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Friction drum
Friction drum
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Friction drum
Other nameszambomba
Classification
Spanish friction drum

A friction drum is a musical instrument found in various forms in Africa, Asia, Europe and South America. In Europe it emerged in the 16th century and was associated with specific religious and ceremonial occasions.

Friction Drum
A friction drum being played.
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Construction

[edit]

A friction drum is a percussion instrument consisting of a single membrane stretched over a sound box, whose sound is produced by the player causing the membrane to vibrate by friction. The sound box may be a pot or jug or some open-ended hollow object. To produce the friction, the membrane may be directly rubbed with the fingers or through the use of a cloth, or a stick or cord which is attached to the centre of the membrane and then rubbed or moved with a hand, sponge or cloth, generally wet. The membrane may be depressed with the thumb while playing to vary the pitch. When a cord is used the instrument may be referred to as a "string drum" or "lion's roar."

In some friction drums, the friction is obtained by spinning the drum around a pivot.

Use in Western European classical music

[edit]

The composer Orlando Gibbons (1583–1625) wrote a keyboard fantasia in which he quotes the Dutch melody De Rommelpot. In modern times the friction drum has been used by several Western composers. Edgard Varèse used it in Hyperprism (1924) and Ionisation (1933). Alexander Goehr specifies a "lion's roar" in his Romanza for cello and orchestra (1968). Carl Orff used a whirled friction drum in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1934–52) and Benjamin Britten, in his Children's Crusade, (1969) calls for a string drum to be struck with drumsticks and bowed by means of the stretched string. Jerry Goldsmith used one in his 1968 score for "Planet of the Apes"

Depictions in Western European paintings

[edit]

The Rommelpot features in several paintings by Dutch painters, including Two Boys and a Girl Making Music by Jan Miense Molenaer (1629, National Gallery, London) and The Fight Between Carnival and Lent by Pieter Brueghel (1559, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna).

Regional use in folk music

[edit]
  • Belgium: rommelpot, played by folk singers, often as the sole accompaniment to their singing.
  • Brazil: cuíca, primarily used in Rio de Janeiro-style Carnival samba. A stick is attached to the centre of the membrane and protrudes into the inside of the sound box, which is an open-ended cylinder. The player reaches inside the sound box from the other end to rub the stick.
  • Denmark: rummelpot or rumlepot. In some parts of Denmark, e.g. Southern Jutland, traditionally groups of masked children go from house to house on New Year's Eve singing songs to the rhythmic accompaniment of the rummelpot and receiving æbleskiver, sweets or fruits in return.
  • France: tambour à friction, and local names (brau, bramadèra, brama-topin, petador, pinhaton in the South). Tambour à cordes is used for a string drum, not be confused with the tambourin à cordes, a stringed instrument.
  • Germany: Brummtopf or Rummelpott, in Berlin and old Prussia Waldteufel. On New Year's Eve there is a tradition in North Germany in which groups of masked children with homemade instruments, including the Rummelpott, go from house to house singing special Rummelpott songs in Low German, receiving sweets or fruits in return. Adults go out later that evening and typically receive shots of schnapps.
  • Hungary: köcsögduda (jughorn or jugpipe), especially used in zither orchestras. Leather or parchment is tightened over the top of a large terracotta or wooden jug. A reed or length of horsehair is fastened to the cover and rubbed with a wet hand.
  • Italy: caccavella or putipù; also known by many other names. The body may be an earthenware pot, a wooden tub or a tin can, with a length of bamboo pierced through an animal skin membrane and rubbed.
  • Malta: ir-rabbaba or iz-zafzafa. The instrument consists of a tin, wood or clay body with a stretched membrane of cat, goat or rabbit skin which has a stick tied in the centre. The stick is rubbed with a wet sponge.
  • Netherlands: foekepot or rommelpot. The syllable “foek” is probably meant to be onomatopoeic. It is rubbed with a rosined stick. In some parts of the Netherlands, e.g. on the island of IJsselmonde, it was tradition, until the 1950s, to go from house to house on New Year's Eve singing songs to the rhythmic accompaniment of the rommelpot. This tradition is still maintained in North Holland on the feast of St. Martin. In Brabant rommelpot can also refer to the dance which is accompanied by the instrument.
  • Poland: burczybas.
  • Portugal: sarronca.
  • Romania: buhai (similar to the Ukrainian buhay), made of a wooden tub or bucket open at both ends with an animal skin tightened over the top and pierced in the middle for a horsehair "ox tail". This is rubbed with a wet hand. It is traditionally used in the New Year's ritual plugușorul ("the little plough"), where it reproduces the sound of oxen mooing when pulling the plough.
  • Russia: gusachyok or gusyok (Russian: Гусачок or гусёк). The top of a clay pot is covered with skin of bull. It is rubbed with a rosined stick.
  • Slovenia: lončeni bas (pottery bass), also called gudalo or vugaš. The instrument is a clay pot, generally between 20 and 40 cm tall, covered with skin or parchment and with a resin-coated hardwood stick of similar length tied in the center.
  • Spain: zambomba. This friction drum can be made from a variety of materials and rubbed either with a rod or with rope. It is particularly associated with Christmas, when it used to accompany the singing of carols.
  • Ukraine: buhay (Ukrainian: бугай) (also known as bugai, buhai, berebenytsia, bika, buga, bochka). This instrument was traditionally used as part of New Year's and Christmas rituals. It is included in Ukrainian folk orchestras.
  • Venezuela: The furro is used in aguinaldos, parrandas and Zulian traditional music such as gaita, these can also be known as furruco, and mandullo.
  • Colombia: zambumbia.
  • Mexico: arcusa, bote del diablo or tigrera.
  • Cuba: ékue.

See also

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References

[edit]
  • The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians; edited by Stanley Sadie; 1980; ISBN 1-56159-174-2
  • Music in the Renaissance; by Gustave Reese; London 1954
  • Anna Borg-Cardona, 'The Maltese Friction Drum' Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society, vol. XXVII, (2002), pp. 174–210.
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Friction drum

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from Grokipedia
A friction drum is a that produces through the of a stretched induced by , typically applied by rubbing a stick inserted through or tied to the membrane, or by rubbing a cord attached to it. These instruments are classified under the Hornbostel-Sachs as friction membranophones (series 23), with subclasses distinguishing direct friction via hand or stick (231) and indirect friction via cord (232). Friction drums appear in diverse forms across , , , and , often constructed from simple materials like animal skin membranes stretched over a such as a pot, jug, or wooden body. Documented in from the late onward—such as in a at the archbishop's palace in —where they supported religious and ceremonial activities, their origins trace to ancient traditions on multiple continents, including and , with archaeological evidence suggesting pre-colonial use in regions like , such as among the ancient Maya. In , examples include the stationary friction drum with cord (232.11), prevalent in folk customs. Key variants encompass direct friction types, such as those with a fixed stick rubbed by hand (231.11, common in Africa), and indirect types like the whirling friction drum (232.2, known as the Waldteufel in Europe, India, and East Africa). Notable examples include the Brazilian cuíca, a single-headed friction drum with a bamboo stick passed through the membrane and rubbed with a damp cloth to produce variable pitches mimicking animal calls, integral to samba music; the Flemish rommelpot, used in Christmas traditions; and the Italian putipù or Spanish zambomba, both cord-rubbed instruments associated with festive occasions. These drums hold cultural significance in rituals, folk performances, and even modern orchestral compositions, such as Edgard Varèse's Ionisation and Carl Orff's A Midsummer Night's Dream.

Introduction and History

Definition and Principles

A is a type of characterized by a single stretched over the opening of a , such as a body or vessel, where sound is produced by applying to the rather than by striking, plucking, or shaking it. This frictional excitation distinguishes it from other , as the player typically rubs a stick, cord, or wet finger against the inner surface of the to initiate vibrations. The core operational principle relies on the altering the membrane's tension and inducing irregular , which resonate within the enclosed air volume of the sound box to produce characteristic rumbling, growling, or roaring timbres. Pitch can be modulated by varying the or speed of the frictional contact, allowing for expressive control over the sound's intensity and tonal quality, often resulting in a drone-like or buzzing effect. In the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system, friction drums are categorized as friction membranophones under the code 23, with subclasses such as 231 for those using a stick and 232 for those employing a cord. From a physics perspective, the generates stick-slip oscillations on the , leading to nonlinear and irregular vibrations that produce non- , creating a distinct from the spectra of struck idiophones or aerophones. These vibrations couple with the resonator's acoustic modes, amplifying low-frequency components to emphasize the instrument's growling without relying on periodic striking forces.

Origins and Evolution

The earliest documented evidence of the friction drum in Europe dates to the late , with a sculpture at the archbishop's palace in , , depicting the instrument complete with a friction rod. This medieval representation suggests its use in cultural or ceremonial contexts, though detailed accounts remain scarce until later periods. By the , the instrument gained wider visibility in European folk traditions, exemplified by the rommelpot—a Dutch variant—in Pieter Bruegel the Elder's 1559 painting The Fight Between Carnival and Lent, where it appears as a buzzing accompaniment to carnival processions. Archaeological evidence points to ancient precursors in Mesoamerica, where Late Classic Maya (circa 600–900 CE) vase paintings illustrate friction drums, likely used in ritual settings to mimic animal sounds like growling jaguars. Experimental recreations by ethnomusicologist John A. Donahue confirm the feasibility of these depictions, employing wooden bodies and friction sticks to produce resonant tones consistent with Mayan iconography. Through trade routes, colonial migrations, and cultural exchanges, the friction drum disseminated globally, manifesting in diverse regional forms across (e.g., the tambue among the Baluba), (e.g., variants in and ), and (e.g., the in ). Anthropologist Henry Balfour's 1907 survey highlights this widespread distribution, attributing it to both independent inventions and diffusion, with instruments recorded from West and to and the . From its roots as a rudimentary folk toy in ceremonial and seasonal rites—such as European Christmas star-singing processions—the friction drum evolved into a sophisticated orchestral element by the . Composers like integrated variants, including the "lion's roar" string drum, into works such as Amériques (1921) and Ionisation (1933), marking its adoption in modern amid expanding percussion palettes. Industrialization further influenced its development, shifting from animal membranes to durable in contemporary constructions for enhanced and longevity.

Design and Construction

Core Components

The core components of a friction drum consist of the resonator body, the , and the friction element, assembled in a manner that enables through frictional contact. The resonator body forms the foundational structure, typically a cylindrical or pot-shaped vessel designed to enclose air and amplify the instrument's sound. Examples include vessels shaped like jugs or barrels, which provide the enclosed space necessary for . The serves as the vibrating surface, stretched taut over one open end of the body to create a . It is commonly made from animal skin, , or modern synthetic materials, fixed securely to seal the . In early European models, animal skins were prevalent for their elasticity and acoustic properties. The element is inserted through a central hole in the , allowing the player to generate by rubbing it. This can take the form of a stick protruding into the , a cord threaded through the and attached inside, or occasionally a rosined cloth for direct on the surface. The element is affixed to the membrane's underside, often by knotting or , to transmit vibrations effectively. Assembly methods emphasize securing the to the resonator body while maintaining an airtight seal to optimize the instrument's response. The is typically fastened using lashing with cord or strips, , or tacks around the rim, ensuring it remains taut and integrated with the friction element. This construction allows for portability and simplicity across various friction drum variants.

Materials and Regional Variations

Friction drums are constructed using a variety of natural and synthetic materials, reflecting both traditional craftsmanship and modern adaptations for durability and accessibility. Traditionally, the resonator body is often made from clay pots, , or wooden vessels, while the vibrating typically consists of animal skins such as , bull, or sheep hide, stretched taut over the open end. In contemporary versions, synthetic alternatives like plastic and PVC are employed to enhance portability and weather resistance, particularly in educational or settings. Key variations in design include stick-based models, where a wooden or stick protrudes through the and is rubbed with a moistened cloth or hand to produce sound, and cord-based types, featuring a rosined string or cord attached to the interior for . Spinning mechanisms appear in some handheld versions, where the drum is rotated while the element is manipulated, allowing for variable pitch through rotational speed. These adaptations prioritize differences in the applicator—stick for direct control or cord for subtler tonal shifts—while maintaining the core and structure. Regional examples highlight material adaptations to local resources and cultural needs. In , the rommelpot uses a wooden cylindrical or box-shaped body with a or membrane, often scaled down for use as a portable during festivals. African variants, such as the Tikar friction drum from , incorporate wood for the body, hide for the , and rattan or for structural elements. In , the Brazilian features a metal or cylinder with a head and internal stick, while the zambomba employs cane or trunks for the body and goatskin , favoring larger sizes for ritual volume.

Acoustics and Performance

Sound Production Mechanism

The sound production mechanism of a drum relies on frictional excitation of a taut stretched over a body, typically a pot or tube. When the player rubs a stick or cord attached to or inserted through the membrane, stick-slip friction occurs, generating rapid oscillations that dampen certain membrane modes while exciting others, resulting in a characteristic spectrum of low-frequency rumbles. These membrane vibrations couple with the air in the resonator, where the enclosed volume and opening act as a Helmholtz resonator to amplify the sound waves through air column resonance modeled by the one-dimensional wave equation ∂t2ζ=γ2∂χ2ζ\partial^2_t \zeta = \gamma^2 \partial^2_\chi \zeta, with wave speed γ≈30\gamma \approx 30 m/s. Pitch control is achieved by applying thumb pressure to the or friction stick, which modulates the tension and thereby alters the . This changes the wave speed cc in the from approximately 15 to 150 m/s, shifting the . The dynamics follow the ∂t2u=c2Δu−2σ0∂tu+2σ1Δ∂tu\partial^2_t u = c^2 \Delta u - 2 \sigma_0 \partial_t u + 2 \sigma_1 \Delta \partial_t u, incorporating -dependent σ0=0\sigma_0 = 0–66 s−1^{-1} and independent loss σ1=0\sigma_1 = 0–0.00260.0026 m²/s. Timbre variations arise from adjustments to the coefficient, often enhanced by applying to the stick for stickier contact or using a wet cloth for smoother slip, which intensifies the stick-slip cycles and produces or roaring qualities. Irregular friction-induced vibrations generate inharmonic , enriching the beyond simple harmonics. Acoustic reveals a concentration of in low frequencies, typically below 200 Hz, positioning friction drums effectively in bass roles within musical contexts. In larger variants, such as those emulating a lion's roar, the amplified low-end rumbles create a deep, resonant effect suitable for dramatic sound imitation.

Playing Techniques and Effects

Friction drums are activated through frictional interaction with the membrane or an attached internal element, enabling a range of expressive sounds. In the prevalent stick-based design, exemplified by the Brazilian , the performer secures the instrument under one arm for stability, then reaches inside with one hand to grip a thin wooden or stick affixed to the membrane's center. This stick is rubbed vigorously up and down using , index, and middle fingers wrapped in a damp cloth, which enhances the stick-slip necessary for . The other hand may press against the exterior to modulate tension, allowing for real-time pitch adjustments. Performers achieve dynamic control by altering the rubbing speed and pressure: rapid motions yield higher intensities and brighter timbres, while slower strokes produce sustained, lower drones, facilitating crescendos, decrescendos, and rhythmic ostinatos. Pulling or pushing the stick lengthwise changes the membrane's tension, generating characteristic glissandi that sweep through pitches—often spanning up to two octaves—from moans and grunts to piercing cries and squeaks, evoking vocal or animalistic effects. These techniques reference the acoustic principle of tension modulation briefly, where friction-induced vibrations resonate through the instrument's body to amplify the sound. Cord variants, such as certain European rommelpots, employ similar methods but use a protruding cord or string attached to the membrane, which is rubbed with rosined or moistened fingers—sometimes aided by saliva or resin—for consistent adhesion. This allows one-handed play, where the drum is cradled in the crook of an arm or against the body, making it suitable for processional or ensemble use as a bass undertone or imitative effect, like roars or wails. Challenges in include sustaining , as drying surfaces can cause intermittent sounds, necessitating frequent re-wetting of the cloth or hands. Modern adaptations, including electrified or amplified models, address projection issues in larger venues, enabling subtler control and integration into contemporary ensembles while preserving the instrument's unique, voice-like expressiveness.

Cultural and Musical Uses

In Western Classical Music

The friction drum, known in various European forms such as the rommelpot, first appeared in Western musical contexts during the , primarily in folk traditions that occasionally influenced early composed works. By the , it persisted in European folk-inspired compositions, providing rustic, groaning timbres that evoked rural or ceremonial atmospheres in symphonic writing. In the , the instrument gained prominence in Western for its ability to produce unconventional, atmospheric growls and ritualistic effects. incorporated the friction drum in Hyperprism (1923–24) to create dissonant, otherworldly sonorities that pushed the boundaries of orchestral percussion. He further utilized it in Ionisation (1931), where the variant delivers lion-like yawns amid the work's dense array of unpitched percussion, emphasizing as a structural element. employed a whirled friction drum in his for A Midsummer Night's Dream (1934–52), enhancing the score's mythical and folkloric character with its rumbling, elemental sounds. specified a string friction drum in (1969), integrating it into the orchestral palette to underscore the piece's poignant, narrative intensity for children's voices. Beyond concert works, the friction drum served as a novelty instrument in orchestral settings, often for evoking primal or eerie atmospheres; used friction drums to mimic howling ape calls in the score for (1968), blending them with exotic percussion for cinematic tension. Modern ensembles have championed its role in contemporary repertoire, notably Les Percussions de Strasbourg, which featured multiple friction drums of varying sizes in Giorgio Battistelli's Psychopompos (1987) to explore timbral contrasts and spatial effects. These applications highlight the instrument's evolution from folk curiosity to a versatile tool in composed Western , particularly for pitch variation achieved by modulating friction on the internal stick or string.

In Global Folk Traditions

In European folk traditions, the friction drum plays a prominent role in seasonal and ritualistic music-making, often accompanying carols and processions during winter holidays. In Belgium and the Netherlands, the rommelpot serves as a solo accompaniment for folk singers performing rustic peasants' songs, such as boerenliederen, where its rumbling sound enhances the narrative quality of the performances. Similarly, the Danish rummelpot and German Brummtopf (or Rummelpott) feature in New Year's Eve caroling and winter festivities, where children in masks use the instrument to create buzzing effects that mimic celebratory noises during door-to-door rituals. In Spain, the zambomba is integral to Christmas villancicos, informal gatherings known as zambombas, where participants play the drum while singing flamenco-style carols around fires in courtyards, fostering communal joy during the holiday season. Romanian traditions incorporate the buhai during New Year's rituals like Pluguşorul, in which groups of carolers carry the friction drum through villages, using it to produce low, bellowing sounds that symbolize agricultural prosperity and ward off evil as they recite verses about plowing and harvest. The Ukrainian buhay, akin to the buhai, accompanies holiday processions on New Year's Eve, where its friction-generated moans add a haunting timbre to group chants and dances invoking good fortune for the coming year. Beyond Europe, friction drums appear in diverse non-European folk contexts, particularly in rituals tied to community celebrations and life transitions. In Brazil, the cuíca is a staple of ensembles during , where players manipulate a bamboo stick inside the drumhead to produce high-pitched, wailing cries that evoke emotional depth and mimic human or animal calls, enhancing the rhythmic intensity of processions. African variants, such as the ekué used in Afro-Cuban societies, function as ceremonial instruments in secret rituals, where the friction sound is believed to channel spiritual voices for initiations and communal gatherings. In , the deru is a drum from , , used in folk performances to produce rumbling sounds. South American and Oceanic traditions employ the instrument in death rites; for instance, on New in , the lunet (or livika) is played during malagan ceremonies—elaborate feasts honoring the deceased—its shrill, rubbed tones concealed behind screens to represent ancestral spirits and guide the soul's passage. Symbolically, drums in global folk practices often imitate natural or sounds to invoke , , or transition. Their variable pitches, achieved through wet-hand , frequently mimic animal growls, such as jaguars or bulls, or ethereal cries of spirits, as seen in the cuíca's wails and the buhai's bovine bellows, which participants believe connect the living to ancestral or natural forces during rituals. These instruments also provide communal in processions and dances, their resonant drones unifying groups in synchronized movements, as in Romanian New Year's parades or Brazilian samba lines, where the sound fosters collective identity and rhythmic cohesion. Efforts to preserve friction drums in modern folk revivals emphasize their cultural significance amid urbanization, with community groups in and reconstructing traditional playing techniques for festivals. In regions like and New Ireland, endangered forms are documented through ethnomusicological studies, supporting local workshops that teach youth the instruments' ritual roles to prevent loss. While specific friction drum traditions have not yet received direct intangible cultural heritage recognition, related practices—such as Brazilian and Romanian caroling customs—benefit from broader safeguarding initiatives that highlight their role in seasonal .

Representations in Art and Media

Depictions in Paintings

Friction drums, known in Dutch as rommelpot, appear prominently in 16th- and 17th-century paintings from the and Flemish Renaissance, often capturing their role in everyday folk activities. One early depiction is found in Pieter Bruegel the Elder's The Battle between and Lent (1559), where a figure in the procession plays a reddish rommelpot near the central figure of Prince , accompanying a fool's bell-ringing to evoke the chaotic revelry of festivities. This oil-on-panel work, housed in the in , illustrates the instrument's integration into communal holiday scenes amid a broader of versus austerity. In the following century, Jan Miense Molenaer's Two Boys and a Girl Making Music (1629) portrays the rommelpot as a rudimentary rhythmic instrument played by a boy in a shabby domestic interior, alongside children making music with simple objects, highlighting its use among the lower classes in informal settings. This oil-on-canvas painting, part of the in London's collection, emphasizes the rommelpot's homemade nature, with the boy rubbing a stick against a membrane-covered pot to produce a buzzing sound, reflecting its accessibility as a toy-like device in peasant households. These representations frequently carry symbolic connotations tied to life, holidays, and moral allegories, positioning the rommelpot as an emblem of rustic simplicity, folly, or ritualistic merriment. In Bruegel's composition, the instrument underscores the disorder of , symbolizing the transient joys of excess in contrast to Lenten restraint, while in Molenaer's scene, it evokes the unrefined, playful disruptions of daily rural existence, often implying themes of neglect or idle mischief among the . Such portrayals served didactic purposes, using the rommelpot to or celebrate the boisterous customs of folk traditions during festivals like or . Artists employed meticulous techniques to render the rommelpot's construction, showcasing its or wooden pot base, animal-skin membrane, and protruding stick, often with visible details like moisture on the player's hands to suggest the mechanism. Bruegel's detailed foreground placement highlights the instrument's textured surface and vibrant color against the bustling crowd, while Molenaer uses focus and subtle to convey the pot's rough, utilitarian form, influencing later ethnographic illustrations by prioritizing realistic textures over idealization. These approaches not only documented the object's folk origins but also contributed to the genre's emphasis on tactile authenticity in Golden Age still-life and scene elements. Key examples of such works are preserved in major European collections, including the Kunsthistorisches Museum's holding of Bruegel's seminal panel and the London's acquisition of Molenaer's canvas, with related rommelpot depictions appearing in pieces by contemporaries like , underscoring the instrument's enduring presence in Dutch artistic representations of vernacular culture.

Appearances in Modern Media

The Brazilian variant of the friction drum, known as the , has gained prominence in modern film soundtracks for its distinctive squeaking and moaning tones, often employed to convey rhythmic energy, exoticism, or otherworldly effects. In Jerry Goldsmith's score for the 1968 Planet of the Apes, the was innovatively used to mimic ape vocalizations, blending with brass and percussion to create a primal, unsettling atmosphere that became a hallmark of the film's . Similarly, the 1959 drama (Orfeu Negro), set during Rio de Janeiro's , integrates the into its -infused soundtrack composed by and , where the instrument's pitches underscore the film's themes of and tragedy amid festive percussion. More contemporarily, the 2023 French action-comedy Wingwomen (Plan B) features the track "Happy Cuica Samba" by Claude Salmieri in a scene depicting characters preparing a meal, highlighting the instrument's lively, samba-rooted bounce to inject levity into the heist narrative. In music videos, the provides a signature percussive texture in Paul Simon's "Me and Julio Down by the Schoolyard" (), as featured in the 1988 promotional clip; the instrument's rubbing-generated squeals punctuate the song's upbeat rhythm, evoking a playful, Latin-inflected groove. This usage reflects the cuíca's broader adoption in pop and productions during the late , where it adds an unconventional, animal-like to otherwise conventional arrangements. The has also appeared in soundtracks, leveraging its versatile pitch range for immersive, character-driven audio cues. For instance, in the 2017 indie game , composer Kristofer Maddigan incorporates cuíca solos in the boss battle track "Floral Fury," enhancing the 1930s cartoon-inspired aesthetic with jazzy, whimsical flourishes. Likewise, Koji Kondo's score for the 1998 title The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time employs the cuíca in the Goron City theme to evoke the rocky, volcanic environment of the Goron tribe, its sliding tones mimicking echoing calls amid orchestral elements. These examples illustrate the instrument's role in , where it bridges traditional folk sounds with interactive narratives.

References

  1. https://www.culturalequity.org/sites/default/files/2020-08/Sachs-Hornbostel%20Classification%20of%20Musical%20Instruments.pdf
  2. https://cimcim.mini.icom.museum/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2019/01/H-S_20classification_20final_20version_20_282013_29_20without_20editorial_20markings-2.pdf
  3. https://www.soundbridge.io/the-friction-drum-percussion-instruments
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  9. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2843248
  10. https://www.laphil.com/musicdb/pieces/188/ameriques
  11. https://www.horniman.ac.uk/object/HC.1999.1161/
  12. https://artsphere.org/friction-drum/
  13. https://barthopkin.com/adventures-in-friction/
  14. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/504609
  15. https://meinlpercussion.com/en/wiki
  16. https://museoecologiahumana.org/en/obras/zambomba-agave-trunks-goatskin-reeds/
  17. https://percussion.byu.edu/cuica
  18. https://jazztimes.com/reviews/products-and-gear/cuica-heres-the-rub/
  19. https://www.britannica.com/art/percussion-instrument/The-Renaissance-Baroque-and-Classical-periods
  20. https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/documentId/omo-9781561592630-e-0000051419
  21. https://interlude.hk/lost-instruments-bonanni/
  22. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/18/arts/music/18varese.html
  23. https://www.fabermusic.com/shop/children-s-crusade-p799
  24. https://www.filmtracks.com/titles/planet_apes68.html
  25. https://www.percussionsdestrasbourg.com/en/soixante-ans/battistelli-georgio-psychopompos-2/
  26. https://theflamencoguide.com/zambomba/
  27. http://www.channelingstudio.ru/music/5-ROR_Guide-ch3-buhai.pdf
  28. https://www.romaniancoins.org/50leim2013_plugusorul.html
  29. https://anacostia.si.edu/collection/object/acm_2003.0032.0388
  30. https://scholarship.miami.edu/view/pdfCoverPage?instCode=01UOML_INST&filePid=13355525870002976&download=true
  31. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/313665
  32. https://www.famsi.org/research/kerr/articles/friction_drum/index.html
  33. https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/jan-miense-molenaer-two-boys-and-a-girl-making-music
  34. https://www.philipsemanorhall.com/blog/twelfth-night-and-the-dutch-masters
  35. https://eastbayexpress.com/music-for-housewives-1/
  36. https://sbiff.org/black-orpheus/
  37. https://vaguevisages.com/2023/11/01/wingwomen-soundtrack-netflix-songs/
  38. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/29/magazine/brazilian-drum.html
  39. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NVOtE1qSymU
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