of the Britons [of Dumbarton], grandson of Kenneth by his daughter, reigned for 11 years [878-89]; although others say that Ciricium [Giric] son of another reigned at this time, because he became Eochaid's foster-father and guardian." This entry identifies Eochaid's paternal origin in the British kingdom of Strathclyde (with "Run" rendering Rhun), his maternal descent from Cináed mac Ailpín via an unnamed daughter, and an ambiguous shared rule with Giric over "the kingdom," interpreted as encompassing former Pictish territories. A subsequent entry in the same notes a on the feast of St. Cyrus (corresponding to 14 February 886) during the ninth year of the reign, followed by the expulsion of " and his foster father" from the kingdom, marking the end of their rule before Constantine mac Cináeda's accession in 889. The 's retrospective composition, drawing on earlier and oral traditions, introduces potential for later interpolations, particularly in linking to the Alpinid dynasty through female kinship, a motif aligning with Pictish succession patterns favoring matrilineal claims. No contemporary records, such as the Irish Annals of Ulster or Annals of Tigernach, name directly, reflecting the scarcity of written sources for ninth-century beyond royal obits and major disruptions. Those annals do document contextual events tied to his lineage, including the Viking leaders and Amlaíb's devastation of Pictland and in 870, the four-month siege and capture of Rock (Alt Clut) that year, and the killing of his grandfather Arthgal ap Dyfnwal by fellow men in 872. These entries underscore the instability preceding 's rise but offer no confirmation of his personal rule or titles.

Scholarly Debates on Identity and Role

Scholars debate 's ethnic identity primarily as a Briton of the (Alt Clut) royal dynasty, with his father Rhun ab Arthgal attested as king there until disruptions from Viking incursions around 871–872. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba describes him explicitly as ", son of Rhun, king of the Britons," emphasizing his British heritage while linking him maternally to the house of Cináed mac Ailpín as grandson through a , potentially enabling a claim to Pictish overlordship via perceived matrilineal customs. This maternal connection fuels discussion on whether represented a temporary revival of Pictish succession practices favoring female-line descent, as proposed by historian Russell Andrew Miller, contrasting with the patrilineal dominance seen under Alpinid rulers post-843. Eochaid's role in Pictish governance remains contested, with the Chronicle portraying him as king of the Picts from 878 until expulsion in 889 alongside Giric, yet without clarifying primacy or exclusivity. Some analyses suggest he held nominal Pictish kingship while maintaining core authority in Strathclyde, possibly as rex Britanorum in a federated arrangement, rather than full integration into Pictish territories east of Drumalban. The association with Giric—potentially as foster-father, ally, or co-ruler—complicates attributions, as later king-lists like the Duan Albanach omit Eochaid entirely, crediting Giric alone, while Irish annals provide no direct endorsement of either's sole rule. No scholarly consensus resolves whether exercised independent Pictish sovereignty or served as a subordinate or under 's influence, with proposals ranging from joint rule over a hybrid realm to as leader leveraging 's British legitimacy for legitimacy against Alpinid rivals. This ambiguity persists due to sparse contemporary records, with the Chronicle's brevity inviting interpretations of co-kingship as a transitional phase blending British and Pictish elements before Constantine mac Cináeda's Alpinid restoration in 889.

Reliability of Medieval Chronicles

The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, the primary medieval source attesting ab Rhun's role in ninth-century Scottish kingship, was compiled no earlier than the mid-tenth century from antecedent annals likely maintained at , blending factual obits with later synchronistic and genealogical elaborations. Its entry on Eochaid—portraying him as Áed mac Cináeda's successor, son of Rhun the British king, and maternal grandson of Cináed mac Ailpín via an unnamed daughter—lacks direct corroboration in contemporary records like the , which note Áed's violent death by Giric's kinfolk at Cell Rígmonáin in 878 but proceed without referencing Eochaid or an extended interregnum. This omission in , valued for their near-contemporaneous entries derived from multiple monastic strands, suggests the Chronicle's account may amplify a peripheral figure to bridge Brittonic and Gaelic royal lines, possibly reflecting tenth-century priorities in unifying disparate regnal traditions under Alba's emerging monarchy. The Chronicle's attribution of an eleven-year reign to Eochaid, extending to approximately 889, introduces chronological strain, as it overlaps with or precedes 's noticed activities and conflicts with the terse succession implied by cross-referencing Irish and Anglo-Saxon sources, which highlight Viking incursions and internal strife without Brittonic intervention. Variant traditions within the Chronicle itself, noting "others say ruled with him," betray internal uncertainty or harmonization of conflicting oral reports, a common flaw in retrospective compilations prone to reconciling rival claims through co-rulership formulas absent in earlier annalistic cores. Scholars identify such dual attributions as indicative of post-event fabrication to accommodate prophetic or dynastic narratives, akin to patterns in Pictish king-lists where non-patrilineal successions are retrofitted for continuity. Genealogical pedigrees linking to Rhun, preserved in tenth-century Welsh manuscripts like the Harleian Genealogies, offer ancillary support for his Strathclyde origins but falter on verifiable ties to Scottish kingship, as they prioritize Brittonic lineages without ninth-century dating or independent event anchors. Medieval chroniclers' reliance on such materials, often transmitted orally or via selective monastic archives, invites conflation of homonyms—Eochaid being a recurrent Brittonic name—and legendary enhancement, as seen in broader Celtic historiography where maternal descents legitimize conquests without empirical scrutiny. The Chronicle's utility thus resides in preserving otherwise lost transitions amid source scarcity, yet its reliability diminishes for causal attributions like joint rule or territorial extent, demanding triangulation with archaeological proxies (e.g., absence of diagnostic ninth-century British artifacts in core Gaelic sites) and avoidance of uncritical acceptance of its integrative agenda.

Rise to Power

Succession Following Áed mac Cináeda

, who had succeeded his brother Causantín I as king in 877, was killed in 878 following a reign of one year. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, a tenth-century compilation preserving earlier annals, records that Eochaid ab Rhun, identified as king of the Britons of () and maternal grandson of Cináed mac Ailpín through his daughter, then acceded to the kingship. This succession positioned Eochaid, a ruler from the Brittonic , over the Pictish realm, potentially reflecting a period of instability or alliance after Áed's violent death. The chronicle attributes to Eochaid an eleven-year reign from 878 to 889, though it qualifies this by noting that other traditions ascribed the rule to Giric mac Dúngail, described as Eochaid's foster-father and guardian. Giric's involvement suggests a possible co-rulership or regency arrangement, with Eochaid's youth—implied by the foster-father role—potentially necessitating such support amid the turbulent post-Áed transition. No contemporary annals, such as the Annals of Ulster, corroborate Eochaid's elevation to Pictish overlordship, underscoring the chronicle's unique testimony, which may draw from lost Pictish or early Scottish records but reflects later historiographical synthesis. This accession marked a departure from the direct Alpinid line, as 's claim derived through his mother rather than patrilineal descent from Cináed, possibly leveraging Strathclyde's strategic position and familial ties to consolidate power in a kingdom weakened by Viking incursions and internal strife. The arrangement ended with the expulsion of and around 887, preceding Domnall mac Causantín's eleven-year rule from 889.

Claims to Pictish and Strathclyde Kingship

Eochaid's succession to the kingship of stemmed from his paternal lineage as the son of Rhun ab Arthgal, ruler of Alt Clut following the Viking sack of in 870. Rhun's tenure likely extended into the 870s, though the precise date of his death remains unattested in surviving annals; if aligned with the reported demise of in 877, Eochaid may have assumed the British throne around 878. This inheritance consolidated Brittonic control over the Clyde valley territories amid ongoing threats from Norse and Scots incursions. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba records Eochaid's elevation to Pictish kingship in 878, immediately after the killing of , with Eochaid and jointly holding rule for eleven years until 889. As "Eochaid son of Rhun of the Britons," his claim invoked maternal descent from Cináed mac Ailpín, positioning him as a grandson through the female line—a potential nod to pre-Alpínid Pictish succession customs favoring matrilineal ties, though the chronicle itself reflects tenth-century compilation biases favoring dynastic continuity. 's role as foster-son to Eochaid's maternal uncle suggests a bridging Britons and Scots-Pictish elites, possibly enabling dual kingship over Pictland. Scholarly interpretations debate the extent of Eochaid's Pictish authority, with some positing a resurgence of indigenous practices allowing female-line succession amid Alpínid instability, while others view him primarily as a figurehead under Giric's dominance in the north. No contemporary corroborate his Pictish rule, underscoring reliance on the later Chronicle, whose synchronisms and omissions reflect pro-Albán narrative agendas rather than unvarnished record. Nonetheless, the dual claim facilitated transient unity across Briton-Pictish realms before their overthrow by Domnall mac Causantín..html)

Potential Co-Rulership with Giric

The primary evidence for a potential co-rulership between Eochaid ab Rhun and Giric derives from the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, a tenth-century compilation that records Eochaid's reign over the Picts from 878 to 889, while noting that "others say that Ciricium [Giric] son of another reigned at this time, because he became Eochaid's foster-father and guardian." This suggests Giric may have exercised significant influence as a regent or de facto ruler during Eochaid's nominal kingship, possibly leveraging his senior position to guide or overshadow the younger Strathclyte ruler amid the fragile post-Áed succession. The chronicle further describes an expulsion of "Eochaid and his foster father" following a in the ninth year of the reign (corresponding to 886), though it affirms an overall eleven-year tenure ending in 889, after which Domnall mac Custantín ascended. Related king-lists, such as the Synchronisms of Flann Mainistreach (eleventh century), attribute a twelve-year reign to alone, potentially as sole or over complementary territories, while the Poppleton Chronicle (a later extension) emphasizes 's ecclesiastical patronage, including subordinating churches to , actions implying autonomous authority. These variances reflect the chronicle's of traditions favoring 's role, possibly to legitimize non-Alpínid influence or highlight tensions between Pictish and emerging Scottish ecclesiastical centers. Scholarly interpretations of this arrangement remain divided, with some viewing it as a pragmatic alliance where held sway in (as a Briton of Alt Clut lineage) and dominated Pictish affairs, effectively partitioning authority in a period of Viking pressures and dynastic instability. Others argue the "foster-father" designation indicates 's installation of as a puppet, aligning with patterns of guardianship in early medieval Celtic kingship to bridge British and Gaelic claims post-Kenneth mac Alpin's era. The Chronicle's pro-St Andrews bias, evident in 's church-related deeds, may exaggerate his primacy to elevate that see's historical prestige over rival monasteries like . No contemporary corroborate a formal joint , and the absence of synchronized regnal dating in Irish or Anglo-Saxon sources underscores the hypothesis's reliance on retrospective Pictish-Scottish compilations, which prioritize narrative continuity over precise . This potential co-rulership, if realized, would represent a brief deviation from patrilineal Alpínid dominance, facilitating temporary integration of Strathclyde's British monarchy into Pictish governance before its subordination under subsequent Scottish kings.

Reign and Governance

Territorial Control and Expansion

Eochaid's kingship primarily encompassed the Kingdom of , a Brittonic realm centered on the Clyde River valley, including areas from the vicinity of southward toward the , though exact boundaries remain imprecise due to limited contemporary records. Following the Viking siege and destruction of Alt Clut (Dumbarton Rock) in 870–871, which killed his grandfather Arthgal and disrupted the kingdom's traditional stronghold, Eochaid's father Rhun briefly ruled before him, and the realm appears to have reconsolidated with possible administrative shifts toward sites like . http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SCOTLAND.htm As king from approximately 878 to 889, Eochaid maintained control over this core Brittonic territory amidst ongoing threats from Norse-Gaelic forces and neighboring Gaelic Scots. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SCOTLAND.htm The period of Eochaid's rule coincided with a notable southward expansion of into lands formerly dominated by the Kingdom of , facilitated by the Anglo-Saxon realm's fragmentation after the Viking Great Heathen Army's conquest of in 867 and subsequent instability. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/b580c610-873c-4748-a20d-d8ef4bb5d081/download Scholars propose that Eochaid may have directed or benefited from this extension, incorporating regions such as parts of modern and the western marches, evidenced by the resurgence of Brittonic place-names and cultural markers in areas previously under Northumbrian influence. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/b580c610-873c-4748-a20d-d8ef4bb5d081/download This growth likely involved submissions from local lords rather than outright conquest, reflecting pragmatic opportunism amid power vacuums rather than documented military campaigns. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SCOTLAND.htm Debate persists on whether Eochaid exercised direct authority over Pictish territories to the north, with some medieval chronicles suggesting a dual rulership alongside , potentially extending influence into eastern , though primary evidence favors his primary association with Strathclyde's Britons. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SCOTLAND.htm No charters or inscriptions definitively delineate his domain's full extent, underscoring the reliance on later annals like the Pictish Chronicle, which affirm his regnal legitimacy but omit granular territorial details. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SCOTLAND.htm

Interactions with Neighboring Powers

Eochaid's primary documented interaction with a neighboring power was his close association with , ruler of the from circa 878 to 889. Medieval sources such as the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba describe Giric as Eochaid's foster-father, suggesting a bond that facilitated alliance between the British and the adjacent Pictish realm to the northeast. This relationship likely served to consolidate authority across both territories following the death of in 878, potentially deterring aggression from shared threats, though no joint campaigns are explicitly recorded. No contemporary annals detail military conflicts or diplomatic exchanges between Eochaid's and external powers such as the Norse active in the or the Viking-held territories of to the south. The kingdom had endured a severe Viking of Dumbarton Rock in 870 under Eochaid's predecessor, resulting in the capture of the fortress and significant plunder, but subsequent records indicate a period of relative stability without noted renewals of such assaults during his eleven-year tenure. Eochaid's maternal descent from Kenneth mac Alpin may have further reinforced informal ties with Gaelic elites in the east, underpinning the foster arrangement with , yet these remained internal to the emerging Alba rather than overtly expansionist toward non-Celtic neighbors.

Administrative and Cultural Policies

The scarcity of contemporary records precludes detailed reconstruction of administrative structures or cultural initiatives under Eochaid ab Rhun's rule from *c.*878 to 889. Primary sources like the Chronicle of Kings of Alba focus primarily on succession and expulsion rather than governance mechanisms, reflecting the era's annalistic style that prioritized royal events over policy details. This paucity aligns with broader evidential challenges for 9th-century northern Britain, where written administration was nascent and dominated by ecclesiastical scribes. Eochaid's dual heritage—son of Rhun, a British king of (Alt Clut), and maternal grandson of Cináed mac Ailpín—suggests potential for policies bridging Gaelic-Scottish and British-Pictish elements, such as harmonizing legal customs across territories from the Forth to the Clyde. However, no verifiable enactments survive, and any integration would represent continuity from prior reigns rather than novel reforms. Administrative control likely relied on traditional assemblies (dál) and royal itineraries, with toisechs ( lords) managing assessment and tribute, as inferred from comparable Celtic practices but unattested specifically for . In the religious sphere, medieval interpolations in Scottish king lists attribute to —possibly a co-ruler or —the first grants of "liberties" to churches, including exemptions for and other monastic houses, interpreted as relief from royal taxes (cain) and jurisdictional privileges. If enacted during joint rule, this would mark an early endorsement of autonomy amid Viking threats, fostering cultural stability through church alliances, though the attribution's late date raises questions of . No parallel cultural patronage, such as sculptural programs or law codification, is linked directly to , contrasting with better-documented later kings.

Deposition and Aftermath

Conflict and Expulsion

The end of Eochaid's rule is recorded in medieval Scottish chronicles as an expulsion from the kingdom, though surviving sources provide limited details on the precipitating conflict. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, a tenth-century compilation, states that Eochaid and his foster-father or co-ruler Giric were jointly expelled following their shared kingship, with the event linked temporally to a solar eclipse observed during their reign. This chronicle, preserved in later manuscripts like the Poppleton Manuscript, reflects early efforts to synchronize Pictish and Scottish regnal traditions but contains chronological inconsistencies, such as placing the eclipse in March (likely 885 CE) while king-lists assign Eochaid a reign of 11–13 years from circa 878 to 889 CE. No primary accounts describe specific military engagements or factions involved in the conflict, suggesting an internal power struggle rather than open warfare; Giric's role as potential guardian or rival claimant may have fueled tensions, as implied by variant traditions portraying him as a usurper who briefly succeeded Eochaid before his own deposition. The Prophecy of Berchán, an eleventh-century Irish poetic text, corroborates the expulsion motif, claiming Eochaid reigned 13 years before being driven out, after which Giric assumed power until slain at Dunnottar. These sources, drawn from oral and annalistic traditions, exhibit biases favoring Scottish (Cenél nGabráin) lineages, often omitting or marginalizing Brittonic rulers like Eochaid of Strathclyde origin, which may explain his absence from later king-lists such as the Cronica Regum Scottorum. The expulsion marked the transition to Donald II mac Causantín in 889 CE, restoring direct Alpinid succession and underscoring the fragility of hybrid Pictish-Strathclyde claims amid Viking pressures and dynastic rivalries in northern Britain. Eochaid vanishes from records thereafter, with no attested death date or location, highlighting the evidential gaps in ninth-century reliant on sparse and retrospective chronicles.

Death and Immediate Succession

Eochaid's tenure concluded in 889 with his deposition and expulsion from the kingdom, an event shared with , identified in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba as his foster-father and guardian. This deposition occurred amid reported instability, potentially linked to a noted in the same year, though the chronicle records an overall reign of eleven years for Eochaid, suggesting possible discrepancies in dating or interpretation. No contemporary annals specify the location or circumstances of his death, leaving his fate post-expulsion obscure; he may have retreated to his paternal territories or faced violence, as later king-lists imply exile or elimination without direct evidence. The immediate successor was Domnall mac Causantín (Donald II), son of and a member of the Alpin dynasty, who assumed kingship in 889 and ruled until his own death in 900. This transition, corroborated by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, ended the brief interlude of Brittonic-influenced rule under and restored patrilineal Alpin succession, sidelining matrilineal claims derived from Kenneth mac Ailpín's daughter. Domnall's reign faced Viking incursions in Pictish territories, but his accession stabilized the core kingship without noted challenges from Eochaid's kin in the short term.

Short-Term Political Consequences

The overthrow of and in 889 resulted in the immediate accession of Donald II mac Áeda (r. 889–900), a member of the Alpínid dynasty whose brother Constantine I had preceded Áed mac Cináeda on the throne. This succession reasserted Gaelic lineage control over Alba after a period of joint rule involving a figure of uncertain Gaelic ties (Giric) and a Briton from (Eochaid), thereby halting potential fragmentation along ethnic or regional lines. Donald II's brief reign emphasized internal consolidation, as evidenced by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, which records a legislative assembly at where "the with their king made the rights and laws of the kingdom." This event, likely aimed at standardizing governance amid prior instability, coincided with "peace among the " and the observance of three major feasts, suggesting short-term stabilization without major external threats or recorded civil strife. The expulsion of Eochaid ab Rhun curtailed Strathclyde's direct leverage in Pictish-Scottish affairs, transitioning the region toward subordination within the emerging rather than co-equal partnership. Donald II's rule, ending with his death at in 900—possibly at the hands of local or Moravian forces—paved the way for his cousin Constantine II's longer tenure, but the immediate aftermath underscored a pivot toward unified Alpínid authority over diverse territories.

Legacy and Interpretations

Genealogical and Dynastic Impact

Eochaid's genealogy linked the emerging Scottish kingdom to both the British rulers of and the Alpinid dynasty through his mother, a daughter of Kenneth I mac Alpin, making him a maternal grandson of the king who had united and Scots around 843. His father, Rhun ab Arthgal, had ruled until circa 876, following the Viking sack of Rock, which positioned Eochaid as a figure bridging Gaelic and Brythonic elites. This dual heritage facilitated his accession after Áed mac Cináeda's death in 878, as noted in contemporary chronicles emphasizing his Alpinid tie despite his paternal British origins. Despite this connection, Eochaid's dynastic influence proved ephemeral, with no evidence of male heirs or continuation of his paternal line in the royal succession. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba records his reign lasting eleven years until circa 889, after which the throne transitioned to Constantine I, son of Áed and thus a patrilineal Alpinid from 's brother, bypassing any potential claims from Eochaid's descendants. This reversion underscored a preference for male-line descent within the Alpinid house, limiting the integration of Strathclyde's British dynasty into the core Scottish monarchy. Eochaid's brief tenure highlighted tensions in succession practices, where maternal could secure a claim but failed to establish lasting precedence amid rival assertions, such as those attributed to . The absence of recorded progeny from Eochaid ensured that subsequent kings drew exclusively from Alpinid branches, stabilizing the dynasty under Gaelic dominance while marginalizing broader Brythonic influences in royal .

Role in Pictish-Scottish Transition

Eochaid's succession to the throne in 878, immediately following the killing of Áed mac Cináeda, was predicated on his maternal lineage as the grandson of Kenneth I mac Ailpín through an unnamed daughter. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba records that Eochaid, identified as the son of Rhun, king of the Britons (of Strathclyde), reigned for eleven years, though it notes variant traditions attributing joint rule to Giric. This female-line claim echoed longstanding Pictish kingship customs, wherein authority passed preferentially through mothers and sisters' sons rather than strictly patrilineally, a practice attested by Bede's observation that the Picts "do not trace their descent from their fathers, but from their mothers." His elevation marked a transient resurgence of these indigenous Pictish mechanisms amid the Alpinid dynasty's consolidation of power over the amalgamated realms of and Scots. As a ruler of mixed Brittonic-Scots heritage—deriving territorial authority from his father's kingdom while invoking Alpinid legitimacy— exemplified the hybrid dynastic strategies facilitating the Pictish-Scottish transition. This integration of Strathclyde's Brittonic elements into the northern polity underscored the evolving multi-ethnic character of Alba, extending beyond Gaelic-Pictish fusion to encompass Cumbrian influences during a period of Viking pressures and internal instability. Eochaid's tenure thus represented one of the final invocations of matrilineal principles in royal succession, bridging the of distinct Pictish with the patrilineal Alpinid dominance that solidified Scottish kingship. Upon the conclusion of his rule in 889—coinciding with his recorded death at the hands of an Irish figure, Cormac ua Donnchada, per the —authority reverted to Donald II mac Constantín, Áed's brother and a direct patrilineal Alpinid, signaling the eclipse of residual Pictish customs. This shift affirmed the transition's completion, wherein Alpinid adaptability had subsumed Pictish institutions without fully eradicating their procedural echoes.

Modern Assessments and Uncertainties

The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, a tenth-century compilation preserved in later manuscripts, provides the main narrative of Eochaid's eleven-year reign (c. 878–889), portraying him as king following the slaying of Áed mac Cináeda and noting that "others say that Ciricium [Giric] son of another reigned at this time, because he became Eochaid's foster-father and guardian," with both expelled together in the ninth year of the rule. This account, originating from Dunkeld—a center tied to the Alpinid dynasty—likely incorporates retrospective biases to affirm Scottish continuity via Eochaid's claimed maternal descent from Cináed mac Ailpín, invoking debated Pictish matrilineal succession practices that may not have dominated by this era. Scholars assess Eochaid's kingship as anchored in (Alt Clut), where his paternal lineage from Rhun ab Arthgal secured regional control amid Norse-Gaelic threats, but his Pictish overlordship is contested due to inconsistencies across king lists, some omitting him entirely in favor of alone. Interpretations range from a co-rulership reflecting temporary expansion into Pictish vacuum post-Viking raids, to as dominant figure with Eochaid as nominal or western associate; the Gaelic form of Eochaid's name supports hybrid Brittonic-Gaelic heritage, yet no independently confirm his eastern authority. Persistent uncertainties arise from the chronicle's non-contemporaneity, potential to bridge Briton-Pict transitions, and absence of material evidence like charters or inscriptions linking to Pictish heartlands; these gaps fuel debate on whether his elevation represented genuine dynastic fusion or a localized power grab later mythologized to exclude non-Alpinid claimants.

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