Hubbry Logo
Live attenuated influenza vaccineLive attenuated influenza vaccineMain
Open search
Live attenuated influenza vaccine
Community hub
Live attenuated influenza vaccine
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Live attenuated influenza vaccine
Live attenuated influenza vaccine
Live attenuated influenza vaccine
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Live attenuated influenza vaccine
refer to caption
Nurse administering the FluMist product
Vaccine description
TargetInfluenza
Vaccine typeAttenuated
Clinical data
Trade namesFlumist, Flumist Quadrivalent, Fluenz Tetra
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
License data
Routes of
administration		Intranasal
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Identifiers
CAS Number
ChemSpider
  • none
KEGG
 ☒NcheckY (what is this?)  (verify)

Live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is a type of influenza vaccine in the form of a nasal spray that is recommended for the prevention of influenza.‍[2]‍[7]

It is an attenuated live vaccine, unlike other influenza vaccines, which are inactivated vaccines. LAIV is administered intranasally,‍[8] while inactivated vaccines are administered by intramuscular injection. LAIV is sold under the brand names FluMist and FluMist Quadrivalent in the United States; and the brand name Fluenz Tetra in the European Union.‍[4]‍[6] FluMist was first introduced in 2003 by MedImmune.‍[9]‍[10][11]

In the United States, FluMist is approved for self- or caregiver-administration.‍[12]‍[13] It is the first influenza vaccine that does not need to be administered by a health care provider.‍[12]

Medical uses

[edit]

The live attenuated influenza vaccine is used to provide protection against the flu, caused by infection with influenza viruses.‍[14]‍[15]‍[3]

Contraindications

[edit]

The use of the live attenuated influenza vaccine is contraindicated, and it should therefore not be used, in the following populations:

  • Children under 24 months of age, due to increased risk of wheezing‍[16]
  • Individuals with a history of hypersensitivity to previous influenza vaccination‍[16]
  • Individuals with a history of hypersensitivity, especially anaphylactic reactions, to eggs, egg proteins, gentamicin, gelatin, or arginine or to any other ingredient in the formulation‍[16]
  • People with a medical condition that places them at high risk for complications from influenza, including those with chronic heart or lung disease, such as asthma or reactive airways disease‍[17]
  • People with medical conditions such as diabetes or kidney failure or people with illnesses that weaken the immune system, or who take medications that can weaken the immune system‍[17]
  • Children less than 5 years old with a history of recurrent wheezing‍[17]
  • Children or adolescents receiving aspirin‍[17]
  • People with a history of Guillain–Barré syndrome, a rare disorder of the nervous system‍[17]
  • Pregnant women‍[17]
  • People who have a severe allergy to chicken eggs or who are allergic to any of the nasal spray vaccine components‍[17]

Production

[edit]

The live attenuated vaccine is based on a flu strain that does not cause disease, that replicates well at relatively cold temperatures (about 25 °C (77 °F), for incubation purposes), and replicates poorly at body temperature (which minimizes risk to humans). Genes that code for surface proteins (targeted antigens) are combined with this host using genetic reassortment from strains that are projected to be circulating widely in the coming months. The resulting viruses are then incubated in chicken eggs and chick kidney cells. To make the refrigerated version, the virus is purified in centrifuges through a sucrose gradient, then packaged with sucrose, phosphate, glutamate, arginine, and hydrolyzed pig gelatin.‍[18]

Risks

[edit]

Even though the virus in the live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is attenuated (low in virulence), it is still a living virus, and may cause an infection with complications in people with weakened immune systems or other underlying medical conditions. LAIV is recommended only for people 2–49 years of age, and people who have a weakened immune system, pregnant women, and people with certain chronic diseases may not be eligible to receive the vaccine.‍[19] In contrast, inactivated virus vaccines contain no living virus, and cannot cause a live infection. Persons receiving LAIV may shed small amounts of the vaccine virus during the first week. People coming in contact with the vaccinated person are not considered to be at risk, unless their immune systems are severely weakened (for example, bone marrow transplant recipients).‍[7]

History

[edit]

The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) was developed by the University of Michigan School of Public Health in Ann Arbor, Michigan and later by Aviron, in Mountain View, California, under the sponsorship of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the 1990s. MedImmune purchased Aviron in 2002, and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved LAIV in June 2003.‍[20]‍[11]

The FDA initially approved LAIV only for healthy people aged 5 to 49 because of concerns over possible side effects. LAIV is approved and recommended for healthy children 24 months of age and older. The FDA approved the unfrozen refrigerated version for the same age group (ages 5–49) in August 2006, following completion of phase III clinical trials.‍[21]

The cold-adapted version of the vaccine is called CAIV-T, and is stable for storage in a refrigerator, rather than requiring freezer storage as did the originally-approved formulation. Approved for the 2007-2008 flu season,‍[11] the refrigerated formulation can be distributed more cheaply, making it more price-competitive with injected vaccines. The higher price hampered sales of the original frozen version of FluMist; FluMist was initially priced higher than injectable vaccines, and sold only 500,000 of the four million doses produced its first year on the market, despite a comparative shortage of flu vaccine in fall 2004.‍[22] The price was sharply lowered the next year, and MedImmune reported distributing 1.6 million doses in 2005.‍[23] Because of the price drop, despite selling almost three times as many doses in 2005, the company reported $21 million in revenue from FluMist sales,‍[note 1] compared to $48 million the previous year.‍[25]‍[note 2]

Society and culture

[edit]
An example of a Flumist home influenza vaccine kit, featuring unpacking and administration instructions, safety warnings, and the box containing the vaccine itself. The kit is shipped in a styrofoam cooler with cold packs to maintain the vaccine at a refrigerated temperature (not shown).

MedImmune is one company that manufactures the live attenuated influenza vaccine, which it sells under the brand name FluMist in the United States, Canada, and Japan,‍[26] and the brand name Fluenz Tetra in the UK and European Union.‍[6] For the 2010–2011 flu season, FluMist was the only live attenuated influenza vaccine approved by the FDA for use in the US.‍[27]‍[28] All other FDA-approved lots were inactivated virus vaccines.‍[citation needed] In September 2009, a live attenuated influenza vaccine for the novel H1N1 influenza virus was approved‍[29] and the seasonal intranasal vaccine was approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for use in the European Union in 2011.‍[5] The quadrivalent vaccine version was approved for use in the European Union in 2013.‍[6]

As of 2007,[needs update] the only other company holding live attenuated influenza vaccine rights is BioDiem of Australia.‍[30] BioDiem licensed rights to private production of the vaccine in China to Changchun BCHT Biotechnology, which also holds public rights for production in China sublicensed from the World Health Organization.‍[31]

It was the first and, as of 2007, the only live attenuated vaccine for influenza available outside of Europe.‍[32] In September 2009, a live attenuated influenza vaccine for the novel H1N1 influenza virus was approved.‍[29] In 2011, the vaccine was approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for use in the European Union under the brand name Fluenz.‍[5]‍[33]

AstraZeneca acquired MedImmune in 2007 and retired the MedImmune name.‍[34]‍[35] In October 2024, Time magazine named AstraZeneca FluMist (an "at-home nasal vaccine") as one of the best inventions of 2024.‍[36]

[edit]

In May 2024, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for Fluenz, intended for the prevention of influenza disease in children and adolescents.‍[37]‍[38] The applicant for this medicinal product is AstraZeneca AB.‍[37]

In September 2024, the US FDA approved FluMist for self- or caregiver-administration. The FDA granted the approval of FluMist to MedImmune LLC.‍[12]

Research

[edit]

The live attenuated influenza vaccine is designed to be quickly modifiable to present the surface antigens of seasonal flu. This modifiability could also allow it to be quickly customized as a vaccine against a pandemic influenza if one were to emerge. In light of the global spread of H5N1, ways of reducing human mortality in the event of an H5N1 pandemic have been investigated. Modifying FluMist to serve as a specific human H5N1 vaccine is among the measures studied.‍[39]

In June 2006, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) began enrolling participants in a Phase I H5N1 study of an intranasal influenza vaccine candidate based on MedImmune's live, attenuated vaccine technology.‍[40]

In September 2006, the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) reported that inoculation with a live attenuated influenza vaccine modified to present surface antigens of certain H5N1 variants provided broad protection against other H5N1 variants in mouse and ferret models.‍[41] Attenuated live viruses were found protective against H5N1 in mice and chickens in a 2009 study.‍[42]

"Several trials have reported that live attenuated influenza vaccines can boost virus-specific CTLs as well as mucosal and serum antibodies and provide broad cross-protection against heterologous human influenza A viruses." (58, 59)‍[43] "[V]accine formulas inducing heterosubtypic T cell–mediated immunity may confer broad protection against avian and human influenza A viruses."‍[43]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Live attenuated influenza vaccine

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is a nasal spray vaccine containing weakened (attenuated) live influenza viruses that replicate in the upper respiratory tract to induce mucosal and systemic immunity without causing influenza illness. It is primarily recommended for healthy individuals aged 2 through 49 years, excluding pregnant individuals and those with certain medical conditions, and is formulated annually to match circulating influenza A and B strains, as a trivalent vaccine protecting against two A subtypes and the B/Victoria lineage since the 2024–2025 season. Developed using cold-adapted, temperature-sensitive master donor viruses that grow efficiently at 25–33°C in the nose but poorly at higher body temperatures, LAIV mimics natural infection to elicit a broad immune response, including IgA antibodies in the respiratory mucosa. First licensed in the United States in 2003 under the brand name FluMist, it has since been approved in multiple countries and updated to quadrivalent formulations by 2012 to enhance coverage against diverse strains, but switched to trivalent in 2024 following the global absence of the influenza B/Yamagata lineage. In September 2024, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration authorized self- or caregiver-administration of FluMist, improving accessibility. Clinical trials and real-world studies have demonstrated LAIV's efficacy, particularly in children, with relative vaccine effectiveness often superior to inactivated vaccines in healthy children aged 2–17 years during seasons with mismatched strains, though overall protection against hospitalization is comparable to other flu vaccines in adults. Safety profiles are favorable in eligible populations, with common mild side effects like runny nose or sore throat, but it is contraindicated in immunocompromised individuals due to the live virus component. Ongoing research focuses on optimizing LAIV for broader age groups and pandemic preparedness, underscoring its role in global influenza prevention strategies alongside inactivated and recombinant vaccines.

Overview

Definition and types

The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is a type of influenza vaccine that contains weakened (attenuated) live viruses derived from the influenza strains expected to circulate in the upcoming season, administered as a nasal spray to induce an immune response by mimicking natural infection without causing illness. Unlike inactivated vaccines, LAIV uses live viruses that replicate at low levels in the upper respiratory tract, promoting both mucosal and systemic immunity. LAIV is distinguished from other influenza vaccines primarily by its live virus composition and intranasal route of administration, in contrast to inactivated influenza vaccines (IIVs), which use killed viruses and are typically injected intramuscularly. This live attenuated form offers a needle-free option, particularly suitable for children and individuals averse to injections, while IIVs are more broadly applicable across age groups, including those with certain contraindications to live vaccines. Specific types of LAIV are based on cold-adapted master donor viruses, which have been genetically modified to grow efficiently at cooler temperatures (around 25–33°C) in the nasal passages but poorly at higher body temperatures, ensuring attenuation. A prominent example is the A/Leningrad/134/17/57 (H2N2) strain, used as the backbone for reassortant viruses in many LAIV formulations, particularly for influenza A subtypes. Historically, LAIV has been marketed under brand names such as FluMist in the United States and Fluenz in Europe. Trivalent formulations were initially standard, but quadrivalent versions—protecting against two influenza A subtypes (H1N1 and H3N2) and both B lineages (Victoria and Yamagata)—were approved for FluMist in the U.S. in 2012 and became available for the 2013–2014 season, with Fluenz Tetra following in the European Union in 2013. However, due to minimal circulation of the B/Yamagata lineage since 2020, all LAIV formulations transitioned back to trivalent (covering H1N1, H3N2, and B/Victoria) for the 2025–2026 season.

Mechanism of action

The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) achieves attenuation primarily through cold-adaptation of influenza viruses, enabling efficient replication at the cooler temperature of the nasal passages (approximately 33°C) while restricting growth at core body temperature (37°C) in the lower respiratory tract. This temperature-sensitive (ts) phenotype is derived from master donor viruses (MDVs), such as the cold-adapted (ca) A/Ann Arbor/6/60 (H2N2) strain used in U.S. formulations, which was developed by serial passage at low temperatures to select for multiple attenuating mutations across its genome. These mutations ensure the vaccine virus induces immunity without causing significant disease, as replication is confined to the upper respiratory tract. Vaccine strains are generated via genetic reassortment, incorporating the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) surface antigens from contemporary seasonal influenza strains with the six internal gene segments from the attenuated MDV backbone, such as Ann Arbor/6/60. This 6:2 reassortment transfers the ts, ca, and overall attenuation properties to the new hybrid viruses, allowing them to express relevant surface proteins for targeted immunity while maintaining safety through the donor's internal genes. The process can be accomplished through co-infection of cells with the parental viruses or modern reverse genetics techniques, ensuring reproducible attenuation. Upon intranasal administration, the attenuated virus replicates locally in the upper respiratory tract epithelium, mimicking natural infection and stimulating a multifaceted immune response. This includes production of mucosal secretory IgA antibodies that neutralize virus at the entry site, systemic IgG antibodies for broader humoral protection, and cross-reactive T-cell responses (both CD4+ and CD8+) that target conserved viral epitopes. Compared to inactivated vaccines, LAIV induces stronger cell-mediated and mucosal immunity, conferring broader cross-protection against heterologous influenza strains due to these diverse responses. Viral replication post-vaccination is limited, typically lasting 3–7 days, during which vaccine virus shedding occurs in nasal secretions but at low titers insufficient to cause transmission or illness in contacts. This transient replication period is key to immunogenicity, as it allows sufficient antigen presentation without systemic spread.

Clinical Use

Indications

The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is indicated for the prevention of seasonal influenza in healthy, non-pregnant individuals aged 2 through 49 years. It is administered annually as part of routine influenza vaccination strategies to reduce the risk of influenza illness, hospitalization, and related complications in this population. According to the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), LAIV is a suitable option for healthy children aged 2 through 17 years and healthy adults up to age 49, particularly when inactivated vaccines are unavailable or less preferred for logistical reasons. It is not recommended as the first-line choice for adults aged 65 years or older or those with high-risk medical conditions, where inactivated or recombinant vaccines are prioritized for enhanced immunogenicity. For non-pregnant women of childbearing age, LAIV provides an effective alternative to injectable vaccines. In pediatric populations, LAIV offers higher acceptability due to its needle-free nasal spray administration, which can alleviate anxiety associated with injections and improve vaccination compliance among children averse to needles. Additionally, LAIV induces mucosal immunity in the respiratory tract, potentially contributing to broader protection and herd immunity by limiting viral shedding more effectively than systemic antibody responses alone. For the 2025-2026 influenza season, LAIV is formulated as a trivalent vaccine, providing protection against three strains: influenza A(H1N1)pdm09, influenza A(H3N2), and influenza B/Victoria lineage. This composition aligns with circulating strains to ensure targeted prevention of seasonal epidemics.

Administration

The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), marketed as FluMist, is administered via intranasal spray, delivering 0.1 mL into each nostril for a total dose of 0.2 mL. This needle-free method was traditionally performed by healthcare providers, but following FDA approval on September 20, 2024, it may now be self-administered by individuals aged 18 through 49 years or by caregivers (aged 18 and older) for recipients aged 2 through 17 years. The vaccine is supplied in a single-dose, pre-filled sprayer designed for one-time use, and recipients should be in an upright position during administration to ensure proper delivery into the nasal passages. The recommended dosing schedule is a single annual dose of 0.2 mL for individuals aged 2 years and older who have previously received LAIV or another influenza vaccine. For children aged 2 through 8 years receiving LAIV for the first time—or if they have not received an influenza vaccine in the previous season—two doses are required, separated by at least 4 weeks. LAIV is approved for use in individuals aged 2 through 49 years and requires a prescription, which can be obtained through healthcare providers or, for self-administration, via an online eligibility screening process with a third-party pharmacy. Storage and handling guidelines specify refrigeration at 2–8°C (36–46°F) in the original carton to protect from light, with the vaccine protected from freezing at all times. A single temperature excursion to room temperature (up to 25°C or 77°F) is permitted for a maximum of 12 hours, after which the vaccine must be returned to refrigerated conditions and used as soon as possible; it should be discarded if frozen or beyond its expiration date. No shaking of the sprayer is necessary prior to use. For home use, starting with the 2025–2026 influenza season, AstraZeneca offers temperature-controlled home delivery kits available from August 2025 in select states, including administration instructions and disposal guidance. FDA-approved instructions for self- or caregiver-administration emphasize proper technique to achieve even distribution: hold the sprayer upright, place the tip just inside one nostril without deep insertion, and depress the plunger fully in a single rapid motion to deliver half the dose, then repeat in the opposite nostril while alternating sides. The process includes visual confirmation that the dose indicator clip has advanced, and the used sprayer must be disposed of according to local medical waste regulations. Sneezing, coughing, or nasal dripping during administration does not require revaccination, as studies support the method's reliability.

Contraindications

Live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) has several absolute contraindications due to potential risks of adverse outcomes in specific populations. These include individuals younger than 2 years or 50 years and older, as LAIV is approved only for ages 2 through 49 years. Pregnant individuals are contraindicated because of the live virus nature of the vaccine, which poses theoretical risks to the fetus. Additionally, individuals undergoing fertility treatments such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) should avoid LAIV, as pregnancy should be avoided for at least one month after administration due to the live virus component; only inactivated influenza vaccines are recommended as safe in such cases. Severe allergic reactions to vaccine components, such as eggs (used in production), gentamicin (an antibiotic stabilizer), or a prior dose of LAIV, also preclude use. Immunocompromised states represent another absolute exclusion, including conditions like HIV infection with CD4 counts below 200 cells/mm³, active chemotherapy, or receipt of solid organ or hematopoietic stem cell transplants, due to the risk of uncontrolled viral replication. Additionally, children aged 2 through 17 years receiving aspirin or salicylate-containing medications are contraindicated because of the association with Reye's syndrome. Recent use of influenza antiviral medications, such as oseltamivir or zanamivir within 48 hours, peramivir within 5 days, or baloxavir within 17 days, interferes with vaccine replication and is thus contraindicated. Other absolute exclusions encompass anatomic or functional asplenia (e.g., sickle cell disease), active cerebrospinal fluid leaks, and cochlear implants (due to potential CSF communication). Relative precautions apply to individuals where the benefits may outweigh risks but require careful evaluation. These include moderate or severe asthma in persons aged 5 years and older, which increases the risk of wheezing post-vaccination. A history of Guillain-Barré syndrome within 6 weeks of a previous influenza vaccination warrants caution due to potential recurrence. Persons with chronic medical conditions predisposing to influenza complications, such as pulmonary, cardiovascular, renal, hepatic, neurologic, hematologic, or metabolic disorders (e.g., diabetes), should be assessed individually, as safety data are limited. Moderate or severe acute illness, with or without fever, typically delays vaccination until resolution. Special considerations extend to close contacts of severely immunocompromised individuals in protected environments (e.g., bone marrow transplant units), where LAIV is contraindicated due to the risk of vaccine virus shedding and transmission for up to 7 days post-administration. For high-risk groups like pregnant individuals or the immunocompromised, inactivated influenza vaccines are recommended as safer alternatives. Healthcare workers in settings caring for severely immunocompromised patients should avoid LAIV to minimize transmission risks. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) guidelines emphasize pre-administration screening for asthma control, immune status, and allergies to ensure safe use, with annual updates reflecting evolving evidence. For children aged 2 through 4 years with recent wheezing or asthma, thorough evaluation is required, as this group faces heightened risks.

Manufacturing

Production process

The production of live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) begins with virus propagation in specific pathogen-free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs, which are selected to minimize the risk of contamination from avian pathogens. Fertilized eggs are inoculated with high-yield reassortant viruses, generated by co-infecting the eggs with contemporary seasonal influenza strains and a cold-adapted master donor virus that supplies the six internal gene segments responsible for attenuation and temperature-sensitive replication. These reassortants are designed to replicate efficiently in the eggs at 33°C, mimicking the upper respiratory tract temperature, yielding sufficient virus for vaccine production after 2-3 days of incubation. Following incubation, the allantoic fluid containing the replicated virus is harvested from the eggs, pooled to ensure uniformity, and clarified through centrifugation and filtration to remove cellular debris and egg proteins. Impurities are further eliminated via additional filtration steps for sterility; unlike inactivated vaccines, no chemical inactivation is performed to preserve the live, attenuated nature of the virus. The virus is then concentrated using ultracentrifugation, purified to high levels (typically >10^7 TCID50/mL), and diluted with stabilizing buffers like sucrose, monosodium glutamate, and gelatin to formulate the final intranasal product at a target potency of 10^6-10^7 fluorescent focus units per dose per strain. Quality assurance is integral throughout manufacturing, with each lot subjected to comprehensive testing before release. This includes sterility assays to confirm absence of bacterial, fungal, and mycoplasma contaminants; potency evaluation via tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) or fluorescent focus units (FFU) for infectious titer; and genetic sequencing to verify the presence of attenuation markers, such as mutations in the PB2, PB1, and NP genes from the master donor virus. These procedures adhere to stringent FDA and EMA standards, ensuring genetic stability and safety for intranasal administration. LAIV is manufactured by AstraZeneca (through its MedImmune subsidiary) at facilities optimized for biosafety level 2 operations, with annual production campaigns updating strains to match circulating variants and a global capacity supporting 10-20 million doses per season.

Strain selection and formulation

The selection of strains for live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) is a coordinated annual process led by the World Health Organization (WHO) and national regulatory bodies like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), relying on global surveillance data to ensure vaccines target prevalent circulating viruses. The WHO convenes expert consultations twice yearly—typically in February for the Northern Hemisphere influenza season and in September for the Southern Hemisphere—to recommend virus strains based on antigenic and genetic analyses from the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS) network, which monitors influenza activity worldwide through over 140 National Influenza Centres and Collaborating Centres. These recommendations guide manufacturers in updating vaccine formulations to match evolving viral diversity, with national agencies like the FDA holding subsequent meetings, such as in March, to finalize compositions for their regions. In LAIV production, the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) surface glycoproteins from the recommended circulating strains are incorporated via genetic reassortment into a stable, attenuated backbone virus to maintain the vaccine's live, cold-adapted properties while updating immunogenicity against current threats. For influenza A strains, this typically involves reassortment with the master donor virus A/Ann Arbor/6/60 (H2N2), which provides six internal genes conferring temperature sensitivity, cold adaptation, and attenuation; influenza B strains use the B/Ann Arbor/1/66 backbone. For the 2025-2026 Northern Hemisphere season, recommended in February 2025 by WHO and finalized in March 2025 by FDA, the trivalent LAIV composition includes an A/Victoria/4897/2022 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus, an A/Croatia/10136RV/2023 (H3N2)-like virus, and a B/Austria/1359417/2021 (B/Victoria lineage)-like virus, reassorted accordingly into the attenuated backbones. LAIV formulations transitioned from quadrivalent (including both B/Victoria and B/Yamagata lineages from 2012 to 2023) to trivalent starting with the 2024-2025 season, reflecting the apparent global extinction of the B/Yamagata lineage since early 2020, with no detections in routine surveillance despite extensive monitoring. Unlike inactivated influenza vaccines, LAIVs do not include adjuvants to boost immune response or chemical stabilizers beyond basic preservatives, as their live-virus nature relies on replication in the upper respiratory tract to induce mucosal and systemic immunity. A key challenge in LAIV strain selection and formulation is the potential for egg-adaptation mutations during egg-based propagation, which can alter HA glycosylation sites and antigenicity, leading to reduced neutralization of circulating viruses and lower vaccine effectiveness, particularly for H3N2 strains. While cell-based manufacturing has been adopted for some inactivated influenza vaccines to avoid these issues, no cell-based LAIV platforms have been approved or widely implemented as of 2025, though exploratory research continues to address propagation challenges for live attenuated strains.

Safety and Efficacy

Adverse effects

The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is generally well-tolerated, with most adverse effects being mild and self-limiting. Common side effects include runny nose or nasal congestion, occurring in approximately 58% of children aged 2-6 years (compared to 50% in placebo recipients), sore throat in adults aged 18-49 years (28% in vaccine recipients vs. 17% in placebo recipients), and cough or headache in various age groups. In children aged 2-6 years, low-grade fever greater than 100°F (37.8°C) affects around 16% post-vaccination, though rates are lower (1-2%) in older children aged 5-9 years after subsequent doses. These respiratory symptoms typically resolve within a few days without intervention. Rare serious adverse events include increased wheezing, particularly in young children with a history of asthma or recurrent wheezing, where rates of medically attended wheezing were observed at 5.9% in children aged 6-23 months compared to 3.8% in controls. Anaphylaxis occurs at a very low rate of approximately 1.7 cases per million doses administered. No causal association has been established between LAIV and Guillain-Barré syndrome, with post-licensure surveillance indicating no increased risk beyond background rates. Other rare events reported in postmarketing surveillance include hypersensitivity reactions and, infrequently, hospitalizations for any cause in young children (4.2% vs. 3.2% in controls for ages 6-23 months). Viral shedding of the attenuated virus can occur post-administration, with detection rates of 89% in children aged 6-23 months, 69% in those aged 24-59 months, and 20% in adults aged 18-49 years, typically peaking within 2-3 days and persisting up to 7-10 days in most cases, though rarely up to 28 days. Transmission of vaccine virus to household contacts is exceedingly rare, with only one documented asymptomatic case reported in an immunocompromised individual; estimated transmission probability is about 0.58% from a vaccinated young child to a contact. Precautions are advised for close contacts of severely immunosuppressed persons, though overall transmission risk remains low. Adverse events are monitored through systems like the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), which captures spontaneous reports, and post-licensure studies such as those from the Vaccine Safety Datalink. These have shown LAIV's safety profile to be comparable to inactivated influenza vaccines overall, though with a higher incidence of mild upper respiratory symptoms.

Effectiveness data

Clinical trials have demonstrated high vaccine effectiveness (VE) for live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) against culture-confirmed influenza in children. A meta-analysis of eight randomized controlled trials conducted between 2004 and 2007, involving children aged 2 through 17 years, reported VE of 83% (95% CI: 78–87%) in the first year with two doses against antigenically similar strains, rising to 87% (95% CI: 82–91%) in the second year with one dose. These trials highlighted subtype-specific protection, with VE ranging from 86% against influenza A/H3N2 to 87% against A/H1N1. In adults, evidence from randomized trials is limited, but a systematic review indicated lower VE for LAIV compared to children, with estimates around 45–60% against influenza-like illness in healthy adults aged 18–64 years. Recent observational data suggest LAIV VE in adults may be comparable to IIV in certain seasons, though evidence remains less robust than for children. Real-world studies corroborate variable effectiveness, often influenced by circulating strains; for instance, during the 2013–2014 season, LAIV VE against A/H1N1pdm09 was notably reduced due to poor strain matching, estimated at approximately 0% in children. More recent observational data from 2017–2023 seasons show overall VE of about 50% (95% CI: 39–60%) against any influenza in children, with stronger protection against influenza B at 81% (95% CI: 66–90%). Interim CDC estimates for the 2024–2025 season indicate overall influenza VE of approximately 51% against hospitalization, primarily driven by A(H3N2); LAIV-specific data remain limited pending full-season analysis. Comparisons with inactivated influenza vaccines (IIV) indicate that LAIV provides similar overall VE in children, approximately 50%, but may offer broader cross-protection against mismatched strains due to its mucosal immune response. For adults aged 18-49 years, the CDC recommends LAIV as an option alongside inactivated (IIV) and recombinant (RIV) vaccines for healthy, non-pregnant individuals, though enhanced formulations are preferred for those ≥65 years. Effectiveness is influenced by dosing regimens and immune history; in influenza-naive children under 9 years, a two-dose series in the first season boosts VE to over 80% (82%; 95% CI: 69–89%) against matched strains, compared to 51% (95% CI: 39–60%) with one dose. Protection wanes over the season due to declining antibody titers after 6 months, necessitating annual revaccination to address both waning immunity and antigenic drift in circulating viruses.

History

Development origins

The development of live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) originated with pioneering efforts in the Soviet Union during the 1950s and 1960s, where researchers focused on cold-adaptation techniques to attenuate influenza viruses for safer intranasal administration. Soviet virologist A.A. Smorodintsev and colleagues at the Leningrad Institute of Experimental Medicine initiated serial passage of influenza A strains at low temperatures (around 25–28°C) to select for variants that replicated preferentially in the cooler upper respiratory tract while being restricted in the warmer lower lungs. This approach yielded the master donor virus A/Leningrad/134/17/57 (H2N2) by 1957, which demonstrated reduced virulence in early animal and human challenge studies without compromising the virus's ability to induce mucosal immunity. By the late 1960s, empirical testing of cold-adapted monovalent strains, such as A/Leningrad/9/46 (H1N1), confirmed their safety and immunogenicity in pediatric populations, laying the groundwork for Russia's long-standing use of LAIVs. In parallel, U.S. researchers advanced similar attenuation strategies in the 1960s and 1970s through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and collaborators, emphasizing temperature-sensitive (ts) mutations alongside cold-adaptation for enhanced genetic stability. H.F. Maassab at the University of Michigan developed the cold-adapted A/Ann Arbor/6/60 (H2N2) strain in 1968 by passaging the wild-type virus at progressively lower temperatures, creating a backbone with multiple ts lesions that limited replication at 39°C (body temperature). NIH investigators Robert M. Chanock and Brian R. Murphy, working at the Laboratory of Infectious Diseases (NIAID), refined this platform in the 1970s by generating reassortant viruses that combined the A/Ann Arbor internal genes with surface antigens from circulating strains, ensuring attenuation while matching annual epidemics. Their work addressed key challenges, such as maintaining sufficient immunogenicity despite attenuation, by verifying that ts mutations did not overly impair antigen presentation or replication in the nasopharynx. During the 1980s, Chanock and Murphy's team utilized animal models like ferrets and mice to validate the safety profile of these reassortants, demonstrating restricted viral replication and minimal pathology compared to wild-type viruses. In ferrets, which mimic human influenza transmission and symptoms, cold-adapted candidates showed reduced fever, nasal shedding, and lung involvement, while mouse models confirmed dose-dependent protection without lethality. These preclinical studies highlighted the balance between attenuation—achieved via 4–6 ts lesions in genes like PB2 and NP—and immunogenicity, as overly attenuated strains risked poor immune responses, necessitating iterative reassortment refinements. Pre-licensure clinical trials in the 1990s, conducted collaboratively between NIH and industry partner MedImmune (which licensed the A/Ann Arbor technology from NIH around 1990), advanced from monovalent to multivalent formulations. Phase I and II trials in adults and children confirmed the vaccine's safety, with low rates of mild upper respiratory symptoms and no serious adverse events, while Phase III studies in pediatric cohorts (ages 18 months to 17 years) demonstrated robust humoral and cellular responses against matched strains. Initial focus on monovalent vaccines allowed targeted evaluation of attenuation stability before progressing to trivalent versions incorporating H1N1, H3N2, and influenza B components, overcoming immunogenicity hurdles through dose optimization.

Key approvals and milestones

The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), marketed as FluMist in the United States, received its initial approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on June 17, 2003, for the prevention of influenza in healthy individuals aged 5 to 49 years. This marked the first licensure of a needle-free, intranasal influenza vaccine in the U.S., developed by MedImmune. In 2006, MedImmune submitted data from a multinational study conducted during the 2004-2005 influenza season, leading to FDA approval of a refrigerated formulation on January 9, 2007, which replaced the original frozen version and improved storage and distribution logistics. That same year, on September 20, 2007, the FDA expanded the indication to include children aged 2 to 5 years, broadening the approved age range to 2 through 49 years based on safety and efficacy data from clinical trials. In March 2012, the FDA approved the quadrivalent version of FluMist, incorporating strains for both influenza A subtypes (H1N1 and H3N2) and both B lineages, aligning with evolving recommendations for broader protection against circulating variants. Internationally, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended approval for Fluenz, the EU counterpart to FluMist, in early 2011, with the European Commission granting marketing authorization in February 2011 for use in children and adolescents aged 24 months to less than 18 years. In Australia, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) approved Fluenz Tetra, the quadrivalent formulation, on November 6, 2017, for individuals aged 2 to 17 years, enabling its use in national vaccination campaigns. MedImmune, the original developer of LAIV, was acquired by AstraZeneca in 2007, integrating the vaccine into the company's broader respiratory portfolio and supporting ongoing enhancements. Preparations for the 2009 H1N1 pandemic spurred significant production ramp-up, with MedImmune announcing in August 2009 that it would manufacture over 200 million doses of an H1N1-specific LAIV, leveraging its cell-based platform for rapid scaling. In June 2016, due to reduced effectiveness observed in prior seasons, the U.S. Advisory on Practices (ACIP) recommended against the use of LAIV for the 2016–2017 and 2017–2018 influenza seasons. Following improvements to the H1N1 component, ACIP reinstated its recommendation for the 2018–2019 season onward. More recent advancements include FDA approval on September 20, 2024, for self- or caregiver-administration of FluMist by individuals aged 2 to 49 years, a first for any U.S. influenza vaccine, based on studies demonstrating safe and effective use without healthcare provider involvement. In August 2025, AstraZeneca authorized home delivery of FluMist via prescription, expanding access for the 2025-2026 season and allowing online ordering for at-home use. The self-administration kit for FluMist was recognized as one of Time magazine's top inventions of 2024, highlighting its potential to increase vaccination rates through convenience.

Societal and Regulatory Aspects

In the United States, the live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), marketed as FluMist Quadrivalent, is classified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a prescription (Rx-only) product. Regarding pregnancy, the package insert notes that FluMist is not absorbed systemically and maternal use is not expected to result in fetal exposure, though it is not recommended for pregnant individuals per ACIP guidelines. However, on September 20, 2024, the FDA approved FluMist for self-administration or administration by a caregiver, expanding access for individuals aged 2 through 49 years without contraindications. The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends LAIV as an acceptable option for annual influenza vaccination in healthy, non-pregnant persons aged 2 through 49 years, following the 2018 reversal of a prior temporary suspension due to reduced effectiveness against certain strains. In the European Union, Fluenz Tetra, a quadrivalent LAIV, was authorized by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for active immunization against influenza in children and adolescents from 24 months to less than 18 years of age, based on official recommendations and the season's vaccine composition, but the marketing authorisation was withdrawn in July 2025 and it is no longer available in the EU. Following Brexit, the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has authorized Fluenz, a trivalent LAIV, for use in individuals aged 2 to less than 18 years, and it remains available despite the EU withdrawal. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends LAIV as part of seasonal influenza vaccination strategies where appropriate, emphasizing its role in healthy children and adults while noting requirements for quality, safety, and efficacy standards for intranasal administration. As of the 2024-2025 season, WHO and regulatory bodies have shifted to trivalent formulations for LAIV, excluding the B/Yamagata lineage which has not circulated since 2020. In Canada, Health Canada approves FluMist Quadrivalent for persons aged 2 through 59 years, administered intranasally. Similarly, in Australia, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) has registered FluMist, and for the 2025-2026 season, it is being offered primarily to children aged 2 to under 12 years through state immunization programs. LAIV remains unlicensed in many low- and middle-income countries due to stringent cold chain requirements (2–8°C storage), which challenge infrastructure in resource-limited settings. Package inserts for LAIV products, such as FluMist Quadrivalent, were updated for the –2026 to reflect the global shift to trivalent formulations, excluding the B/Yamagata lineage absent from circulation since , in line with FDA and WHO strain selections. These inserts also include warnings on , noting that may attenuated for up to 7 days post-administration, with rare transmission to unvaccinated contacts, particularly advising caution in households with immunocompromised individuals.

Availability and access

In the United States, live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), marketed as FluMist, is distributed through pharmacies, clinics, and school-based vaccination programs to facilitate broad access during flu season. Since 2025, home delivery has been available via the FluMist Home service in 34 states, covering approximately 80% of the eligible population, allowing individuals to order the vaccine online after a medical questionnaire review and receive it directly at their door on a selected date. Globally, LAIV supply is estimated at around 15 million doses annually, with production prioritized for children aged 2-17 years due to higher efficacy and acceptability in this group compared to inactivated vaccines. LAIV is covered without cost-sharing under the Affordable Care Act (ACA) for most private insurance plans and Medicare Part B for annual flu vaccination, while Medicare Part D may cover it as a prescription drug. Out-of-pocket costs typically range from $50 to $70 per dose without insurance or discounts, though it is provided free through public programs like the Vaccines for Children (VFC) program for eligible uninsured or underinsured children under 19 years. Equity challenges include lower uptake among adults (around 45% for flu vaccines overall) compared to children (50-60%), partly due to preferences for injectable options and misconceptions about . requirements, maintaining 2-8°C storage and transport, pose barriers in tropical regions with unreliable , limiting access in low-resource settings. preparedness efforts, such as stockpiling LAIV platforms for strains like H5N1, enhance surge capacity by enabling rapid and distribution during outbreaks. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) promotes LAIV through campaigns like "Wild to Mild," highlighting its needle-free nasal administration as a convenient, less invasive option to increase overall vaccination rates. The 2024 FDA approval for self- or caregiver-administration has further boosted adult access by allowing at-home use without healthcare visits, approved for ages 2-49 years.

Research Directions

Ongoing studies

Ongoing studies on live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) continue to evaluate its performance across diverse populations and scenarios, with a focus on real-world applications and preparedness for emerging threats. Phase IV post-marketing surveillance efforts, such as the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) 2024-2025 vaccine effectiveness (VE) study, have assessed LAIV's impact in pediatric populations. In this analysis, interim estimates showed overall vaccine effectiveness of 32–60% against influenza-associated outpatient visits among children aged 2-17 years across U.S. networks, contributing to broader surveillance data that informs annual vaccine strain recommendations. For pandemic preparedness, a 2025 preclinical study in ferret models demonstrated that intranasal administration of seasonal LAIV provided partial cross-protection against lethal H5N1 challenge, with reduced weight loss (6.2% vs. 15.3% in controls) and viral replication in the upper respiratory tract, highlighting potential for mucosal immunity and reduction of viral replication in the upper respiratory tract. Real-world observational studies are tracking LAIV's transmission dynamics and overall performance. The UK PREVENT study (2016–2018), a prospective cohort analysis, assessed vaccine virus shedding and interpersonal transmission in school-aged children post-LAIV administration, finding low shedding rates (positivity 3.9–11.2% up to day 6) and no confirmed onward transmission to household contacts. Complementing this, interim data from the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS) network across multiple European countries indicated vaccine effectiveness of 30–72% against circulating A(H1N1)pdm09 and 29–47% against A(H3N2) strains in the 2024-2025 season, underscoring consistent field performance in diverse epidemiological settings.

Future developments

Advances in are paving the way for next-generation live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) through techniques like codon and codon-pair deoptimization, which introduce suboptimal genetic sequences to reduce efficiency while preserving . This approach attenuates the virus without altering sequences, enabling safer profiles and faster cycles, as demonstrated in preclinical and early clinical evaluations. Computational tools, including AI-driven algorithms, further optimize these attenuations by predicting effective patterns, as utilized by Codagenix in their phase 1 live-attenuated influenza candidate (CodaVax-H1N1), which incorporates hundreds of synonymous for broad influenza . These synthetic methods support the creation of universal viral backbones, such as M2-deficient single-replication platforms, which provide cross-protection against diverse strains and diminish reliance on traditional egg-based production by facilitating systems like MDCK cells. Efforts to develop universal LAIVs focus on mosaic vaccine designs that target conserved epitopes, particularly in the hemagglutinin (HA) stem, to elicit broader T-cell and antibody responses against multiple influenza subtypes. For example, the mosaic live attenuated influenza B vaccine (MoBV) employs mosaic HA and NA antigens engineered to maximize T-cell epitope coverage, showing preclinical promise for enhanced protection beyond seasonal strains. NIH-funded initiatives, including phase 1 trials of HA2 HA-ferritin nanoparticles derived from H2N2 strains, aim to stabilize and present conserved HA stem epitopes, potentially extending LAIV applicability to pandemic threats like avian influenza. Delivery innovations for LAIV include needle-free alternatives, such as intranasal or microneedle-based systems, to improve and mucosal immunity induction. A breakthrough from HKUMed introduced novel needle-free LAIV platforms using live-attenuated backbones that confer broad protection against human and avian subtypes via alternative administration routes. Combination strategies with (RSV) vaccines are emerging, leveraging LAIV vectors to deliver RSV epitopes for dual mucosal protection against common respiratory pathogens. Additionally, shifting toward cell-based production platforms addresses concerns by enabling scalable manufacturing free from ovomucoid contaminants, as explored in ongoing adaptations of for LAIV. Key challenges in future LAIV development include mitigating variability in vaccine effectiveness (VE), which can arise from antigenic drift and host factors, necessitating designs that stabilize cross-reactive immunity. Integration with mRNA platforms offers potential for hybrid approaches, combining LAIV's robust mucosal responses with mRNA's rapid adaptability for pandemic scenarios, though this requires resolving stability and co-delivery issues to accelerate responses to emerging variants.

References

  1. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/vaccine-types/nasalspray.html
  2. https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/vaccines/flumist
  3. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/current-vis/influenza-live-intranasal.html
  4. https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/types-of-seasonal-influenza-vaccine
  5. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/vaccine-types/trivalent.html
  6. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/vaccine-process/index.html
  7. https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/history-of-vaccination/history-of-influenza-vaccination
  8. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-nasal-spray-influenza-vaccine-self-or-caregiver-administration
  9. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa065368
  10. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccine-safety/vaccines/flu.html
  11. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6005581/
  12. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/vaccine-types/index.html
  13. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15084398/
  14. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/season/2025-2026.html
  15. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8415297/
  16. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10578119/
  17. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/9/4/353
  18. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/302147
  19. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4518659/
  20. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/hcp/acip/index.html
  21. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/rr/rr7305a1.htm
  22. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163445325000374
  23. https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/influenza-vaccine-composition-2025-2026-us-influenza-season
  24. https://www.fda.gov/media/180697/download
  25. https://www.flumisthcp.com/dosing-and-hcp-administration/storage-handling
  26. https://www.astrazeneca-us.com/media/press-releases/2025/FLUMIST-the-nations-only-nasal-spray-flu-vaccine-now-available-for-home-delivery.html
  27. https://www.asrm.org/practice-guidance/practice-committee-documents/current-recommendations-for-vaccines-for-patients-planning-pregnancy/
  28. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/acip/app/table2.htm
  29. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/imz-best-practices/contraindications-precautions.html
  30. https://www.cdc.gov/acip-recs/hcp/vaccine-specific/flu.html
  31. https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jvi.00163-16
  32. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5737031/
  33. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/technical-documents/technical-article/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/vaccine-manufacturing/egg-based-cell-based-influenza-vaccine-manufacturing
  34. https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/lot-release/seasonal-information-influenza-virus-vaccine
  35. https://www.fda.gov/files/vaccines%2C%20blood%20&%20biologics/packaging%20&%20labeling/package%20inserts/ucm336579.pdf
  36. https://www.bioprocessintl.com/facilities-capacity/astrazeneca-injects-827m-in-uk-to-up-r-d-and-vaccine-production-
  37. https://www.who.int/initiatives/global-influenza-surveillance-and-response-system
  38. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/vaccine-process/vaccine-selection.html
  39. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1586/erv.12.108
  40. https://academic.oup.com/jpids/article/9/Supplement_1/S3/5810041
  41. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/recommended-composition-of-influenza-virus-vaccines-for-use-in-the-2025-2026-nh-influenza-season
  42. https://www.who.int/news/item/26-09-2024-recommendations-announced-for-influenza-vaccine-composition-for-the-2025-southern-hemisphere-influenza-season
  43. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/season/2024-2025.html
  44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12231097/
  45. https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1010875
  46. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/vaccine-types/cell-based.html
  47. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21645515.2024.2373521
  48. https://academic.oup.com/jpids/article/2/4/368/912320
  49. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6437673/
  50. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/acip/app/safety.htm
  51. https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196%2811%2961121-X/fulltext
  52. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264410X08009353
  53. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X11019001
  54. https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_ABX_Guide/540287/all/Influenza_vaccine
  55. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/74/wr/mm7432a2.htm
  56. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14760584.2025.2536087
  57. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/74/wr/mm7406a2.htm
  58. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2839597
  59. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X23007132
  60. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9258574/
  61. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/24074/0000326.pdf?sequence=1
  62. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/%28SICI%291099-1654%28199910/12%299:4%253C237::AID-RMV252%253E3.0.CO%3B2-G
  63. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3528281/
  64. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0166354282900341
  65. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01316727
  66. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264410X05011217
  67. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3623510/
  68. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7313962/
  69. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/201965
  70. https://www.drugs.com/history/flumist.html
  71. https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/influenza-vaccines/fda-approves-refrigerated-form-flumist
  72. https://www.fiercebiotech.com/biotech/press-release-fda-approves-expanded-label-for-flumist-to-include-children-two-to-five-years
  73. https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/auspar-influenza-virus-171106.pdf
  74. https://www.astrazeneca.com/content/astraz/media-centre/press-releases/2011/AstraZeneca-approves-nasal-spray-vaccine-Fluenz-for-flu-01022011.html
  75. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/national/2009/08/02/medimmune-ramps-up-production-of-h1n1-vaccine/84568d21-dc43-4abb-a209-65a61c8ce1b6/
  76. https://archive.cdc.gov/www_cdc_gov/media/releases/2016/s0622-laiv-flu.html
  77. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/wr/mm6722a5.htm
  78. https://time.com/7094894/astrazeneca-flumist/
  79. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/product-information/fluenz-tetra-epar-product-information_en.pdf
  80. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/fluenz-tetra
  81. https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/15790/smpc
  82. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/influenza-vaccines-marketed-in-the-uk/all-influenza-vaccines-marketed-in-the-uk-for-the-2025-to-2026-season-text-version
  83. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/influenza-attenuated-intranasal-administration-annex-4-trs-no-977
  84. https://www.who.int/news/item/28-09-2024-who-recommends-switch-from-quadrivalent-to-trivalent-influenza-vaccines
  85. https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-4-active-vaccines/page-10-influenza-vaccine.html
  86. https://www.health.wa.gov.au/News/2025/New-needle-free-influenza-vaccine-to-protect-WA-children
  87. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3890229/
  88. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33280855/
  89. https://www.kff.org/other-health/acip-cdc-and-insurance-coverage-of-vaccines-in-the-united-states/
  90. https://www.medicare.gov/coverage/flu-shots
  91. https://www.goodrx.com/flumist-quadrivalent
  92. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines-for-children/php/awardees/current-cdc-vaccine-price-list.html
  93. https://www.medicaid.gov/medicaid/quality-of-care/quality-improvement-initiatives/quality-of-care-vaccines
  94. https://www.statista.com/statistics/861176/flu-vaccine-coverage-by-age-us/
  95. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/acip/app/dosage.htm
  96. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7313963/
  97. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1995820X24001779
  98. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/whats-new/2023-2024-new-campaign-wild-to-mild.html
  99. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/31/10/25-0668_article
  100. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/70/12/2505/5549573
  101. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11843620/
  102. https://codagenix.com/codagenix-completes-dosing-in-phase-1-trial-of-universal-influenza-vaccine/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.