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Krypton-85
Krypton-85
Krypton-85
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Krypton-85
General
Symbol85Kr
Nameskrypton-85
Protons (Z)36
Neutrons (N)49
Nuclide data
Half-life (t1/2)10.728 years
Isotope mass84.9125273(21) Da
Spin9/2+
Excess energy−81480.267 keV
Binding energy8698.562 keV
Decay products85Rb
Decay modes
Decay modeDecay energy (MeV)
Beta decay0.687
Beta decay0.173
Isotopes of krypton
Complete table of nuclides

Krypton-85 (85Kr) is a radioisotope of krypton, distributed throughout the atmosphere and presently forming about 15 ppt of atmospheric krypton on average.

Krypton-85 has a half-life of 10.728 years and a maximum decay energy of 687 keV.[1] It decays into stable rubidium-85. Its most common decay (99.57%) is by beta particle emission with a maximum energy of 687 keV and an average energy of 251 keV. The second most common decay (0.43%) is by beta particle emission (maximum energy of 173 keV) followed by gamma ray emission (energy of 514 keV). Other decay modes have very small probabilities and emit less energetic gamma rays.[2] Krypton-85 is mostly synthetic, though it is produced naturally in trace quantities by cosmic ray spallation.

In terms of radiotoxicity, 440 Bq of 85Kr is equivalent to 1 Bq of radon-222, without considering the rest of the radon decay chain.

Presence in Earth's atmosphere

[edit]
Medium-lived fission products
Nuclide t1⁄2 Yield Q[a 1] βγ
(a) (%)[a 2] (keV)
155Eu  4.74   0.0803[a 3] 252 βγ
85Kr 10.73   0.2180[a 4] 687 βγ
113mCd 13.9    0.0008[a 3] 316 β
90Sr 28.91 4.505     2826[a 5] β
137Cs 30.04 6.337     1176 βγ
121mSn 43.9  0.00005   390 βγ
151Sm 94.6  0.5314[a 3] 77 β
  1. ^ Decay energy is split among β, neutrino, and γ if any.
  2. ^ Per 65 thermal neutron fissions of 235U and 35 of 239Pu.
  3. ^ a b c Neutron poison; in thermal reactors, most is destroyed by further neutron capture.
  4. ^ Less than 1/4 of mass-85 fission products as most bypass ground state: 85Br → 85mKr → 85Rb.
  5. ^ Has decay energy 546 keV; its decay product 90Y has decay energy 2.28 MeV with weak gamma branching.

Natural production

[edit]

Krypton-85 is produced in small quantities by the interaction of cosmic rays with stable krypton-84 in the atmosphere. Natural sources maintain an equilibrium inventory of about 0.09 PBq in the atmosphere.[3]

Anthropogenic production

[edit]

As of 2009, the total amount in the atmosphere is estimated at 5500 PBq due to anthropogenic sources.[4] At the end of the year 2000, it was estimated to be 4800 PBq,[3] and in 1973, an estimated 1961 PBq (53 megacuries).[5] The most important of these human sources is nuclear fuel reprocessing, as krypton-85 is one of the seven common medium-lived fission products.[3][4][5] Nuclear fission produces about three atoms of krypton-85 for every 1000 fissions (i.e., it has a fission yield of 0.3%).[6] Most or all of this krypton-85 is retained in the spent nuclear fuel rods; spent fuel on discharge from a reactor contains between 0.13–1.8 PBq/Mg of krypton-85.[3] Some of this spent fuel is reprocessed. Current nuclear reprocessing releases the gaseous 85Kr into the atmosphere when the spent fuel is dissolved. It would be possible in principle to capture and store this krypton gas as nuclear waste or for use. The cumulative global amount of krypton-85 released from reprocessing activity has been estimated as 10,600 PBq as of 2000.[3] The global inventory noted above is smaller than this amount due to radioactive decay; a smaller fraction is dissolved into the deep oceans.[3]

Other man-made sources are small contributors to the total. Atmospheric nuclear weapons tests released an estimated 111–185 PBq.[3] The 1979 accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant released about 1.6 PBq (43 kCi).[7] The Chernobyl accident released about 35 PBq,[3][4] and the Fukushima Daiichi accident released an estimated 44–84 PBq.[8]

The average atmospheric concentration of krypton-85 was approximately 0.6 Bq/m3 in 1976, and has increased to approximately 1.3 Bq/m3 as of 2005.[3][9] These are approximate global average values; concentrations are higher locally around nuclear reprocessing facilities, and are generally higher in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere.

For wide-area atmospheric monitoring, krypton-85 is the best indicator for clandestine plutonium separations.[10]

Krypton-85 releases increase the electrical conductivity of atmospheric air. Meteorological effects are expected to be stronger closer to the source of the emissions.[11]

Uses in industry

[edit]

Krypton-85 is used in arc discharge lamps commonly used in the entertainment industry for large HMI film lights as well as high-intensity discharge lamps.[12][13][14][15][16] The presence of krypton-85 in discharge tube of the lamps can make the lamps easy to ignite.[13] Early experimental krypton-85 lighting developments included a railroad signal light designed in 1957[17] and an illuminated highway sign erected in Arizona in 1969.[18] A 60 μCi (2.22 MBq) capsule of krypton-85 was used by the random number server HotBits (an allusion to the radioactive element being a quantum mechanical source of entropy), but was replaced with a 5 μCi (185 kBq) Cs-137 source in 1998.[19][20]

Krypton-85 is also used to inspect aircraft components for small defects. Krypton-85 is allowed to penetrate small cracks, and then its presence is detected by autoradiography. The method is called "krypton gas penetrant imaging".[21] The gas penetrates smaller openings than the liquids used in dye penetrant inspection and fluorescent penetrant inspection.[22]

Krypton-85 was used in cold-cathode voltage regulator electron tubes, such as the type 5651.[23]

Krypton-85 is also used for Industrial Process Control mainly for thickness and density measurements as an alternative to Sr-90 or Cs-137.[24][25]

Krypton-85 is also used as a charge neutralizer in aerosol sampling systems.[26]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Krypton-85

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Krypton-85 (⁸⁵Kr) is a radioactive of the , characterized by a of 10.76 years and decay via beta emission to stable rubidium-85, with maximum beta energy of 0.67 MeV. Primarily produced through fission of and in nuclear reactors, it occurs naturally in trace amounts from interactions but reaches significant concentrations anthropogenically via fuel reprocessing and atmospheric releases from nuclear facilities. As an inert, non-reactive gas, Krypton-85 functions as an environmental tracer for atmospheric mixing, dating in the 5–50 year range, and verification of nuclear non-proliferation through detection of reprocessing signatures. Its global atmospheric inventory, steadily rising since the mid-20th century due to commercial nuclear operations, enables precise quantification of fission-derived emissions while posing minimal direct radiological hazard owing to soft and dilution in air. Industrial applications include , standards, and self-luminous , though releases remain the dominant source over intentional production.

Nuclear and Physical Properties

Isotope Characteristics

Krypton-85 (^{85}Kr) is a radioactive of the element , atomic number 36, with mass number 85. It possesses a of 10.76 years, corresponding to a decay constant of approximately 2.04 × 10^{-9} s^{-1}. This relatively long among fission products distinguishes it from shorter-lived krypton isotopes, enabling persistence in environmental systems. The isotope undergoes pure beta-minus decay to stable rubidium-85 (^{85}Rb), with nearly all (99.57%) transitions to the . The emitted beta particles have a maximum energy of 0.687 MeV and an average energy of 0.25 MeV. A minor branch (0.43%) leads to an of ^{85}Rb, accompanied by a 514 keV , but this emission is negligible for most detection and purposes. As an of the krypton, ^{85}Kr is chemically inert, exhibiting no significant reactivity or compound formation under ambient conditions due to its stable . It displays low in (Ostwald around 0.05–0.06 at 37°C) but higher solubility in lipid-rich biological tissues and , with partition coefficients favoring non-aqueous phases. These properties facilitate its while allowing limited dissolution in aqueous and organic media.

Decay and Radiation Emissions

Krypton-85 undergoes primarily through beta minus (β⁻) emission, with 99.56% of decays producing a β⁻ particle of maximum energy 687.1 keV (average energy approximately 251 keV) leading to stable rubidium-85, and a minor branch of 0.44% involving a lower-energy β⁻ of 173.1 keV followed by gamma emission at 514 keV. No or emissions occur in its , resulting in negligible contributions from those types. The β⁻ particles from krypton-85 pose risks primarily for external exposure and skin contamination, as their energies allow penetration of outer tissue layers but limited deeper absorption. Associated bremsstrahlung X-rays arise from the deceleration of these β⁻ particles in matter, producing a continuum of low-energy photons that can contribute to external dose, alongside the weak gamma component from the minor decay branch. Beta particles of this energy range exhibit a maximum penetration distance of approximately 1 meter in air, attenuating rapidly in denser media such as thin plastic (about 2 mm sufficient for absorption). Detection of krypton-85 emissions typically relies on beta counting techniques, which measure the ionizing tracks or pulses from β⁻ interactions in gas-filled or scintillation detectors. For trace atmospheric levels, advanced methods like atom trap trace analysis (ATTA) enable isotope-specific counting by laser-cooling and trapping individual metastable atoms, achieving sensitivities down to 10⁻¹⁴ molar ratios as demonstrated in micro-liter sample analyses. These approaches exploit the properties of krypton-85 for selective isolation and quantification without interference from other radionuclides.

Production Mechanisms

Fission-Based Production

Krypton-85 is generated as a fission product during the thermal neutron-induced fission of and , with cumulative yields of approximately 0.273% for U-235 and lower values (40-60% reduced) for Pu-239. In nuclear reactors, this accumulates within spent assemblies, where it constitutes 0.13-1.8 PBq per megagram of heavy metal, retained primarily due to its properties and limited diffusion from the matrix during . Releases occur predominantly during the reprocessing of spent fuel via processes like , where Kr-85 is liberated in the head-end shearing and aqueous dissolution stages, with nearly complete emission to off-gas systems lacking effective retention. Atmospheric nuclear weapons tests, conducted extensively prior to the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, also produced and dispersed Kr-85 through prompt fission and fuel vaporization, contributing significantly to early anthropogenic inventories before test moratoria curtailed such yields. Emission inventories model reprocessing facilities as the dominant contemporary source, with global Kr-85 releases tied to annual spent fuel throughput at sites like and ; a 2012 update estimated cumulative emissions supporting an atmospheric burden of approximately 5500 PBq by late 2009, emphasizing dissolution inefficiencies over reactor operations. These models incorporate facility-specific data, revealing reprocessing yields exceeding those from intact fuel storage or historical testing residuals in recent decades.

Natural Versus Anthropogenic Contributions

Natural production of krypton-85 occurs primarily through of heavier atmospheric constituents in the upper atmosphere and of within the and . These processes yield trace quantities, with an estimated global natural inventory of approximately 14 curies—comprising about 10 Ci from on stable krypton isotopes and 4 Ci from fission. Such natural mechanisms maintain a pre-industrial equilibrium atmospheric burden that is orders of magnitude below modern levels. Anthropogenic sources, stemming from neutron-induced fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear reactors followed by release during spent fuel reprocessing, overwhelmingly dominate the global krypton-85 inventory. Half-century records of atmospheric air sampling reveal an exponential increase in concentrations commencing in the , rising from roughly 20 disintegrations per minute per millimole of krypton in 1950 to over 700 by the late 1970s in the , directly attributable to expanded nuclear activities. Natural contributions constitute less than 0.1% of the total inventory, underscoring the isotopic disequilibrium induced by human fission processes. Among anthropogenic origins, civilian nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities, notably at in and in the , account for approximately 90% of contemporary emissions, reflecting their role in processing commercial spent fuel for plutonium recovery and . The remaining ~10% derives from residual releases tied to legacy reprocessing programs, primarily from Cold War-era operations in the United States and , where activities have since curtailed but persist in inventory decay. This apportionment highlights the transition from -driven production in the mid-20th century to civilian predominance in ongoing inventories.

Atmospheric Occurrence and Monitoring

Krypton-85 was identified as a fission product in the , but atmospheric concentrations remained negligible prior to widespread nuclear activities, with measurements in 1949–1950 indicating levels indistinguishable from natural background radioactivity on the order of less than 0.01 Bq/m³. Significant accumulation began in the due to atmospheric , which released an estimated 111–185 PBq globally by 1962, causing rapid spikes in concentrations tied directly to test yields and dispersal patterns. Early 1960s peaks coincided with intensive testing and initial reprocessing emissions exceeding 100 PBq/year from U.S. facilities, correlating with elevated global inventories that drove average tropospheric levels to several Bq/m³ before partial decay offset. The 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty shifted dominant releases from testing to commercial and military fuel reprocessing, resulting in a post-peak decline through the late and as ( 10.76 years) outpaced new inputs temporarily. By 1973, the global atmospheric inventory stood at approximately 2,000 PBq, corresponding to average concentrations around 0.6 Bq/m³, reflecting this transitional stabilization amid growing reprocessing contributions from Soviet and Western plants emitting over 200 PBq/year at peaks like 1975. Empirical records from long-term monitoring stations in , including over 50 years of weekly sampling by German federal agencies at sites like Freiburg and , demonstrate a steady post-1970s rise correlating with expansions, particularly intensified reprocessing at () and () from the 1990s onward. These datasets show baseline increases of about 0.03 Bq/m³ per year through the late , reaching 1–2 Bq/m³ by the , underscoring the causal linkage between anthropogenic fission outputs and atmospheric buildup without confounding natural sources.

Current Global Levels and Detection Methods

As of the early , the global atmospheric concentration of averages approximately 1-2 Bq/m³, equivalent to about 10-15 parts per (ppt) relative to total atmospheric krypton. Measurements from automated sampling systems in 2023 reported values ranging from 1.15 to 1.76 Bq/m³, reflecting background levels away from local sources. Spatial variations exhibit a hemispheric gradient, with concentrations typically 20-50% higher than in the due to predominant anthropogenic releases from facilities located in the north. Detection of atmospheric krypton-85 primarily involves extraction and purification of gas from large air volumes (typically 10-100 m³), followed by quantification of its emissions. Traditional methods employ cryogenic distillation to separate , combined with for krypton isolation, and subsequent beta counting via liquid scintillation spectrometry, achieving sensitivities down to ~0.1 Bq/m³. Advanced techniques, such as atom trap trace analysis (ATTA), use and magneto-optical trapping to count individual krypton-85 atoms, enabling measurements from micro-liter krypton samples with isotopic sensitivities at the 10^{-14} level. A 2013 development refined ATTA for ultra-low in small samples, facilitating higher-throughput and atmospheric studies. Ongoing global inventories, tracked through networks like the Organization's monitoring stations, indicate a total atmospheric burden exceeding 5 petabecquerels (PBq) as of the late , with projections for 2025 anticipating modest increases of 1-2% annually from ongoing emissions, tempered by (half-life 10.76 years). These updates rely on emission modeling and direct measurements, confirming sustained low-level accumulation primarily from fission product releases in reactors and reprocessing. Recent online monitoring systems achieve hourly resolution by integrating automated cryogenic purification with ATTA, enhancing real-time detection for environmental baselines.

Applications and Uses

Industrial Applications

Krypton-85 serves as a tracer gas in industrial for sealed containers, pipelines, and systems, where its beta emissions enable highly sensitive identification of escaping atoms through or scintillation detectors. This method detects leak rates as low as 10^{-12} mbar·L/s, surpassing many non-radioactive techniques in precision for high-reliability applications. It finds commercial use in sectors such as , semiconductors, and automotive , often via pressurized soaks followed by radiation scanning. In process control, Kr-85 beta sources facilitate non-destructive thickness and gauging of low-density materials like , plastics, leather, and thin metal films by quantifying attenuation through the material. These sealed gauges, often configured in scanning frames, provide continuous inline measurements in lines, serving as alternatives to higher-energy sources like Sr-90 for thinner substrates. Kr-85's gaseous allows encapsulation in robust sources suitable for automated systems, with its 10.76-year ensuring operational longevity and reducing replacement frequency under regulated shielding protocols. Additionally, Kr-85 functions as a versatile gaseous tracer for measuring flow rates in industrial pipelines and equipment, leveraging its detectability to calibrate and validate process dynamics without invasive sensors. Historically, it has been incorporated into luminescent discharge lamps for applications like airport runway and taxiway , where beta-induced excitation produces sustained illumination, though such uses have declined with advances in non-radioactive alternatives. All deployments require adherence to standards, including to prevent unintended release.

Scientific and Research Applications

Krypton-85 serves as an effective tracer in atmospheric research due to its chemical inertness, well-characterized global dispersion from , and detectability via low-level counting or atom trap trace analysis (ATTA). Since the , researchers have utilized atmospheric Kr-85 gradients to model transport processes, including interhemispheric mixing and air mass trajectories, as demonstrated in early studies of tropospheric circulation patterns where north-south concentration differences reflected stratospheric-tropospheric exchange rates. Comprehensive datasets of Kr-85 from northern and southern hemispheres, spanning decades, enable validation of global circulation models and quantification of atmospheric residence times, with input functions reconstructed for precise simulations. In , Kr-85 is applied for dating young , particularly aquifers recharged within the past 5–50 years, by measuring its relative to stable isotopes extracted from samples. The isotope's of approximately 10.8 years aligns with post-1950s atmospheric increases from fission product releases, providing a transient signal that, when combined with piston flow or dispersion models, yields infiltration ages with uncertainties often below 2 years for samples processed via ATTA or gas proportional counting. Techniques such as in-situ and rapid Kr-85/Kr have expanded its utility, allowing high-throughput assessment of recharge dynamics in vulnerable aquifers, as validated in field studies across diverse geological settings. This method complements other transient tracers like chlorofluorocarbons, offering advantages in low-permeability environments where equilibration with atmosphere is incomplete. Kr-85 analysis aids paleoclimate reconstruction through studies, where it dates entrained air bubbles in samples younger than about 60 years or assesses modern air contamination in older cores. In blue and outflows, Kr-85 abundances versus depth profiles distinguish from Pleistocene ice, with detections as low as 10^{-15} ratios via ATTA revealing minimal modern intrusion (1–2%) in ostensibly ancient samples, thus refining chronologies for gas-phase proxies like . Combined with isotopes like 39^{39}Ar, Kr-85 profiles in deep cores constrain bubble closure ages and validate models, enhancing interpretations of rapid shifts recorded in polar archives. Research in the explored fixation of Kr-85 into solid metal matrices, such as or other alloys via or co-deposition, to enable controlled release or utilization in tracers while mitigating dispersion risks. These proposals aimed at concentrations exceeding 1% by volume in stable matrices, leveraging the isotope's for or labeling applications, though primarily studied for immobilization feasibility under repository conditions. Experimental matrices demonstrated retention over simulated decay periods, informing long-term management strategies derived from fission yields projected to accumulate gigacuries by the .

Health, Environmental, and Regulatory Aspects

Exposure Pathways and

Krypton-85, a beta-emitting , primarily exposes humans through immersion in airborne plumes from atmospheric releases, such as those from reprocessing stacks or effluents. As it does not adsorb to surfaces or accumulate in biological tissues, exposure pathways exclude ingestion or direct dermal contact, focusing instead on and external during transit through contaminated air. leads to temporary internal distribution in the lungs and bloodstream, but rapid exhalation limits committed internal dose compared to external contributions. Dosimetry emphasizes external beta radiation to the skin as the dominant mechanism, with the beta particles (maximum energy 687 keV) depositing energy directly in superficial tissues during cloud submersion. Gamma emission (514 keV, yield ~0.43%) contributes negligibly to cloud immersion due to its low intensity and attenuation in air. Models approximate the exposure geometry as a semi-infinite cloud, calculating skin dose from the beta flux equilibrium: dose rate equals the product of radionuclide concentration, beta emission rate, average particle energy, and tissue absorption factors, yielding external skin equivalents without deep penetration. At global ambient concentrations of approximately 1 Bq/m³, annual skin doses range from 0.05 to 0.1 mrem, derived from measured levels yielding ~0.4-0.55 µSv/year to exposed surfaces. Near reprocessing facilities, plume dispersions elevate local concentrations, with projections estimating up to 45 mrad/year to under historical release scenarios. For accident releases, such as the 1979 Three Mile Island Unit 2 event, where including Kr-85 (part of 2.4-10 million Ci total release) vented from containment, assessments incorporated beta contributions within offsite maximums exceeding 100 mrem whole-body equivalents, though Kr-85-specific metrics were secondary to gamma-dominant . Ecosystem exposure mirrors human pathways, with biota subject to beta immersion in plumes, but rapid atmospheric dilution minimizes persistent environmental doses absent enclosed systems. Thermoluminescent dosimeters validate models by directly measuring beta fluxes in Kr-85 atmospheres, confirming calculable external doses under infinite cloud criteria without reliance on internal organ weighting.

Risk Assessments and Empirical Data

Empirical assessments of risks from atmospheric Krypton-85 (Kr-85) exposure indicate negligible lifetime cancer incidence, with global population doses yielding risks below 10^{-6} per EPA-derived models accounting for beta immersion and pathways. The primary exposure mechanism involves external beta radiation from gas clouds, supplemented by brief deposition during , as Kr-85's properties result in rapid with minimal systemic uptake. Dose-response analyses, incorporating linear no-threshold assumptions, project annual effective doses to the public from cumulative anthropogenic releases at approximately 0.0022 μSv, far below the 0.25 mSv/yr regulatory limit for members of the public. Site-specific monitoring at major release points, such as the , demonstrates public doses from Kr-85 emissions in 2021 at levels contributing less than 6% to total radiological impact, with no exceedances of limits and no documented adverse health outcomes attributable to Kr-85 in surrounding populations. Similarly, 1970s EPA reviews of projected reprocessing releases estimated occupational lifetime fatal cancer risks at 0.02-0.027 cases per facility cohort, and general public risks at 0.017, underscoring doses orders of magnitude below thresholds for deterministic effects like skin , which require absorbed doses exceeding 2-5 Gy. Ecological risk evaluations reveal no verifiable impacts, as Kr-85's physical decay and atmospheric dilution preclude bioaccumulation or significant ionizing effects on biota at ambient concentrations; hypotheses of atmospheric ionization altering weather patterns remain unproven by empirical data, with conductivity increases deemed minor relative to natural variability. Long-term surveillance data from facilities like Hanford and La Hague confirm absence of elevated mutation rates or ecosystem disruptions linked to Kr-85, aligning with its classification as low-radiotoxicity due to pure beta emission (0.672 MeV max) and half-life of 10.76 years.

Comparisons to Natural Radiation Sources

The contribution of atmospheric krypton-85 to human is negligible when compared to natural background sources. Global average concentrations of krypton-85 in the atmosphere have stabilized around 1 to 1.3 Bq/m³ as of the early 2000s, primarily from reprocessing and reactor operations. This yields an estimated annual effective whole-body dose of less than 0.007 µSv (or 0.0007 mrem), based on immersion models accounting for beta emission and minimal penetration. In contrast, the worldwide average annual effective dose from natural radiation sources is approximately 2.4 mSv, with over 85% attributable to naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and cosmic rays. Radon-222 inhalation from soil and building materials dominates, contributing about 1.2 mSv/year (50% of total background), followed by cosmic at 0.39 mSv/year (including 0.30 mSv at and additional contributions from altitude), and terrestrial gamma rays from isotopes like and series at around 0.48 mSv/year. Internal exposure from radionuclides such as adds roughly 0.17 mSv/year. Thus, the krypton-85 dose represents less than 0.0003% of typical natural background exposure, underscoring its insignificant radiological impact relative to ubiquitous natural sources that vary regionally (e.g., higher in granite-rich areas or cosmic doses at high elevations exceeding 1 mSv/year). Empirical assessments, including those from facilities, confirm no detectable effects attributable to ambient krypton-85 levels, even amid historical releases exceeding current inventories. For , post-Fukushima atmospheric spikes in krypton-85 resulted in external effective doses below 0.01 µSv, far below daily natural fluctuations.

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