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Kepler-138
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.png) Artist's impression of the planets orbiting Kepler-138 | |
| Observation data Epoch J2000 Equinox J2000 | |
|---|---|
| Constellation | Lyra[1] |
| Right ascension | 19h 21m 31.56798s[2] |
| Declination | +43° 17′ 34.6810″[2] |
| Apparent magnitude (V) | 13.040±0.092[3] |
| Characteristics | |
| Spectral type | M1V[4] |
| Apparent magnitude (V) | 13.040±0.092[3] |
| Apparent magnitude (Kepler) | 12.925[5] |
| Astrometry | |
| Radial velocity (Rv) | −37.25±0.72[2] km/s |
| Proper motion (μ) | RA: −20.461±0.012 mas/yr[2] Dec.: 22.641±0.012 mas/yr[2] |
| Parallax (π) | 14.9019±0.0097 mas[2] |
| Distance | 218.9 ± 0.1 ly (67.11 ± 0.04 pc) |
| Absolute magnitude (MV) | 8.81 ± 0.28 |
| Details | |
| Mass | 0.535±0.012[6] M☉ |
| Radius | 0.535+0.013 −0.014[6] R☉ |
| Luminosity (bolometric) | 0.056±0.004[6] L☉ |
| Luminosity (visual, LV) | 0.026 ± 0.006 L☉ |
| Surface gravity (log g) | 4.71±0.03[6] cgs |
| Temperature | 3726+44 −40[7] K |
| Metallicity [Fe/H] | -0.28 ± 0.10[4] dex |
| Rotation | 19.394±0.013 days[8] |
| Rotational velocity (v sin i) | ~3[9] km/s |
| Age | >1[9] Gyr |
| Other designations | |
| Kepler-138, KOI-314, KIC 7603200, TIC 159376971, 2MASS J19213157+4317347[10] | |
| Database references | |
| SIMBAD | data |
| Exoplanet Archive | data |
| KIC | data |
Kepler-138, also known as KOI-314, is a red dwarf[4][11] located in the constellation Lyra, 219 light years from Earth.[2] It is located within the field of vision of the Kepler spacecraft, the satellite that NASA's Kepler Mission used to detect planets transiting their stars.
The star hosts three confirmed planets and a likely fourth, including the lowest-mass exoplanet with a measured mass and size discovered to date, Kepler-138b,[12] with a mass comparable to that of Mars. Kepler-138d is remarkable for its low density; initially thought likely to be a gas dwarf,[9] more recent observations as of 2022 show that it, as well as planet c, are likely to be ocean worlds.[13][14]
Nomenclature and history
[edit]
Prior to Kepler observation, KOI-314 had the 2MASS catalogue number 2MASS J19213157+4317347. In the Kepler Input Catalog it has the designation of KIC 7603200, and when it was found to have transiting planet candidates it was given the Kepler object of interest number of KOI-314.
Planetary candidates were detected around the star by NASA's Kepler Mission, a mission tasked with discovering planets in transit around their stars. The transit method that Kepler uses involves detecting dips in brightness in stars. These dips in brightness can be interpreted as planets whose orbits pass in front of their stars from the perspective of Earth, although other phenomena can also be responsible which is why the term planetary candidate is used.[15] By timing these dips, gravitational interactions were detected between two of the candidates,[9] allowing for a measurement of their masses and confirmation as real planets given that the masses were significantly below the deuterium burning limits.[16]
Following the acceptance of the discovery paper, the Kepler team provided an additional moniker for the system of "Kepler-138".[17] However, the planets were discovered by scientists outside of the Kepler team who referred to the star as KOI-314, as the Kepler designation had not been assigned yet.[9][18]
Candidate planets that are associated with stars studied by the Kepler Mission are assigned the designations ".01", ".02", ".03", etc. after the star's name, in the order of discovery.[5] If planet candidates are detected simultaneously, then the ordering follows the order of orbital periods from shortest to longest.[5] Following these rules, the first two candidate planets were detected simultaneously[19] and assigned the names KOI-314.01 and KOI-314.02, with respective orbital periods of 13.8 and 23.1 days.[19] Over a year later, a much smaller planet candidate was detected and assigned the name KOI-314.03,[20] despite being the shortest orbital period planet (period of 10.3 days) found in the system.
Confirmed planets are conventionally assigned the designations b, c, d, etc. after the star's name.[21] The labels are assigned alphabetically in the order of discovery starting from b.[21] Since KOI-314.01 and KOI-314.02 were confirmed as planets simultaneously, the alphabetical names were assigned in order of orbital period by the discoverers,[9] and thus became KOI-314b and KOI-314c respectively. Since no gravitational interactions were detected due to KOI-314.03, this planetary candidate remained unconfirmed as 6 January 2014 and thus kept the same name.[9]
In the following weeks, on 28 February 2014, a new paper validated KOI-314.03 as being a real planet with a false alarm probability of less than 1%.[22] The new paper used different names for the planets, going from KOI-314b to Kepler-138c, KOI-314c to Kepler-138d and KOI-314.03 to Kepler-138b.[22] These designations have been used by subsequent studies, and by databases such as the NASA Exoplanet Archive.[3] This situation is similar to that of some other planetary systems such as Mu Arae, where different designations have been used for the same planets in the literature.
On 16 December 2022, two possible Earth-like water worlds Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 d were detected in the Kepler 138 system by the Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes.
Stellar characteristics
[edit]Kepler-138 is a red dwarf with approximately 54% the mass of and 54% the radius of the Sun.[6] It has a surface temperature of 3726+44
−40 K.[7] In comparison, the Sun has a surface temperature of 5778 K.[23] Kepler-138's apparent magnitude (how bright it appears from Earth's perspective) is 13.04,[3] too dim to be seen with the naked eye.
Planetary system
[edit]The three inner known planets of Kepler-138 transit the star; this means that all three planets' orbits appear to cross in front of their star as viewed from the Earth's perspective. Their inclinations relative to Earth's line of sight, or how far above or below the plane of sight they are, vary by less than one degree. This allows direct measurements of the planets' orbital periods and relative diameters (compared to the host star) by monitoring each planet's transit of the star.[9][22] There is also a likely fourth non-transiting planet, Kepler-138e, detected through transit-timing variations.[6][13]
Although the innermost planet has a size similar to Mars, Kepler-138c and d both have a radius of about 1.5 Earth radii[6] (revised from earlier estimates of 1.2 Earth radii).[9][22] Although Kepler-138c and d have similar radii, their masses and densities were initially thought to vary greatly. Of these two, the inner planet was thought to be consistent with a rocky super-Earth, whereas the outer planet's low density implies it may have a substantial proportion of water ice[12] or a significant gas envelope, resembling a miniaturized gas giant (a gas dwarf).[9] The striking differences between these two planets have been hypothesized to be due to photoevaporation.[9] However, more recent observations as of 2022 have found similarly low densities for both planets c and d, suggesting that they are likely to be ocean worlds.[6][13] The mass of candidate Kepler-138e would be intermediate of Mars and Venus. While a radius could not be estimated for planet e, it is likely smaller than c and d and larger than b, which is consistent with an Earth-like composition.[6]
The three inner planets are too close to their star to be considered within the habitable zone,[18] while the likely planet Kepler-138e orbits near the inner edge of the habitable zone.[6]
| Companion (in order from star) |
Mass | Semimajor axis (AU) |
Orbital period (days) |
Eccentricity | Inclination | Radius |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| b | 0.07±0.02 M🜨 | 0.0753±0.0006 | 10.3134±0.0003 | 0.020±0.009 | 88.67±0.08° | 0.64±0.02 R🜨 |
| c | 2.3+0.6 −0.5 M🜨 |
0.0913±0.0007 | 13.78150+0.00007 −0.00009 |
0.017+0.008 −0.007 |
89.02±0.07° | 1.51±0.04 R🜨 |
| d | 2.1+0.6 −0.7 M🜨 |
0.1288±0.0010 | 23.0923±0.0006 | 0.010±0.005 | 89.04±0.04° | 1.51±0.04 R🜨 |
| e (unconfirmed) | 0.43+0.21 −0.10 M🜨 |
0.1803±0.0014 | 38.230±0.006 | 0.112+0.018 −0.024 |
88.53±1.0° | — |
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Roman, Nancy G. (1987). "Identification of a constellation from a position". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 99 (617): 695. Bibcode:1987PASP...99..695R. doi:10.1086/132034. Constellation record for this object at VizieR.
- ^ a b c d e f Vallenari, A.; et al. (Gaia collaboration) (2023). "Gaia Data Release 3. Summary of the content and survey properties". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 674: A1. arXiv:2208.00211. Bibcode:2023A&A...674A...1G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243940. S2CID 244398875. Gaia DR3 record for this source at VizieR.
- ^ a b c d "Kepler-138". NASA Exoplanet Archive. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
- ^ a b c Pineda, Sebastian; Bottom, Michael; et al. (21 March 2013). "Using High-resolution Optical Spectra to Measure Intrinsic Properties of Low-mass Stars: New Properties for KOI-314 and GJ 3470". The Astrophysical Journal. 767 (1): 28. arXiv:1302.6231. Bibcode:2013ApJ...767...28P. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/767/1/28. S2CID 12541740.
- ^ a b c "Kepler Input Catalog search result". Space Telescope Science Institute. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Piaulet, Caroline; Benneke, Björn; et al. (15 December 2022). "Evidence for the volatile-rich composition of a 1.5-Earth-radius planet". Nature Astronomy. 7: 206. arXiv:2212.08477. Bibcode:2023NatAs...7..206P. doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01835-4. S2CID 254764810.
- ^ a b Mann, Andrew W.; Dupuy, Trent; Muirhead, Philip S.; Johnson, Marshall C.; Liu, Michael C.; Ansdell, Megan; Dalba, Paul A.; Swift, Jonathan J.; Hadden, Sam (2017), "THE GOLD STANDARD: ACCURATE STELLAR AND PLANETARY PARAMETERS FOR EIGHT Kepler M DWARF SYSTEMS ENABLED BY PARALLAXES", The Astronomical Journal, 153 (6): 267, arXiv:1705.01545, Bibcode:2017AJ....153..267M, doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa7140, S2CID 119325474
- ^ McQuillan, A.; Mazeh, T.; Aigrain, S. (2013). "Stellar Rotation Periods of The Kepler objects of Interest: A Dearth of Close-In Planets Around Fast Rotators". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 775 (1): L11. arXiv:1308.1845. Bibcode:2013ApJ...775L..11M. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/775/1/L11. S2CID 118557681.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Kipping, David; Nesvorný, D.; et al. (1 March 2014). "The Hunt for Exomoons with Kepler (HEK): IV. A Search for Moons around Eight M-Dwarfs". The Astrophysical Journal. 784 (1): 28–41. arXiv:1401.1210. Bibcode:2014ApJ...784...28K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/784/1/28. S2CID 119305398.
- ^ "Kepler-138". SIMBAD. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
- ^ Mann, Andrew; Gaidos, Eric; et al. (4 December 2013). "Spectro-thermometry of M Dwarfs and Their Candidate Planets: Too Hot, Too Cool, or Just Right?". The Astrophysical Journal. 779 (2): 188. arXiv:1311.0003. Bibcode:2013ApJ...779..188M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/779/2/188. hdl:2152/34640. S2CID 119183731.
- ^ a b Jontof-Hutter, D; Rowe, J; et al. (18 June 2015). "Mass of the Mars-sized Exoplanet Kepler-138b from Transit Timing". Nature. 522 (7556): 321–323. arXiv:1506.07067. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..321J. doi:10.1038/nature14494. PMID 26085271. S2CID 205243944.
- ^ a b c "Two Super-Earths May Be Mostly Water". NASA. 15 December 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
- ^ Timmer, John (15 December 2022). "Scientists may have found the first water worlds". Ars Technica. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
- ^ Morton, Timothy; Johnson, John (23 August 2011). "On the Low False Positive Probabilities of Kepler Planet Candidates". The Astrophysical Journal. 738 (2): 170. arXiv:1101.5630. Bibcode:2011ApJ...738..170M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/738/2/170. S2CID 35223956.
- ^ "Working Group on Extrasolar Planets: Definition of a "Planet"". IAU position statement. 28 February 2003. Archived from the original on 16 September 2006. Retrieved 9 September 2006.
- ^ NASA (27 January 2014). "Kepler – Discoveries – Summary Table". NASA. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
- ^ a b David Kipping (26 January 2014). "David Kipping - Press Briefing on First Earth-Mass Transiting Planet, KOI-314c". YouTube. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
- ^ a b Borucki, William J.; Koch, David G.; Batalha, Natalie; Brown, Timothy M.; Bryson, Stephen T.; Caldwell, Douglas; Christensen-Dalsgaard, Jørgen; Cochran, William D.; Devore, Edna; Dunham, Edward W.; Gautier, Thomas N.; Geary, John C.; Gilliland, Ronald; Gould, Alan; Howell, Steve B.; Jenkins, Jon M.; Latham, David W.; Lissauer, Jack J.; Marcy, Geoffrey W.; Rowe, Jason; Sasselov, Dimitar; Boss, Alan; Charbonneau, David; Ciardi, David; Doyle, Laurance; Dupree, Andrea K.; Ford, Eric B.; Fortney, Jonathan; Holman, Matthew J.; et al. (29 June 2011). "Characteristics of Planetary Candidates Observed by Kepler. II. Analysis of the First Four Months of Data". The Astrophysical Journal. 736 (1): 19. arXiv:1102.0541. Bibcode:2011ApJ...736...19B. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/736/1/19. S2CID 15233153.
- ^ Batalha, Natalie; Rowe, Jason F.; Barclay, Thomas; Burke, Christopher J.; Caldwell, Douglas A.; Christiansen, Jessie L.; Mullally, Fergal; Thompson, Susan E.; Brown, Timothy M.; Dupree, Andrea K.; Fabrycky, Daniel C.; Ford, Eric B.; Fortney, Jonathan J.; Gilliland, Ronald L.; Isaacson, Howard; Latham, David W.; Marcy, Geoffrey W.; Quinn, Samuel N.; Ragozzine, Darin; Shporer, Avi; Borucki, William J.; Ciardi, David R.; Gautier, Thomas N.; Haas, Michael R.; Jenkins, Jon M.; Koch, David G.; Lissauer, Jack J.; Rapin, William; Basri, Gibor S.; et al. (5 February 2013). "Planetary Candidates Observed by Kepler. III. Analysis of the First 16 Months of Data". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement. 204 (2): 24. arXiv:1202.5852. Bibcode:2013ApJS..204...24B. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/204/2/24. S2CID 19023502.
- ^ a b Hessman, F. V.; Dhillon, V. S.; Winget, D. E.; Schreiber, M. R.; Horne, K.; Marsh, T. R.; Guenther, E.; Schwope, A.; Heber, U. (2010). "On the naming convention used for multiple star systems and extrasolar planets". arXiv:1012.0707 [astro-ph.SR].
- ^ a b c d Rowe, Jason F.; et al. (2014). "Validation of Kepler's Multiple Planet Candidates. III: Light Curve Analysis & Announcement of Hundreds of New Multi-planet Systems". The Astrophysical Journal. 784 (1): 45. arXiv:1402.6534. Bibcode:2014ApJ...784...45R. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/784/1/45. S2CID 119118620.
- ^ Fraser Cain (15 September 2008). "Temperature of the Sun". Universe Today. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
External links
[edit]
Kepler-138
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Discovery and nomenclature
Discovery process
The Kepler-138 system was initially detected through transit photometry observations conducted by NASA's Kepler Space Telescope, which operated from 2009 to 2013 and monitored over 150,000 stars in the constellation Lyra for periodic dips in brightness indicative of planetary transits. The transits of the innermost three planets—later designated Kepler-138b, Kepler-138c, and Kepler-138d—were identified in the star's light curve using data from Quarters 0 through 17 of the mission, spanning approximately 1,400 days of continuous monitoring with 30-minute cadence photometry.[1][3] These detections were validated as a multi-planet system and publicly announced in March 2014 through the NASA Exoplanet Archive, based on statistical analysis confirming a false positive probability below 1% for the combined signals. The orbital periods were measured as 10.31 days for Kepler-138b, 13.78 days for Kepler-138c, and 23.09 days for Kepler-138d, with corresponding transit depths of approximately 138 parts per million (ppm), 756 ppm, and 598 ppm, respectively, reflecting the planets' relative sizes compared to the host star.[1][3][4] In 2022, a reanalysis of archival Kepler data alongside new observations from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and Spitzer Space Telescope revealed the presence of a fourth planet, Kepler-138e, through deviations in the transit timing variations (TTVs) of the outer planets that could not be explained by a three-planet model. The TTVs, which arise from gravitational interactions perturbing transit timings by up to several hours, hinted at an unseen companion with an orbital period of about 38 days; subsequent photodynamical modeling of the combined light curves confirmed its transit at a depth of roughly 200 ppm. This discovery was detailed in a study published in Nature Astronomy, expanding the system's architecture and enabling refined density estimates for the planets.[2][5] Masses for Kepler-138 c and d were first constrained using TTV analysis from the initial Kepler data, yielding values of approximately 1.2 M⊕ for c and 0.6 M⊕ for d, though with significant uncertainties due to limited transit coverage.[4] The mass of Kepler-138 b was first measured in 2015 at approximately 0.07 M⊕.[6] Subsequent follow-up with HST and Spitzer transits in 2022 improved these mass determinations through enhanced TTV modeling, resulting in updated values of 0.07 +0.03 -0.02 M⊕ for b, 2.3 +0.6 -0.5 M⊕ for c, and 2.1 +0.6 -0.7 M⊕ for d, confirming their low densities consistent with volatile-rich compositions.[2][5]Naming and designation
Kepler-138 is the provisional designation assigned to the host star by NASA's Kepler mission, derived from its entry in the Kepler Input Catalog (KIC) as KIC 7603200. This catalog systematically numbered target stars observed by the Kepler Space Telescope to detect exoplanets via the transit method. The star's equatorial coordinates (J2000 epoch) are right ascension 19h 21m 31.54s and declination +43° 17′ 35″.[1] The four confirmed planets orbiting Kepler-138 are designated Kepler-138b, Kepler-138c, Kepler-138d, and Kepler-138e, following the International Astronomical Union (IAU) naming convention for exoplanets. Under this guideline, planets receive lowercase letters starting from "b" (skipping "a" for the host star) in sequence of increasing semi-major axis from the parent star, which corresponds to orbital periods for systems like this one. This ensures a consistent ordering based on orbital hierarchy rather than solely discovery sequence. Kepler-138e, the outermost planet, was discovered in 2022 through refined analysis of transit timing variations using Hubble and Spitzer observations, confirming its transits in archival Kepler data and revealing its gravitational interactions with the inner planets. As of 2025, neither the host star Kepler-138 nor any of its planets have been assigned proper names by the IAU. Systems like this remain eligible for public naming through periodic IAU-sponsored contests, such as NameExoWorlds, which invite global proposals for culturally significant names.Host star
Physical characteristics
Kepler-138 is a red dwarf star of spectral type M1V, characteristic of cool, low-mass main-sequence stars with effective temperatures below 4000 K. These stars are common in the Galaxy and often host compact planetary systems detectable via the transit method due to their small size and relatively high planetary transit depths. The star's effective temperature is 3900 K, significantly cooler than the Sun's 5772 K, resulting in a reddish appearance dominated by molecular absorption bands in its spectrum.[1] The star has a radius of 0.50 ± 0.06 R⊙ and a mass of 0.52 ± 0.06 M⊙, placing it near the lower end of the main-sequence stellar mass range. Its surface gravity is consistent with expectations for a dwarf star of this mass and radius. The bolometric luminosity is approximately 0.06 L⊙, about 6% of the Sun's, reflecting the combined effects of its lower mass, smaller radius, and cooler temperature. Metallicity, measured as [Fe/H] = -0.18 ± 0.10 dex, indicates a slightly subsolar abundance of heavy elements, which may influence the star's formation and the composition of its planetary system.[1] Kepler-138 lies at a distance of 218 light-years (66.9 pc) from Earth, determined from a Gaia parallax of π = 14.93 ± 0.02 mas.[1] Its apparent visual magnitude is V = 13.04 ± 0.09, rendering it too faint for detailed ground-based spectroscopic follow-up without large telescopes but ideal for high-precision photometry from space-based observatories like Kepler.[1]Age and activity
The age of the Kepler-138 host star has been estimated using both gyrochronology and isochrone fitting methods. Gyrochronology, which relates the star's rotation period to its age, yields an age of 1.08 ± 0.29 Gyr based on the observed rotation period and calibration relations for M dwarfs.[7] In contrast, isochrone fitting to stellar evolution models provides older estimates with large uncertainties, reflecting challenges in atmospheric parameters and metallicity for cool stars.[1][8] These discrepant results highlight challenges in age determination for field M dwarfs, with gyrochronology often favored for its sensitivity to magnetic braking but potentially biased by spot coverage effects.[8] The host star exhibits a low to moderate level of magnetic activity typical of early-M dwarfs. Its equatorial rotation period is measured at 18.984 ± 0.050 days through spot modeling of Kepler photometry, indicating a relatively slow rotator consistent with gyrochronological expectations for its inferred age.[7] Photometric variability is approximately 1%, dominated by cool starspots with coverage of 0.3–3% of the surface, and shows evidence of differential rotation with a pole-to-equator difference of 1.72 ± 0.17 days. This activity level places Kepler-138 among quieter early-M dwarfs, as evidenced by a Rossby number (rotation period divided by convective turnover time) suggesting subdued dynamo efficiency compared to more active later-type M dwarfs.[9] X-ray emission from the host star is minimal, consistent with its low activity. Observations with XMM-Newton detect coronal X-ray flux in the 0.2–12 keV band, but at levels below those of flaring M dwarfs, with no upper limits from ROSAT data indicating non-detection or very faint emission.[10] These measurements imply a low X-ray luminosity, roughly 10^{-5} to 10^{-4} times the bolometric luminosity, supporting reduced high-energy output over quiescent periods.[11] Flare frequency is low for Kepler-138, with rare white-light flares detected in Kepler data at rates typical of early-M dwarfs (∼0.1–1 per day for energies >10^{34} erg).[12] Such events contribute to episodic UV irradiation, potentially elevating atmospheric loss rates on close-in planets by factors of 10–100 during flares, though the overall time-averaged UV flux remains modest (∼10–100 times Earth's present value for inner planets), limiting erosive impacts compared to more active hosts.[9] Compared to other M dwarfs in the Kepler field, Kepler-138 follows established activity trends: early-M types like this M1 V star show slower rotation (∼15–25 days) and lower flare rates than mid-to-late M dwarfs (M4 and later), where activity rises steeply due to fully convective interiors enhancing dynamo strength.[9] Its spot-induced variability and rotation align with the field's bimodal distribution for ages ∼1–5 Gyr, underscoring a transition from active youth to quieter maturity.[13]Planetary system
System architecture
The Kepler-138 system consists of four confirmed planets orbiting a cool red dwarf star in a compact, near-resonant configuration. The inner three planets, Kepler-138b, c, and d, were initially identified through transit photometry from NASA's Kepler mission, while the outermost planet, Kepler-138e, was inferred from transit timing variations (TTVs) in the light curves of the inner planets. The orbital periods are approximately 10.3 days for b, 13.8 days for c, 23.1 days for d, and 38.2 days for e, corresponding to semi-major axes of roughly 0.075 AU, 0.091 AU, 0.129 AU, and 0.180 AU, respectively. These values place all planets within 0.2 AU of their host star, forming a tightly packed architecture typical of many multi-planet systems detected by Kepler.[1][14] The planets are engaged in a chain of near mean-motion resonances, which helps maintain the system's long-term dynamical stability through gravitational interactions. Specifically, planets b and c orbit near a 4:3 resonance, while pairs c-d and d-e are both near 5:3 resonances, creating an approximate chain that influences their orbital evolution. These resonant configurations are not exact but close enough to excite librations in the resonant angles, preventing chaotic disruptions over billions of years. Photodynamical modeling of the system confirms that such near-resonances contribute to the observed stability, with simulations showing the orbits remain intact for at least the age of the system.[7][14] TTVs provide key evidence for these mutual gravitational perturbations, as the timing deviations in the transits of planets b, c, and d reveal the presence and influence of planet e, even though e itself does not transit. The TTV signals have periods on the order of hundreds to thousands of days, consistent with the expected superperiods from the near-resonant interactions, and their amplitudes allow constraints on the planets' masses and eccentricities without direct radial velocity measurements. Analysis of over seven years of Kepler, Hubble Space Telescope, and Spitzer data refines the TTV model, demonstrating that the four-planet configuration best fits the observations and ensures dynamical coherence.[14] The orbits are highly aligned, with inclinations near 90° relative to the sky plane—ranging from about 88.5° to 89.0°—indicating a coplanar system to within approximately 1°. This near-edge-on and coplanar geometry facilitates the detection of all transits and supports the interpretation of TTVs as arising from planar interactions rather than significant mutual inclinations that could lead to instabilities.[1][14]Kepler-138b
Kepler-138b is the innermost known planet in the Kepler-138 system, classified as a rocky terrestrial world with an Earth-like composition of silicates and iron. It has a radius of 0.64 ± 0.02 R⊕ and a mass of 0.07 ± 0.02 M⊕, resulting in a bulk density of 1.7 ± 0.5 g/cm³.[14] These measurements indicate a structure dominated by a rocky core and mantle, consistent with formation in the inner, high-temperature regions of the protoplanetary disk where volatiles were scarce.[14] The planet orbits its M-dwarf host star with a period of 10.3134 ± 0.0003 days at a semi-major axis of approximately 0.075 AU, leading to an equilibrium temperature of 452 ± 8 K assuming a Bond albedo of 0.3.[14] Given its proximity to the star, Kepler-138b receives intense stellar irradiation, estimated at approximately 10 times that of Earth, making it highly unlikely to retain a significant atmosphere over its lifetime due to hydrodynamic escape and high thermal velocities.[14] Its transits produce a depth of 138 ± 7 ppm in the Kepler bandpass and were reliably detected across all 18 quarters of the mission's primary data, enabling precise photometric characterization.[1] As the lowest-mass transiting exoplanet with both mass and radius directly measured, Kepler-138b—comparable in size to Mars—provides critical constraints on the formation and migration mechanisms for sub-Earth-mass bodies. Its low mass and rocky nature suggest it accreted primarily from refractory materials near the star, challenging models that predict efficient outward migration or volatile enrichment for inner-system planets and highlighting the diversity of low-mass planet formation pathways. Kepler-138b participates in the system's chain of mean-motion resonances with the outer planets, stabilizing its orbit over billions of years.[14]Kepler-138c
Kepler-138c is a super-Earth exoplanet orbiting the cool red dwarf star Kepler-138 every 13.8 days at a semi-major axis of 0.0913 AU.[15] It has a radius of 1.51 ± 0.04 R⊕ and a mass of 2.3^{+0.6}_{-0.5} M⊕, yielding a low bulk density of approximately 3.6 g/cm³ that suggests a composition rich in volatiles rather than a purely rocky interior.[2] Earlier mass estimates placed it around 1.2 M⊕, but refined measurements from transit timing variations (TTVs) with an amplitude of about 10 minutes have revised this upward, highlighting the challenges in precisely determining masses for such small exoplanets.[7] The planet's transit depth is roughly 800 ppm, consistent with its size relative to the host star.[1] Analysis of Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2022 revealed that Kepler-138c's low density indicates it is likely a water world, with models suggesting around 11% water (or other volatiles) by mass, equivalent to more than 50% by volume in a deep ocean layer up to 2,000 km thick overlying an Earth-like core.[2] This volatile envelope could include a thick atmosphere, potentially composed of steam given the planet's equilibrium temperature of approximately 400 K, which exceeds the boiling point of water.[16] The flat transmission spectrum observed across optical and infrared wavelengths supports the presence of a dense, hazy atmospheric layer that scatters light minimally.[2] Kepler-138c participates in a chain of mean-motion resonances with its neighboring planets, particularly a near 5:3 resonance with Kepler-138d, which contributes to the detectable TTV signals used for mass determination.[2] These dynamical interactions underscore the compact architecture of the Kepler-138 system and provide key insights into the formation and migration history of sub-Neptune-sized worlds.[7]Kepler-138d
Kepler-138d is a super-Earth exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf star Kepler-138, with a radius of 1.51 ± 0.04 Earth radii and a mass of 2.1^{+0.6}_{-0.7} Earth masses, resulting in a bulk density of 3.6 ± 1.1 g/cm³ that indicates a composition rich in volatiles rather than a purely rocky interior.[17] This low density, combined with mass-radius modeling, provides evidence for a substantial water layer enveloping a silicate core, potentially comprising up to 51% water by volume and forming a deep liquid ocean with a volume up to 500 times that of Earth's oceans.[17] The planet's orbital period is 23.0923 ± 0.0006 days at a semi-major axis of 0.1288 ± 0.0010 AU, placing it in a warm-temperate region of the system.[17] The equilibrium temperature of Kepler-138d is estimated at 345 ± 7 K assuming a Bond albedo of 0.3, positioning it within the conservative habitable zone of its host star where surface conditions could allow for liquid water under sufficient atmospheric pressure.[17] Transit timing variations (TTVs) from the Kepler mission reveal the strongest signal in the system for this planet, with an amplitude of approximately 20 minutes, which has been crucial for constraining its mass through dynamical interactions with siblings Kepler-138b and Kepler-138c.[18] Discovered in 2014 via the transit method, Kepler-138d shares compositional similarities with Kepler-138c, both emerging as prime candidates for water worlds in multi-planet systems around cool stars.[17]Kepler-138e
Kepler-138e is the outermost known planet in the Kepler-138 system, inferred through transit timing variations (TTVs) detected in the transits of the inner planets b, c, and d using archival data from the Kepler, Hubble Space Telescope, and Spitzer missions.[14] This detection, announced in 2022, revealed subtle perturbations consistent with a low-mass companion, but no direct transit of Kepler-138e has been observed, indicating a likely non-transiting orbital geometry with an inclination near 89 degrees.[14] The planet's presence refines the masses of the inner planets via photodynamical modeling combined with radial velocity measurements from Keck/HIRES.[14] With an orbital period of 38.23 ± 0.006 days and a semi-major axis of 0.1803 ± 0.0014 AU, Kepler-138e orbits farther from its M-dwarf host than the other confirmed planets, extending the system's near-resonance chain.[1] Its mass is 0.43^{+0.21}{-0.10} M\oplus, placing it below 1 M_\oplus and classifying it as a small terrestrial world.[1] The radius is not directly measured due to the lack of transits but is inferred to be approximately 0.8 R_\oplus assuming an Earth-like rocky composition. The equilibrium temperature of Kepler-138e is estimated at 292^{+5}_{-6} K, assuming a Bond albedo of 0.3 similar to Earth's, positioning it near the inner edge of the classical habitable zone around the cool host star.[14] Likely composed of rock or ice given its low mass and size, the planet may retain a thin volatile envelope, though low signal-to-noise ratios in the TTV signals severely limit compositional constraints and preclude detailed atmospheric characterization.[14]Planetary characteristics and composition
Mass and radius measurements
The radii of the planets in the Kepler-138 system are derived from the depth of their transits observed in photometric light curves, using the relation , where is the planetary radius, is the stellar radius, and is the fractional transit depth.[20] Initial measurements relied on data from the Kepler Space Telescope, which provided high-precision photometry over four years (2009–2013), yielding radius ratios for planets b, c, and d with uncertainties typically around 5–10% due to baseline flux variations and limb darkening effects.[21] These were later refined using infrared observations from the Hubble Space Telescope's Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) G141 grism, capturing three transits per planet in the 1.1–1.7 μm range, and Spitzer Space Telescope's IRAC at 3.6 and 4.5 μm, which added 10 transits and reduced systematic errors from stellar activity by probing cooler atmospheric layers. For example, the radius of Kepler-138b is measured as 0.64 ± 0.02 , while Kepler-138c and d are both 1.51 ± 0.04 , with the stellar radius fixed at 0.535 ± 0.013 from asteroseismology and spectroscopy.[20] Planetary masses were first constrained through transit timing variations (TTVs), arising from gravitational interactions in the compact system, modeled via N-body simulations that fit observed transit mid-times from Kepler data.[21] Using the REBOUND software package with the WHFast integrator, photodynamical fits simultaneously solve for orbital parameters and mass ratios , incorporating over 250 transits and accounting for eccentricity and inclination effects; early analyses yielded masses such as 0.066^{+0.059}{-0.037} for Kepler-138b. More recent measurements combine TTVs with radial velocity (RV) observations to break degeneracies and improve precision, particularly for lower-mass planets. RV data from the Keck/HIRES spectrograph, consisting of 28 high-resolution spectra spanning 2011–2015, measure the stellar reflex motion via the semi-amplitude , with masses derived from for circular orbits and negligible planetary perturbations.[20] Joint RV-TTV modeling with REBOUND validates these, yielding 0.07 ± 0.02 for Kepler-138b, 2.3 +0.6/-0.5 for Kepler-138c, 2.1 +0.6/-0.7 for Kepler-138d, and 0.43^{+0.21}{-0.10} for the low-mass outer planet e, though error bars remain large for e (~50%) due to its faint signal and the system's near-resonant dynamics amplifying uncertainties in mutual inclinations.[20]Density and internal structure
The bulk densities of the planets in the Kepler-138 system are calculated from their measured masses and radii using the standard formula where is the planetary mass and is the planetary radius. For Kepler-138 b, the density is g/cm³, consistent with a rocky composition dominated by a silicate and iron core. For Kepler-138 c and d, the densities are g/cm³ and g/cm³, respectively, indicating significantly lower values than expected for purely rocky bodies and suggesting substantial volatile content. Kepler-138 e has an estimated mass of M but lacks a precise radius measurement due to its shallow transits, preventing a reliable density determination at present. Internal structure models for Kepler-138 b employ three-layer configurations (iron core, silicate mantle, and thin atmosphere) and confirm core-mantle differentiation with a predominantly rocky makeup, akin to Mars-sized terrestrial worlds. For Kepler-138 c and d, Bayesian interior modeling using Markov chain Monte Carlo simulations reveals core-mantle differentiation with a rocky inner core (Earth-like iron-to-silicate ratio) enveloped by a thick water layer comprising approximately 9–11% of the total mass (corresponding to over 50% by volume, given water's lower density). These models assume hydrogen-free compositions and explore variations in core iron content to match the observed masses and radii.[20] The water layers in Kepler-138 c and d are modeled using equation-of-state data from high-pressure phase diagrams, accounting for potential phases such as high-pressure ices (e.g., ice VII or superionic ice) under the planets' internal pressures and temperatures (up to several GPa and ~1000 K). Depending on the exact composition and heat flux, portions of these layers may exist as supercritical fluids, transitioning from liquid-like to gas-like states without a distinct phase boundary. Kepler-138 e's low estimated mass and potential radius (~0.8 R) suggest a density profile that could align with icy compositions, comparable to solar system analogs like Ganymede (density ~1.94 g/cm³), featuring a rocky core overlaid by a water-ice mantle, though confirmatory radius measurements are required.Habitability prospects
Habitable zone placement
The conservative habitable zone (HZ) for Kepler-138, a mid-M dwarf star with effective temperature around 3840 K and luminosity approximately 0.056 times that of the Sun, spans roughly 0.18 to 0.30 AU. This range is informed by one-dimensional climate models incorporating greenhouse effects from CO₂ and H₂O, adjusted for the star's lower luminosity and cooler spectrum compared to solar-type stars. These models define the inner boundary near the runaway greenhouse limit, where increasing stellar flux leads to rapid water vapor buildup and loss, and the outer boundary at the maximum CO₂ greenhouse limit, beyond which CO₂ condenses out.[2] Within the Kepler-138 system, Kepler-138d orbits at a semi-major axis of 0.13 AU, positioning it interior to the conservative HZ and receiving excessive stellar radiation, while Kepler-138e orbits at 0.18 AU, placing it near the inner edge.[1] In contrast, the inner planets Kepler-138b (0.075 AU) and Kepler-138c (0.091 AU) lie well interior to the HZ, receiving excessive stellar radiation that would likely prevent stable liquid surface conditions.[1] These orbital positions are determined from transit timing variations and radial velocity constraints, with uncertainties of about 1% in semi-major axis. The incident stellar flux on a planet, which governs its potential thermal environment, is calculated as , where is the stellar luminosity and is the orbital semi-major axis. For Kepler-138d, this yields a flux of approximately 3.4 times Earth's insolation (), sufficient for temperate conditions under certain atmospheric assumptions but exceeding the threshold for overheating and consistent with its position outside the HZ.[1] Kepler-138e's flux is around 1.7 , aligning with inner HZ conditions.[1] Placement within the HZ carries uncertainties due to the star's variability, which can fluctuate by up to 10-20% in M dwarfs over activity cycles, altering time-averaged flux delivery. Additionally, planetary Bond albedos—ranging from 0.1 for dark surfaces to 0.3 for Earth-like reflectivity—affect absorbed energy and effective temperatures by 10-20 K, potentially shifting habitability margins. These factors highlight the need for refined stellar and planetary models to precisely map HZ boundaries.Potential for liquid water
Kepler-138d exhibits characteristics of an ocean world, with models indicating that water could constitute approximately 51% of its volume, forming a global ocean exceeding 2,000 km in depth overlying a rocky core.[2] This deep ocean layer would experience immense pressures, elevating the melting point of ice and potentially stabilizing liquid water phases even under the planet's estimated equilibrium temperature of around 350 K, where surface conditions favor steam.[2] The planet's low density of about 3.6 g/cm³ supports this volatile-rich composition, distinguishing it from rocky super-Earths.[2] For Kepler-138c, a similar water-rich structure is inferred, with up to 50% of its volume potentially occupied by water in a thick envelope.[2] Its closer orbit results in a slightly higher equilibrium temperature, promoting a runaway greenhouse effect that generates a dense steam atmosphere.[16] Beneath this vapor layer, high pressures could sustain a subsurface ocean of liquid water, though direct surface liquidity remains unlikely due to the elevated temperatures.[2] Kepler-138e, the outermost confirmed planet, resides near the inner edge of the habitable zone around its M-dwarf host, where stellar flux permits surface temperatures conducive to liquid water if volatiles are present.[2] As an Earth-sized world likely covered in ice, tidal heating from its orbital dynamics could generate internal heat sufficient to maintain a liquid water layer beneath the surface, analogous to processes in solar system icy bodies.[22] These planets face challenges to retaining stable liquid water, including probable tidal locking due to their short orbital periods (10–38 days), which could create extreme temperature contrasts between daysides and night sides.[2] Additionally, the active nature of the M-dwarf star Kepler-138 may drive atmospheric erosion through stellar winds and flares, though modeling suggests minimal loss for Kepler-138d's potential envelope over the system's age.[23]Scientific significance
Implications for exoplanet demographics
The discovery of low-density planets Kepler-138 c and d, with compositions dominated by thick water layers comprising 9–14% of their masses, challenges the prevailing view that most super-Earths and sub-Neptunes in the radius valley are either rocky or gas-enveloped. These planets evade the radius gap—typically observed around 1.5–2 Earth radii—by maintaining volatile-rich structures, suggesting that photoevaporation alone may not explain the valley's formation for cooler, longer-period orbits around M dwarfs. This implies alternative mechanisms, such as volatile delivery during disk migration or late-stage water enrichment, could allow sub-Neptunes to retain substantial H₂O mantles without significant hydrogen-helium atmospheres. However, subsequent analyses of exoplanet populations suggest that water-rich compositions may be rarer, with most super-Earths having water mass fractions below 3%.[24][25] Kepler-138 exemplifies the prevalence of compact multi-planet architectures around M dwarfs, where nearly half of such stars host multiple coplanar planets based on Kepler survey statistics. This system's four-planet configuration, including two water-rich sub-Neptunes, underscores how these architectures are common among the ~40% of red dwarfs exhibiting multi-planet systems with periods under 50 days, providing a template for understanding planetary formation in low-mass stellar environments. The volatile-rich nature of Kepler-138 c and d suggests that water worlds may constitute a portion of the super-Earth population, though recent analyses suggest that water worlds may be less common, with water mass fractions typically ≲3% at the population level, highlighting the need for further observations to constrain their prevalence. This composition, akin to icy solar system moons, broadens exoplanet demographics by highlighting a class of planets that are difficult to detect due to their intermediate sizes and densities, yet could be present among temperate super-Earths. Transit timing variations (TTVs) in the Kepler-138 system enabled precise mass measurements for its small, non-hot-Jupiter planets, bypassing radial velocity biases that favor massive, close-in giants. By revealing the non-transiting Kepler-138 e and refining masses for c and d to ~2 Earth masses, TTVs demonstrate their utility for probing demographics of low-mass, multi-planet systems, where traditional methods often overlook sub-Neptune populations.Future observational targets
Following the identification of Kepler-138 d as a potential water world with a thick volatile envelope, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) was used in Cycle 2 under General Observer program 4098, where principal investigator Björn Benneke was awarded 82 hours of observing time to target atmospheric transmission spectra of five candidate water worlds, explicitly including Kepler-138 d, using the NIRISS/SOSS and NIRSpec/PRISM modes.[26][27] These observations, completed by 2024, aim to detect absorption features from molecules like H₂O, CO₂, and CH₄, constraining the planet's chemical diversity, atmospheric thickness, and potential for a steam-dominated envelope, while testing models of volatile retention in sub-Neptune-sized worlds; as of November 2025, analyses are ongoing.[14][28] Kepler-138 c, the cooler sibling planet with a similar low-density profile indicative of substantial water content, represented a complementary target for JWST follow-up to explore compositional gradients across the system's habitable zone planets. Paired observations of c and d could reveal whether their volatile layers differ in phase (e.g., liquid ocean vs. high-pressure ice) due to insolation contrasts, informing formation scenarios for ocean worlds around M dwarfs. Such spectra would also quantify haze or cloud opacity, critical for interpreting the flat optical-to-IR transmission observed by Hubble and Spitzer.[29] Beyond JWST, the system is a high-priority benchmark for upcoming surveys like ESA's ARIEL mission, scheduled for launch in 2029, which will systematically characterize exoplanet atmospheres in the infrared. Kepler-138's compact, multi-planet architecture and bright host star (V=12.2 mag) make it an ideal ARIEL target for statistical studies of water-rich demographics, though specific inclusion awaits the mission's reference sample finalization.[30] Ground-based extremely large telescopes, such as the ELT, may enable high-precision radial velocity monitoring to refine orbital dynamics and masses, potentially confirming the non-transiting Kepler-138 e and assessing tidal interactions.[1]References
- https://science.[nasa](/page/NASA).gov/exoplanet-catalog/kepler-138-e/