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History of Sirhind
History of Sirhind
History of Sirhind
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Map of Sirhind with the locations of Sikh sites labelled, as published in the Mahan Kosh (1930)

Sirhind is the older name of Fatehgarh Sahib, a city and Sikh pilgrimage site in Punjab, India. It is situated on the Delhi to Lahore Highway. It has a population of about 60,851. It is now a district headquarters in the state of Punjab; the name of the district is Fatehgarh Sahib.

Trigarta Kingdom

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It derives its name probably from Sairindhas, a tribe that according to Varahamihira (AD 505-87), Brihat Samhita, once inhabited this part of the country. According to Hsuen Tsang, the Chinese traveller who visited India during the seventh century, Sirhind was the capital of the district of Shitotulo, or Shatadru (the River Sutlej), which was about 2000 H or 533 km in circuit. The Shatadru principality subsequently became part of the vast kingdom called Trigarta of which Jalandhar was the capital.

Medieval era

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At the time of the struggle between the Hindu Shahis and the Ghaznavids, Sirhind was an important outpost on the eastern frontier of the Hindu Shahi Empire. With the contraction of their territory under the Ghaznavid onslaught, the Hindu Shahi capital was shifted in 1012 to Sirhind, where it remained till the death of Trilochanpala, the last ruling king of the dynasty. After the Hindu Shahi dynasty fell, the outpost of Sirhind was captured by the Ghaznavids, but it was later abandoned due to its distance from the Ghaznavid capital, Lahore. At the close of the 12th century, the town was occupied by the Chauhans. During the invasions of Muhammad Ghori, Sirhind, along with Bathinda, constituted the most important military outpost of Prithviraj Chauhan, the last Rajput ruler of Delhi. Muhammad Ghori captured the outpost of Bathinda and he then captured Sirhind and finally Delhi. Under the Mamluk dynasty, Sirhind constituted one of the six territorial divisions of the Punjab. In the time of Mughal Emperor Akbar, the rival towns of Sunam and Samana were subordinated to it and included in what was called Sirhind sarkar of the Subah of Delhi. It was refounded by Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq in 1361 AD at the behest of Sayyid Jalaluddin Bukhari, the spiritual guide of that king. The duty of building the town was given to Khwaja Fathallah, the brother of the ancestor of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.[1] He made it a new pargana by dividing the old fief of Samana Firuz Shah dug a canal from the Sutlej.[incomprehensible] It was an important stronghold of the Delhi Sultanate. In 1415 Khizr Khan, the first Sayyid ruler of Delhi, nominated his son Mubarak Khan as a governor of Sirhind. In 1420, Khizr Khan defeated the insurgent Sarang Khan at Sirhind. In 1431, the city was invaded by the Khokhar tribe under their leader Mustafa Jasrath Khokhar. The town was however recaptured by Mubarak Shah in September 1432. In 1451 here, Bahlul Khan Lodi assumed the title of Sultan under the governorship of Malik Sultan Shah Lodi.

Mughal Empire

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ruins of Aam Khas Bagh

Under the Mughals, Sirhind was the second largest city of the Punjab and the strongest fortified town between Delhi and Lahore. The town also enjoyed considerable commercial importance. According to Nasir Ali Sirhindi, Tankhi Nasin, Sirhind at that time possessed buildings which had no parallel in the whole of India. Spread over a distance of 3 kos (10 km approximately) on the banks of the River Hansala (now known as Sirhind Nala), it had many beautiful gardens and several canals. Mughal Emperor Jahangir, who made several visits to Sirhind, refers in his memoirs to the captivating beauty of its gardens. The jurisdiction of Sirhind sarkar extended to Anandpur which was the seat of Guru Gobind Singh in the closing decades of the seventeenth century. At the instance of one of the hill rulers, Raja Ajmer Chand, Wazir Khan, the faujdar of Sirhind, despatched some troops along with a couple of artillery pieces to reinforce the hill army attacking Anandpur. An inconclusive encounter took place on 13–14 October 1700.

Mausoleun of Ahmad Sirhindi

On 22 June 1555, Humayun decisively defeated Sikandar Shah Suri at the Battle of Sirhind and reestablished the Mughal Empire. The city reached the zenith of its glory under the Mughal Empire in the 17th century. This city was a home of sixteenth-century saint Ahmad Sirhindi, popularly known as Mujadid Alif Sani which means 'Revivor of the Faith in the Second Millennium'. The mausoleum of this saint is still there. Under Mughal Emperor Akbar, it had turned the highest yielding sarkar. Under Sirhind sarkar there were 28 parganas. Due to its prosperity during the Mughal Empire it was known as Sirhind Bāvani which means Sirhind Fifty-two because it yielded a revenue of 52 lakh Rs, i.e. 5 million 200 thousand Rs per year. Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan built a famous garden known as Aam Khas Bagh.

The original building of "Gurudwara Thanda Burj", where a Sikh Gurudwara was built over the original structure before it was completely destroyed and rebuilt in the 1900s

Guru Gobind Singh after a brief interval returned to Anandpur but had to quit it again on 5–6 December 1705 under pressure of a prolonged siege by the hill chief supported by Sirhind troops. Under the orders of the faujdar, Nawab Wazir Khan, Guru Gobind Singh's two younger sons, aged nine and seven, were cruelly bricked to death. They were enclosed alive in a wall in Sirhind and executed as the masonry rose up to their necks. Upon hearing the news of his sons' deaths, Guru Gobind Singh is reported to have prophesied the city of Sirhind being plundered, looted and devastated by his followers.[2][3]

Banda Singh Bahadur's rebellion

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Mobilized under the leadership of Banda Singh Bahadur after the death of Guru Gobind Singh in November 1708, the Sikhs made a fierce attack upon Sirhind. The Mughal Army was routed and Wazir Khan killed in the Battle of Chappar Chiri fought on 12 May 1710. Sirhind was occupied by the Sikhs two days later, and Baj Singh was appointed governor. The city was plundered, razed and an immense loss of life and property occurred during Banda's siege.[4][5] The town was, however, taken again by the Mughal imperial forces. The Mughal Army recaptured Sirhind and they also captured Banda Singh Bahadur alive at Gurdas Nangal near Gurdaspur where they took him to Delhi and executed him for his rebellion.

Durrani Empire

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In March 1748, Sirhind was seized, but only temporarily, by Ahmad Shah Durrani, the Afghan general of Nadir Shah who succeeded his master in the possession of the eastern part of his dominions. But Ahmad Shah Durrani was defeated by the Mughal rulers of Delhi who reoccupied the town, although the invader reconquered it during his fourth invasion during 1756-57. Early in 1758, the Sikhs, in collaboration with the Marathas, sacked Sirhind, and drove Prince Taimur, son of Ahmad Shah and his viceroy at Lahore, out of the Punjab.

Sirhind had been attacked by the Sikhs four times in the 18th century, the last being in 1764.[6] Ahmad Shah defeated the Marathas at Panipat in January 1761 and struck the Sikhs a severe blow in what is known as Vadda Ghalughara, the 'Great Massacre', that took place on 5 February 1762. Sikhs rallied and attacked Sirhind on 17 May 1762. defeating its faujdar, Zain Khan Sirhindi, who purchased peace by paying Rs 50,000 as a tribute to the Dal Khalsa. A more decisive battle took place on 14 January 1764 when Dal Khalsa. under Jassa Singh Ahluvalia, made another assault upon Sirhind. Zain Khan Sirhindi was killed in action and Sirhind was occupied and subjected to plunder and destruction. The booty was donated for the repair and reconstruction of the sacred shrines at Amritsar demolished by Ahmad Shah.

After the last attack known as the Battle of Sirhind in 13–14 January 1764, the cis-Sutlej tract became dominated by Sikhs after its Afghan governor, Zain Khan Sirhindi, was killed by a coalition of Sikh forces of both the Buddha Dal and Taruna Dal divisions of the Dal Khalsa military of the Sikh Confederacy.[6] The victory of the Sikhs ended foreign Afghan-rule over the region.[6] Lepel Henry Griffin stated:[6]

The storm burst at last. The Sikhs of the Majha country of Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur combined their forces at Sirhind, routed and killed the Afghan governor, Zain Khan and pouring across Sutlej occupied the whole country to the Jamna without further opposition. It is enough to say that with few exceptions, the leading families of today are the direct descendants of the conquerors of Zain Khan.

— Lepel Henry Griffin

Artillery, supplies, and treasures fell into the possession of the Sikh forces after the victory at Sirhind, which helped them further, especially Ala Singh of Patiala.[6] The victory helped consolidate the political entity of Patiala.[6] The settlement of Sirhind was mostly completely destroyed after the battle, which meant its former residents shifted to other locations, especially Patiala in Ala Singh's state.[6] Ala Singh would strike coins in the aftermath of the victory, with the coins bearing similarities to coins that had earlier been struck by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Sirhind mint.[6] Control over Sirhind itself was handed-over to Bhai Buddha Singh, an aged man who was an associate of Guru Gobind Singh.[6] The sarkar of Sirhind was cut-up and distributed amongst hundreds of both petty and prominent Sikh sardars.[7]

Under Dal Khalsa

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The booty was donated for the repair and reconstruction of the sacred shrines at Amritsar demolished by Ahmad Shah. The territories of the Sirhind sarkar were divided among the leaders of the Dal Khalsa, but no one was willing to take the town of Sirhind where Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons were subjected to a cruel fate. By a unanimous will it was made over to Buddha Singh, descendant of Bhai Bhagatu.[6]

Patiala State

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Gurdwara Fatehgarh Sahib

It was soon after (2 August 1764) transferred possession to Sardar Ala Singh, founder of the Patiala family. Sirhind thereafter remained part of the Patiala territory until the state lapsed in 1948. Maharaja Karam Singh of Patiala (1813–45) had gurdwaras constructed in Sirhind in memory of the young martyrs and their grandmother, Mata Gujari. He changed the name of the nizamat or district from Sirhind to Fatehgarh Sahib, after the name of the principal gurdwara. Besides the Sikh shrines, Sirhind has an important Muslim monument Rauza Sharif Mujjadid Alf Sani, the mausoleum of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1569-1624), the fundamentalist leader of the orthodox; Naqshbandi school of Sufism. There are a number of other tombs in the compound mostly of the members of Shaikh Ahmad's house.

References

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History of Sirhind

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Sirhind, a strategically located town in Punjab along the historic Grand Trunk Road midway between Delhi and Lahore, functioned as the capital of the Mughal subah of Sirhind and developed into a major commercial and fortified center during the medieval period. Its early references appear in the 6th-century Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, associating the region with the Sairindhas tribe, and it later served as a military outpost under the Delhi Sultanate before flourishing under Mughal emperors like Babur and Akbar, who enhanced its infrastructure with gardens, mosques, and canals. The town emerged as a hub of , notably as the birthplace in 1564 of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a key reformer whose teachings emphasized Islamic orthodoxy and spiritual revival, influencing Mughal religious policy. Sirhind's historical trajectory shifted dramatically in the early amid Sikh-Mughal conflicts, particularly following the 1705 execution of Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons, Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh, ordered by the local governor Wazir Khan, an act that symbolized Mughal oppression in Sikh narratives and galvanized resistance. This martyrdom prompted Banda Singh Bahadur's campaign, culminating in the 1710 , where Sikh forces defeated Wazir Khan, leading to the capture of Sirhind and the establishment of temporary Sikh governance; contrary to exaggerated accounts of total ruin, numerous Islamic monuments from before 1710 endured, with the city's decline attributed more to subsequent neglect and conflicts than to wholesale destruction. The events cemented Sirhind's dual legacy as a site of spiritual prominence and pivotal confrontation, later commemorated through Sikh gurdwaras while its Mughal-era architecture reflects enduring cultural layers.

Ancient and Early History

Trigarta Kingdom and Early Settlements

The region encompassing Sirhind was known in ancient texts as Satudar Desh, a term referencing the (Satudaru) and indicating early settlements along its banks. This nomenclature appears in Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (c. 505–587 CE), which describes the area's geographical and cultural features. Subsequent habitation by the Sairindhas, an Indo-Aryan tribe, contributed to the of Sirhind, deriving from Sairindha, reflecting tribal nomenclature patterns in Vedic-era . Sirhind emerged as a strategic within the broader Trigarta confederacy, an ancient Indo-Aryan polity spanning the and Kangra valleys, encompassing territories drained by the , , and Ravi rivers. Textual evidence from the (c. BCE–4th century CE) portrays Trigarta as a kingdom allied with the Kauravas under King Susarman Chandra, participating in conflicts such as the , which underscores its role in epic linking Punjab to Himalayan . Earlier Vedic references, including Panini's Ashtadhyayi (c. 5th–4th century BCE), describe Trigarta as a confederation of six forested states (kanchan or trigarta denoting "three difficult passes"), suggesting decentralized tribal structures predating centralized kingdoms. By the early medieval period, Sirhind served as a frontier outpost of the Pal Kingdom (likely referencing Pratihara or regional Pala influences), facilitating trade and defense along invasion routes from the northwest. Archaeological evidence for settlements in the Sirhind area remains sparse and indirect, with regional findings from indicating proto-urban clusters dating to the late Harappan phase (c. 1900–1300 BCE), though no site-specific excavations confirm continuous occupation predating 1000 BCE at Sirhind itself. Pottery and tool assemblages from nearby Indus Valley outliers suggest agrarian communities transitioned to , aligning with tribal influxes, but the absence of monumental remains tempers claims of early . This evidentiary gap highlights reliance on textual sources over material corroboration for Trigarta's formative phases.

References in Classical Accounts

The ancient of Srughna, encompassing the broader region that includes modern Sirhind in the Yamuna-Sutlej , appears in early grammatical and epic literature as a distinct territorial unit in northern . Pāṇini's (c. 4th century BCE) references Srughna in its sūtras on place names and dialects, indicating its recognition as a cultural and linguistic entity during the late . In the , Srughna is noted as a northern for the region, positioned south of Turghna (an variant or related locale) and north of the , underscoring its role in the epic's geographical framework rather than narrative events. These texts portray Srughna empirically as a transitional zone between Punjab's riverine plains and the upper Gangetic territories, suited for agrarian settlement and inter-regional exchange. Xuanzang's Si-yu-ki (completed c. 646 CE), based on his 635 CE traversal, provides one of the earliest extramural accounts of Srughna as a kingdom measuring about 1,000 li (roughly 530 km) in circuit, with 10 principal towns, fertile fields irrigated by the and other streams, and a population blending Brahmanical and declining Buddhist elements. He describes its capital as featuring royal palaces and shrines to the four deva-rājas, positioned strategically on routes linking to the northwest and facilitating overland travel from into the Indian heartland. This depiction confirms Sirhind's antecedent area's pre-Islamic prominence as a nodal point for trade and migration, with basic fortifications implied by the walled settlements amid a of villages and monasteries.

Medieval Period

Under Delhi Sultanate

Nasir-ud-din Qubacha, governor of and , extended his control over Sirhind in 1210 CE during his bid for independence from the remnants of Ghurid authority. This conquest positioned Sirhind as a contested territory amid the power struggles following Muhammad of Ghor's death. Shams-ud-din , consolidating the after his accession in 1211 CE, reconquered Sirhind from Qubacha's forces as part of broader campaigns to secure and the northwestern frontier against rival warlords and residual Hindu principalities in the and Cis-Sutlej regions. By the 1220s, 's victories, including the defeat of Qubacha near the Chenab in 1227 CE, integrated Sirhind firmly into the Sultanate's domain, transforming it into a strategic outpost for defending against invasions from the northwest and suppressing local rebellions. During Ghiyas-ud-din Balban's reign (1266–1287 CE), Sirhind's defensive role intensified against Mongol raids, with Balban appointing his nephew (or cousin) Sher Khan as a key administrator in the northwest to fortify the region. Sher Khan constructed an early fort in Sirhind, enhancing its capacity as a point for troop deployments and revenue collection to sustain frontier defenses. The area operated under the Sultanate's system, where local muqtis imposed land taxes () and other levies to fund military expeditions and raids into adjacent territories, ensuring loyalty to amid ongoing threats from nomadic incursions and hill kingdoms.

Tughlaq, Lodi, and Pre-Mughal Developments

(r. 1351–1388 CE) recognized Sirhind's strategic value as a gateway to and initiated key infrastructural projects to enhance its defensibility and sustainability. In 1361 CE, during his campaign toward (Kangra), he excavated a through the city linking local rivers, such as the Sarasvati and Markanda, to ensure reliable for urban use and , thereby supporting and settlement expansion. These efforts refocused the town as a fortified , emphasizing military-oriented amid the sultanate's efforts to consolidate control over frontier zones prone to rebellion. Under the (1451–1526 CE), Sirhind solidified its role as a vital administrative outpost in , with the Lodi family itself tracing origins to governorship there; , the dynasty's founder, had served as governor of Sirhind under the preceding rulers before seizing in 1451 CE. The town functioned as a contested border stronghold, enabling Afghan Lodi sultans to project power northward against local chieftains and secure the approaches to the and Himalayan foothills, where sporadic resistance from Hindu hill rajas persisted despite earlier consolidations. Its position facilitated conquest dynamics, including suppression of provincial governors and maintenance of supply lines during campaigns, underscoring Sirhind's function as a bulwark in the sultanate's fragmented western domains. Pre-Mughal economic vitality in Sirhind stemmed from its placement along precursor trade arteries to the Grand Trunk Road, channeling commerce in grains, textiles, and horses between and Punjab's agrarian heartlands up to Bahlul and Sikandar Lodi's reigns. This role amplified under transient powers like (r. 1540–1545 CE), whose improvements to the highway—widening paths and establishing sarais—boosted transit duties and market activity, positioning Sirhind as a nexus for overland exchange prior to sustained Mughal oversight. Such developments, rooted in sultanate imperatives for revenue and mobility, elevated the town's prosperity without alleviating underlying tensions from dynastic turnover and frontier skirmishes.

Mughal Era

Acquisition and Integration into the Empire

In April 1526, Zahir-ud-din Muhammad , founder of the , seized control of Sirhind from the forces of the during his advance toward the , thereby establishing initial Mughal oversight over this key Punjabi outpost previously aligned with the . This acquisition marked the transition of Sirhind from a peripheral sultanate holding to an integral component of the emerging Mughal domain, though full consolidation was interrupted by the Sur following 's death in 1530. Sirhind's location along the vital Delhi-Lahore highway—part of the Grand Trunk Road—positioned it as a linchpin for Mughal control over the Punjab , enabling efficient troop movements, trade facilitation, and surveillance of potential threats from the northwest. Administratively, it was organized not as an independent suba but as a chakla or sarkar—a district-level unit—governed by a responsible for law, order, and military defense, subordinated to the provincial oversight of or . Early Mughal administrators prioritized fortifying the town's defenses, enhancing its role as the strongest bastion between and , while implementing revenue systems to extract agricultural yields from the fertile lands, supporting imperial campaigns and infrastructure. Humayun's decisive victory at the Battle of Sirhind on June 22, 1555, against lingering Suri forces under Sikandar Shah Suri, reaffirmed and deepened Mughal integration, restoring direct control and paving the way for Akbar's subsequent administrative refinements that embedded Sirhind firmly within the empire's fiscal and military framework.

Administrative Prosperity and Key Governors

During the reigns of Mughal emperors Akbar (1556–1605) and Jahangir (1605–1627), Sirhind developed into a key economic hub within the subah of Delhi, leveraging its position along vital trade routes linking Central Asia to the Indian heartland. Agriculture, especially grain production, flourished alongside commerce, drawing merchants and fostering a cosmopolitan environment that spurred cultural and economic growth. The town's revenue potential highlighted its administrative significance, with imperial investments in infrastructure such as gardens, tombs, and caravansarais—numbering around 360 structures in lore—elevating its status as one of Punjab's wealthiest centers. The faujdar system underpinned Sirhind's governance, appointing a military commander responsible for law enforcement, revenue collection, judicial authority, and defense against threats from Afghan incursions and local hill Rajas. This role was essential for securing the northwestern frontier, enabling sustained prosperity through stable border control and irregular levies for peacekeeping. Urban planning achievements, including expansive gardens like Aam Khas Bagh and ornate havelis, demonstrated administrative foresight in blending functionality with aesthetics, though the frontier location inherently exposed the region to periodic invasions despite these advancements.

Wazir Khan's Governorship and Sikh Persecutions

Wazir Khan served as the Mughal of Sirhind from approximately 1703 until his death on 12 May 1710, enforcing Emperor Aurangzeb's directives on religious conformity and quelling dissent in . His governance aligned with the empire's broader campaign against groups perceived as threats, including following Guru Gobind Singh's fortification of and armed resistance. The reimposition of in April 1679 exacerbated economic pressures on non-Muslims, including Sikh communities, as local officials like Wazir Khan collected the poll tax while suppressing evasion or rebellion. Following the Mughal siege and evacuation of Anandpur Sahib in December 1704, Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons, Sahibzada Zorawar Singh (aged 9) and Sahibzada Fateh Singh (aged 7), along with their grandmother , were captured and transported to Sirhind. Wazir Khan, acting on imperial policy toward rebels, offered the children in exchange for clemency; upon their refusal, he ordered their execution by —being bricked alive into a wall—on 26 December 1705. Persian chronicles, such as those translated in historical analyses, confirm Wazir Khan's direct involvement, framing the act as retribution for ongoing Sikh defiance against Mughal authority. Under Wazir Khan's rule, Sikh masands (community collectors) and recent converts faced targeted suppression, with documented executions for refusing reconversion or supporting Guru Gobind Singh's campaigns. These measures, rooted in 's fatwas against , included public punishments to deter Sikh organization, contributing to heightened instability in Sirhind's environs by fostering resentment among affected populations.

Banda Singh Bahadur's Rebellion

Prelude: Martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh's Sons

Following the Mughal siege and evacuation of in late 1704, Sahibzada Zorawar Singh (born November 17, 1696, aged 9) and Sahibzada Fateh Singh (born February 25, 1699, aged 6), the youngest sons of , accompanied by their grandmother , sought refuge with local allies but were betrayed and captured by Mughal-allied forces under the of Sadhaura. They were then delivered to Wazir Khan, the Mughal governor () of Sirhind, who held authority over the region amid ongoing conflicts with Sikh resistance. In Wazir Khan's court at Sirhind, the Sahibzadas were subjected to pressure to convert to , which they steadfastly refused, declaring their commitment to Sikh principles of faith in one and rejection of . Sucha Nand, a Hindu minister serving under Wazir Khan, played a key role by advising harsh measures, reportedly stating that such defiance warranted execution regardless of the children's youth or status. This reflected the broader Mughal policy under Aurangzeb's successors of suppressing perceived threats to Islamic orthodoxy through exemplary punishments, targeting Sikh leadership as rebellious elements. Historical Sikh accounts, including Rattan Singh Bhangu's Panth Prakash (early ), detail Sucha Nand's instigation and the court's proceedings as pivotal in the decision. On December 26, 1705, Wazir Khan ordered the of Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh, entombing them alive within a freshly laid brick wall at (modern ), as direct retaliation for Gobind Singh's armed defiance against Mughal expansion and religious impositions. The boys were seated in the foundation, with bricks and mortar built up around them up to their necks; they perished defiantly reciting prayers, their refusal to recant symbolizing resistance to coercive assimilation. This method of execution, intended to terrify and deter Sikh followers, was corroborated in traditional narratives like the Panth Prakash, which portrays it as a calculated act of terror by Wazir Khan to crush Sikh morale following the Guru's survival and continued opposition. The martyrdom profoundly galvanized Sikh communities, viewed as a against Wazir Khan's governorship and Mughal religious intolerance, sparking immediate vows of vengeance among dispersed warriors and laying the groundwork for organized retaliation. Sikh oral and textual traditions emphasize the event's role in transforming passive grief into active , with reports of assembling in remote areas to plan reprisals against Sirhind's administration.

Military Campaign and Battle of Chappar Chiri

Banda Singh Bahadur, having initiated his rebellion in late 1709 following the sack of Samana, forged alliances with local Jat peasants, disaffected Mughal subjects, and Sikh warriors from regions such as Doaba and Majha, enabling him to assemble a force estimated at 30,000 to 40,000 fighters by early 1710. This coalition, motivated by grievances against Wazir Khan's governance including the 1705 martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons, advanced toward Sirhind after victories at Sadhaura and other outposts, aiming to confront the Mughal governor directly. Prior to engagement, Banda divided his army, positioning units at Nangal Faigarh fort and deploying 50 cannons under Baaj Singh for artillery support, while leveraging superior intelligence to counter Mughal scouts. The decisive clash occurred on May 12, 1710, at , approximately 10 kilometers from Sirhind, where Wazir Khan's forces, numbering around 15,000 to 30,000 including horsemen, artillerymen, and ghazis supported by war s, sought to repel the Sikh advance. Banda's tactics emphasized mobility and surprise: his troops took cover in the Jhiri forest and nearby hillocks, conducted night raids to neutralize , and withheld elite reserves for a concentrated at a vulnerable point in the enemy line. The Mughals initially pressed with elephant charges, but Sikh archery and cannon fire disrupted their formation, leading to a as reserves exploited the breach. Wazir Khan perished during the melee; Sikh accounts attribute his death to Fateh Singh in after Baaj Singh felled his elephant, while Mughal historian records he was killed by a . Casualty figures diverge markedly: Sikh chronicles estimate around 5,000 Sikh dead against 20,000 Mughal slain, whereas 's Mughal-oriented narrative implies lower Sikh numbers but acknowledges heavy imperial losses, reflecting potential biases in partisan recording of troop strengths and outcomes. Banda's forces occupied Sirhind unopposed on May 14, 1710, marking the culmination of the campaign.

Capture, Sacking, and Brief Sikh Rule

After defeating the Mughal forces at the on May 12, 1710, Banda Singh Bahadur's army besieged and captured the fortified city of Sirhind on May 14, 1710, leading to the execution of Wazir Khan, the governor responsible for the martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh's younger sons in 1704. Sikh warriors targeted Mughal officials and their families implicated in prior persecutions, enacting what Sikh traditions describe as , though Mughal chronicles, often biased toward imperial interests, portray the killings—including estimates of thousands—as indiscriminate barbarism. The scale of civilian deaths is contested, with evidence suggesting focus on military and administrative perpetrators rather than broad massacre, as the city's core infrastructure endured. Mughal symbols of authority, such as forts and official buildings linked to , were demolished during the sacking, symbolizing the overturning of subcontinental tyranny, but claims of wholesale urban destruction appear exaggerated in adversarial accounts lacking corroboration from neutral observers. This targeted dismantling facilitated the imposition of Sikh administrative experiments, marking Sirhind's brief integration into an emerging polity before sustained Mughal counteroffensives. In the ensuing period of Sikh control, proclaimed around May 27, 1710, Banda Singh Bahadur initiated land reforms by abolishing the zamindari system—intermediary landlordship that extracted rents from tillers—and redistributing proprietorship directly to peasant cultivators through revenue-sharing like samat and batai, fostering economic autonomy in captured territories including Sirhind. Concurrently, the minting of the first Khalsa coins, inscribed with Sikh sovereignty motifs and dated to the era's second regnal year, commenced primarily at Lohgarh but extended symbolic authority over Sirhind, representing the inaugural assertion of independent Sikh governance. These measures, drawn from Guru Nanak's egalitarian principles, challenged Mughal feudalism but proved transient amid ongoing warfare.

Mughal Recapture and Execution of Banda Singh

Following the ascension of Farrukhsiyar to the Mughal throne in 1713, imperial forces launched a coordinated campaign to eradicate the Sikh insurgency led by Banda Singh Bahadur, who had briefly reasserted control over Sadhaura and Lohgarh amid Mughal succession struggles. Abd al-Samad Khan, appointed subahdar of Lahore, advanced with a large army including artillery, besieging Banda's fortified positions; by mid-1715, Mughal troops under his command and that of Muhammad Amin Khan encircled Gurdas Nangal, where Banda had retreated after earlier skirmishes. The eight-month siege of Gurdas Nangal culminated in severe shortages of food and ammunition for the defenders, leading to Banda's surrender on December 7, 1715, along with approximately 700 followers who were chained and transported to in bullock carts under heavy guard. In , Banda and his companions faced public trial before , who demanded their ; upon refusal, systematic torture ensued, including the killing of Banda's young sons before him and forcing him to consume their remains, as recorded in contemporary Persian chronicles like those of Muhammad Hadi Kamwar Khan. Banda Singh Bahadur was publicly executed by beheading on June 9, 1716, in Delhi's , with his body displayed and followers executed en masse over subsequent days, totaling around 2,000 killed in the process. These events, while restoring nominal Mughal dominance over territories including Sirhind—previously sacked in 1710—highlighted the empire's overreliance on brutal suppression amid internal factionalism and fiscal strain, as Persian akhbarat (news letters) detail the logistical challenges and uneven loyalty among provincial governors. The recapture of Sirhind under Khan's operations temporarily quelled resistance, but decentralized guerrilla activities persisted, eroding central authority in the region.

Afghan Durrani Invasions

Ahmad Shah Durrani's Campaigns

initiated his incursions into in December 1747, advancing rapidly to capture and Sirhind by January 1748, positioning the latter as a strategic staging point for further assaults on Mughal-held territories to the east. This first campaign, involving an army of approximately 12,000 veteran troops, exploited the weakening Mughal authority in the region, allowing Durrani to consolidate control over key towns before facing Mughal counteroffensives that forced his retreat after the in March 1748. Sirhind's location on the Grand Trunk Road facilitated Afghan logistics and tribute collection, marking it as a focal point in the emerging triangular contest among Durrani forces, Mughal remnants, and rising Sikh militias. Durrani conducted eight additional invasions through 1769, imposing heavy tribute demands on Punjab's agrarian economy—often exceeding local capacities—and enforcing razzias that systematically devastated villages, crops, and systems, leading to widespread depopulation as inhabitants fled or perished from and conflict. These raids, driven by the need to fund 's empire amid internal Afghan rivalries, extracted resources through appointed naibs and governors who maintained garrisons in strongholds like Sirhind, exacerbating causal chains of economic collapse and demographic decline in Punjab's regions. In the context of his 1761 campaign, following victory at the Third Battle of Panipat, Durrani turned against Sikh concentrations in , culminating in the Wadda Ghalughara on February 5, 1762, near Kup-Rohira approximately 80 kilometers northeast of Sirhind, where Afghan forces under Durrani's command massacred an estimated 25,000 to 30,000 Sikh fighters and civilians in a deliberate suppression effort. This event temporarily bolstered Afghan garrison stability around Sirhind by decimating organized Sikh resistance, enabling administrators like Zain Khan to extract further tribute and maintain nominal control, though it failed to eradicate Sikh resurgence due to the community's decentralized structure and adaptive guerrilla tactics.

Sikh-Afghan Clashes Around Sirhind

Following the of February 5, 1762, in which Afghan forces allied with Zain Khan, the of Sirhind, massacred up to 40,000 , Afghan holdouts retained nominal control over Sirhind and surrounding territories into the spring of that year. Zain Khan, appointed by in 1761 and loyal to Afghan interests, commanded a garrison that benefited from the recent devastation of Sikh forces, yet faced immediate resurgence from surviving Sikh misls operating in the and regions. By May 1762, Sikh detachments, leveraging their expertise in —including rapid mounted raids and ambushes—launched coordinated assaults on Sirhind, compelling Zain Khan to pay a of 50,000 rupees to secure a temporary truce and prevent the city's encirclement. These operations exploited the ' vulnerabilities in static defense, as Sikh horsemen disrupted supply lines and isolated outposts, a tactic honed through years of hit-and-run engagements against larger imperial armies. The payment underscored the causal effectiveness of Sikh mobility, which allowed small, decentralized misl units to evade Afghan artillery and infantry while inflicting disproportionate economic and psychological pressure. Subsequent skirmishes around Sirhind in 1762 and early 1763 further eroded Afghan authority, with Sikh forces under leaders like extracting additional tributes through persistent harassment; Persian chronicles record Zain Khan binding himself to an annual payment of 300,000 rupees to avert total collapse, mediated amid mounting Sikh incursions. Misl coordination enabled these localized victories, as alliances formed ad hoc for raids on Afghan convoys and villages, gradually compelling garrisons to prioritize survival over expansion and highlighting the limitations of Afghan overextension without reinforcement. Such engagements, though not decisive captures, incrementally shifted control by demonstrating that Afghan faujdar authority depended on unmolested revenue flows, which Sikh tactics systematically undermined.

Establishment of Sikh Dominion

Dal Khalsa and Misl Period

After the Wadda Ghalughara of February 1762, in which Afghan forces massacred approximately 30,000 Sikhs near Kup, the surviving forces numbering around 5,000 regrouped and initiated a series of retaliatory campaigns against Afghan positions. By early 1764, the Dal Khalsa— the unified military confederacy of the twelve Sikh misls—coordinated a major offensive, culminating in the Battle of Sirhind on January 14, where Sikh armies under leaders including Jassa Singh Ahluwalia defeated the Afghan garrison, killing its administrator and 10,000 horsemen. This recapture ended residual Afghan control over Sirhind, marking a pivotal consolidation of Sikh power in the region and elevating the city as a enduring symbol of defiance against historical oppressions, including the 1704 martyrdoms of Guru Gobind Singh's sons. The Dal facilitated coordination among the misls for collective defense and , with Sirhind falling under joint oversight to counter persistent Afghan incursions from the west. Misls levied rakhi—a protection tax at reduced rates compared to prior Mughal or Afghan exactions—to sustain forces and fortify positions, enabling sustained military readiness amid invasions like those in 1765 and 1767. Revenue from Sirhind's fertile lands and strategic position on trade routes supported reconstruction, including the demolition of tyrannical structures and erection of commemorative gurdwaras, while lighter fiscal policies encouraged peasant resettlement and agricultural output. In 1765, the minting of coins in and inscribed with invocations to and proclaimed sovereignty, reflecting the economic stabilization achieved through misl governance in recaptured territories like Sirhind. This period of confederate rule, though punctuated by inter-misl rivalries, solidified Sikh dominion by integrating local revenues into a broader defensive apparatus, verifying resilience via persistent territorial holdings despite external pressures until the late .

Annexation under Patiala State

In January 1764, Sikh forces under decisively defeated Afghan-aligned Mughal governors at Sirhind, capturing the fortress after a coordinated involving 10,000 warriors. Control of Sirhind was subsequently transferred to Baba Ala Singh, the Phulkian Misl leader and emerging ruler of , on August 2, 1764, integrating the territory into his expanding domains south of the River. This handover reflected the Sikh Confederacy's strategy of allocating conquered lands to allied misls, with 's position providing a strategic buffer against recurrent Afghan threats from the northwest. Ala Singh's assumption of authority marked the onset of princely stabilization in Sirhind, transitioning from the chaos of post-Banda Bahadur Mughal-Afghan contests to semi-autonomous Sikh governance under Phulkian oversight. In March 1765, during Ahmad Shah 's seventh invasion, Durrani formally recognized Ala Singh's holdings by conferring the title of , a robe of honor, and nominal rights to coinage, effectively endorsing Patiala's de facto control through pragmatic diplomacy rather than outright conquest. This arrangement bolstered Patiala's role as an anti-Afghan bulwark, as Ala Singh had previously allied with Mughal forces against Durrani at battles like Manupur in , prioritizing territorial security over ideological militancy. Internal misl rivalries, however, delayed unchallenged dominion; Ala Singh's accommodations with Afghan and Mughal authorities antagonized elements of the Dal Khalsa, leading to his brief detention and a fine in 1765, resolved only through mediation by . Such frictions among Phulkian branches and other confederacy sardars fragmented resource allocation and enforcement, prolonging instability until Ala Singh's death on August 7, 1765, after which his successors incrementally consolidated administration. Despite these hurdles, Patiala's oversight introduced relative order, enabling early infrastructure repairs and the preservation of Sikh historical sites, including those honoring the Sahibzadas' martyrdom, which laid groundwork for formalized commemorations in the subsequent century. This era thus pivoted Sirhind toward enduring princely rule, curtailing Afghan dominance while navigating the confederacy's decentralized power dynamics.

British Colonial Period

Transition to British Control

The , Sahib Singh, formalized an alliance with the British East India Company through a signed on 3 May 1809, which included defensive and offensive provisions against common enemies, such as the under . This agreement aligned Patiala with British strategic interests in the cis-Sutlej region, where Sirhind served as a key territorial holding since its annexation by Patiala forces in 1764 following the Battle of Sirhind. Under the framework, Patiala committed to providing military contingents and logistical aid to British operations while receiving protection and recognition of its autonomy, effectively subordinating its foreign policy to Company oversight. The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) and Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849) further solidified Patiala's loyalty, as the state supplied troops and resources to British forces campaigning against the Lahore Durbar. Sirhind's position east of the Sutlej River positioned it as a secure rear base for British reinforcements and supply lines, insulated from direct Sikh Empire incursions and leveraging Patiala's alignment to prevent flanking threats. These conflicts indirectly secured Patiala's adherence by demonstrating British military superiority, culminating in the annexation of the Punjab proper on 29 March 1849 after the Battle of Gujrat. In the post-annexation settlement, was preserved as a under British paramountcy, exempt from direct incorporation due to its consistent support during the wars, though subject to restrictions on expansion and strength. Sirhind, integral to Patiala's domain, transitioned to this indirect control, with demilitarization measures limiting local fortifications and garrisons to align with British security protocols across the region. British administrators initiated surveys to assess and map the territory, including archaeological examinations that cataloged Sirhind's ruins—remnants of earlier Mughal, Afghan, and Sikh-era destructions—as part of the efforts led by in the 1860s and 1870s. Cunningham's reports from 1871 described Sirhind as largely in ruins, documenting sites like tombs and gardens to inform revenue and preservation policies under paramountcy.

Administrative and Economic Changes

The British annexation of in 1849 integrated Sirhind into the as a , shifting its role from a militarized outpost under prior Sikh and Afghan control to a subunit of the colonial civil administration. emphasized revenue assessment via the mahalwari system, where village communities collectively managed land taxes, overseen by a in responsible for judicial, police, and settlement operations; this replaced military oversight with standardized bureaucratic procedures, including regular land surveys initiated in the 1850s to stabilize collections amid post-war disruptions. Economically, the Sirhind Canal system represented a pivotal intervention, drawing water from the Sutlej River at Rupar with headworks completed in the late 1870s. Opened for irrigation in 1882 and fully operational by 1884, it expanded cultivable land in the Sutlej-Yamuna doab by channeling perennial flows to over 5,000 square kilometers, enabling double-cropping and boosting yields of staples like wheat and cash crops such as cotton; by the early 1900s, irrigated acreage in the canal's command area had increased manifold, contributing to Punjab's agricultural surplus and export revenues. Administrative stability facilitated demographic recovery, with Punjab's provincial population rising from 20.8 million in the 1881 census to 34.3 million by 1941, reflecting reduced warfare and improved sanitation in districts like that encompassed Sirhind; local records indicated gradual repopulation of previously depopulated tracts through migrant labor attracted by canal-facilitated farming opportunities. Sikh religious sites in Sirhind, including gurdwaras marking historical martyrdoms, were maintained under British oversight via alliances with princely states like , which funded restorations in the mid-19th century; colonial policy maintained nominal neutrality by avoiding direct religious endorsements or demolitions, though management disputes with appointed custodians persisted until the 1925 Sikh Gurdwaras Act transferred control to elected Sikh committees.

Modern Era

Post-Independence Reorganization

Following the in 1947, the Sirhind region, part of the of , acceded to the Dominion of and was incorporated into the Patiala and States Union (PEPSU) on May 5, 1948, which united eight under as capital. PEPSU functioned as a distinct administrative entity until its merger into the reorganized state of on November 1, 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, aligning boundaries with linguistic and administrative rationales. The Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966, enacted to address Punjabi Suba demands by carving out Hindi-speaking and designating as a , resulted in negligible boundary alterations for the Sirhind area, preserving its placement within 's Punjabi-speaking core. On April 13, 1992—coinciding with Baisakhi—the government of established as a separate district, bifurcating it primarily from to highlight its pivotal role in Sikh history, including the 1705 martyrdom of Gobind Singh's younger sons, Sahibzada Zorawar Singh and Sahibzada Fateh Singh, at the site's gurdwaras. The district headquarters at , approximately 5 kilometers north of Sirhind town, underscores administrative continuity while elevating the area's heritage status. Post-independence archaeological initiatives by the have focused on sites within the district, notably extensive excavations at village from 1968 to 1987, uncovering Vedic-era settlements, Kushan-period stupas, and artifacts such as rail-patterned sculptures and coins, which informed the establishment of the Sanghol Museum in 1990 to house these findings. These efforts, spanning pre-Mughal layers but contextualizing the region's layered including Sikh-Mughal interactions, reflect state-supported preservation amid modern administrative frameworks.

Contemporary Role and Preservation Efforts

Sirhind, particularly through , functions as a key Sikh pilgrimage center, drawing devotees to commemorate the martyrdom of Gobind Singh's younger sons, Singh and Fateh Singh, executed on December 26, 1705, by Wazir Khan, the governor of Sirhind. The site also marks the Sikh forces' conquest of Sirhind in 1710 under , symbolizing triumph over Mughal oppression. Annually, the three-day in December attracts thousands for prayers and reenactments honoring these events, reinforcing Sirhind's spiritual significance in . Preservation initiatives focus on restoring historical structures amid ongoing urban pressures. The Punjab government, in collaboration with the (SGPC), initiated restoration of —associated with Diwan , who performed the last rites for the martyred Sahibzadas—in early 2025, with work flagged off in February to reconstruct using historical references like 1911 photographs. Similar efforts target fort remnants and other monuments, supported by agreements reached in 2024 to conserve sites like Todar Mal, reflecting state commitment to heritage amid calls for involvement. Urbanization poses challenges including encroachment on heritage zones, contributing to degradation of unprotected sites, though pilgrimage tourism sustains local economy and motivates conservation. These efforts balance historical preservation with modern development, ensuring Sirhind's legacy as a site of Sikh resilience endures.

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