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Lamnidae
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Lamnidae
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Mackerel sharks
Temporal range: Upper Cretaceous–recent [1]
Great white shark
Carcharodon carcharias
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Division: Selachii
Order: Lamniformes
Family: Lamnidae
J. P. Müller and Henle, 1838
Extant genera
Extinct genera; see text

The Lamnidae are the family of mackerel sharks known as white sharks.[2] They are large, fast-swimming predatory fish found in oceans worldwide, though they prefer environments with colder water. The name of the family is formed from the Greek word lamna, which means "fish of prey", and was derived from the Greek legendary creature, the Lamia.[3]

These sharks have pointed snouts, spindle-shaped bodies, and large gill openings. The first dorsal fin is large, high, stiff and angular or somewhat rounded. The second dorsal and anal fins are minute. The caudal peduncle has a couple of less distinct keels. The teeth are gigantic. The fifth gill opening is in front of the pectoral fin and spiracles are sometimes absent. They are powerful, heavily built sharks, sometimes weighing nearly twice as much as other sharks of comparable length from other families. Many sharks in the family are among the fastest-swimming fish, although the massive great white shark is slower due to its large size.

Genera and species

[edit]

The family contains five living species in three genera and these selected extinct genera and species:[1]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lamnidae

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from Grokipedia
Lamnidae Bonaparte, 1835, commonly known as the mackerel sharks, is a family of large, fast-swimming predatory sharks in the order Lamniformes, distinguished by their regional endothermy that allows elevated temperatures in key muscles and organs for enhanced performance. These sharks possess pointed snouts, spindle-shaped bodies, large triangular teeth with serrated edges, prominent first dorsal fins, reduced second dorsal and anal fins, and a strong caudal keel, adaptations suited to active, pelagic lifestyles. Distributed worldwide in coastal and open ocean waters from tropical to subpolar regions, primarily in the upper water column, the family comprises three genera—Carcharodon, Isurus, and Lamna—totaling five extant species, including the iconic great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus). Members of Lamnidae are ovoviviparous, with females giving birth to litters of 1 to 17 pups after internal development, often involving , in which the embryos consume unfertilized eggs produced by the mother. They are apex or mesopredators, feeding on , cephalopods, marine mammals, and seabirds, with some like the known for occasional attacks on humans, though such incidents are rare. Their fossil record traces back to the or early Eocene, following the diversification of lamniform sharks in the , highlighting a long evolutionary history of adapting to marine ecosystems. Today, many face conservation challenges due to , , and degradation, with populations of the (Carcharodon carcharias), (Lamna nasus), shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus), and longfin mako (Isurus paucus) listed as vulnerable or endangered by the IUCN as of 2025.

Taxonomy

Etymology and history

The family name Lamnidae derives from the genus Lamna, which originates from the Ancient Greek word lámna (λάμνα), meaning a voracious or , possibly linked to laimós (devourer or glutton) and evoking the predatory nature of these mackerel sharks. This etymological root reflects the family's characteristic large, active predators with powerful jaws. The name was first established as a family-group by in 1835, grouping sharks previously classified under broader categories. Early scientific recognition of lamnid sharks began in the with Carl Linnaeus's description of the as Squalus carcharias in 1758, placing it within the catch-all genus for cartilaginous fishes; this species was later reassigned to and recognized as a key lamnid member. In the , and (often cited as Müller and Henle) advanced classifications through their multi-volume work Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen (1839–1841), detailing anatomy and erecting genera like (with Andrew Smith as author in 1838) and refining the family's boundaries based on skeletal and dental traits. These efforts solidified Lamnidae as a distinct group within the order , distinguishing it from other families by features such as conical snouts and regional endothermy. Twentieth-century studies refined lamnid taxonomy through integration of fossil records, revealing evolutionary links to ancient mackerel sharks dating back to the (around 100 million years ago), with major radiations in the and Eocene. Paleontological work, including descriptions of extinct genera like Cosmopolitodus (Glikman ), highlighted transitions from broad-toothed ancestors to modern forms, supported by vertebral and dental s from sites like the in . Ichthyologist contributed significantly to distinguishing genera, such as through his comprehensive classifications in The Fishes of North and Middle America (1896, with Barton W. Evermann), which clarified relationships among , , and based on North American specimens and early correlations. These milestones shifted focus from morphological descriptions to phylogenetic contexts, establishing Lamnidae's deep-time origins within .

Classification

Lamnidae belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class , subclass , order , and family Lamnidae. This hierarchical placement reflects its position among cartilaginous fishes, specifically within the diverse group of mackerel sharks characterized by active predatory lifestyles. Phylogenetic analyses, including molecular studies using mitochondrial genes such as , NADH2, and COI, confirm the of Lamnidae and its close relationships to other families like Odontaspididae and . These studies, combining morphological and genetic data via , position Lamnidae as part of a derived within the order, with evidence from indicating divergence among lamniform lineages around 140 million years ago during the . The family's is further supported by shared traits, such as elevated density of , which enhance electrosensory capabilities in this group compared to more basal elasmobranchs. Lamnidae lacks formal subfamilies, with its three genera—Carcharodon, Isurus, and Lamna—grouped directly under the family based on consistent phylogenetic support across datasets. Debates on internal groupings focus on the robustness of rather than subdivision, emphasizing unified evolutionary origins tied to lamniform adaptations for open-ocean predation.

Physical characteristics

Anatomy

Members of the Lamnidae family exhibit a , spindle-shaped body adapted for efficient cruising, characterized by a pointed and robust, hydrodynamic form that minimizes drag during sustained swimming. They possess five pairs of large slits, with the fifth positioned anterior to the pectoral fin base, facilitating enhanced oxygen uptake in active predators. The configuration includes a prominent first that is large, triangular, and erect, originating over or slightly posterior to the pectoral fin bases, while the second is notably smaller and positioned closer to the caudal fin. Dentition in Lamnidae is specialized for grasping and tearing prey, featuring large, triangular teeth with serrated edges and single, prominent cusps that replace continuously in multiple rows. Tooth morphology varies across genera; for instance, in , the teeth are broader and more robust with coarser serrations suited to bone-crushing bites. This heterodont pattern, known as the "lamnoid tooth pattern," includes enlarged separated by smaller intermediates, enhancing feeding efficiency. The fins and propulsion system emphasize speed and maneuverability, with broad, pointed pectoral fins providing lift and stability during turns. The caudal fin is lunate, featuring upper and lower lobes of similar length and a distinct ventral notch, supported by strong lateral keels on the caudal peduncle that reduce and amplify for powerful . In many , the caudal fin adopts a lunate shape, optimizing for thunniform with high-speed bursts. Sensory adaptations in Lamnidae include well-developed , a network of electroreceptive pores concentrated around the head that detect weak bioelectric fields from prey, even in turbid waters. They possess large eyes with a for enhanced low-light vision, and notably lack a , relying instead on a subocular ledge or pocket for eye protection during feeding. Spiracles are often reduced or absent, underscoring reliance on ram ventilation over buccal pumping.

Size and coloration

Members of the Lamnidae family, known as mackerel sharks, exhibit adult sizes ranging from approximately 2 to 6 meters in total length, reflecting their diverse ecological roles as apex predators. For instance, the (Carcharodon carcharias) reaches a maximum recorded length of 6.4 meters. is common throughout the family, with females attaining larger sizes than males, often by 20-50% in maximum length. Growth in Lamnidae is notably rapid during the juvenile phase, supporting their transition to predatory lifestyles in open oceans. Tag-and-recapture studies indicate early growth rates of 20-30 cm per year; juvenile sharks (Lamna nasus), for example, grow at 16-20 cm annually for the first few years, while young sharks achieve about 25 cm per year in their initial 5-6 years. These rates slow with maturity, aligning with the family's endothermic that enables high metabolic demands. Coloration in Lamnidae follows a typical countershading pattern, with metallic blue-gray hues dominating the dorsal and lateral surfaces, fading sharply to white on the ventral side to reduce visibility against ocean backgrounds. This adaptation enhances camouflage for ambush predation, as the dark upper body merges with deeper waters when viewed from above, and the pale underside matches surface light from below. Species in the genus Lamna, such as the porbeagle and salmon shark, often display darker tones, with bluish-gray to near-black dorsally and white ventrally marked by occasional dark patches.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The family Lamnidae, comprising mackerel , exhibits a global oceanic distribution primarily in temperate and subtropical waters across all major ocean basins, spanning latitudes from approximately 60°N to 60°S. These are predominantly found in the epipelagic zone over continental shelves and open oceans, with occurrences in the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Southern Oceans. While some species show regional , others have broad, overlapping ranges that reflect the family's to mid-latitude marine environments. Specific distributional patterns vary among genera and species. The porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) is primarily distributed in the North Atlantic, from , to , in the west, and from to , including the Mediterranean, in the east, though vagrant records extend to the Southwest Pacific ( and ), Southeast Pacific (), ( and ), and . In contrast, the (Lamna ditropis) is confined to the North Pacific, ranging from and the through the southward to , and . The shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) and (Carcharodon carcharias) both display circumglobal distributions in temperate and subtropical waters, with the mako occurring from to in the Atlantic, to in the Indo-Pacific, and the to in the western Atlantic, while the great white is recorded worldwide in coastal and offshore habitats from to in the Pacific and the to in the . Migration patterns within Lamnidae are often seasonal and linked to oceanographic features, facilitating access to prey-rich areas. For instance, shortfin makos undertake extensive movements along warm currents such as the , traveling between the western North Atlantic and the , as revealed by tagging efforts initiated in the early 2000s. These tagging studies, employing pop-up archival tags since around 2000, have documented similar migratory behaviors in other lamnids, including transoceanic journeys by great whites and north-south shifts by porbeagles in response to temperature gradients. Such patterns underscore the family's dynamic spatial across their ranges. Climate change is influencing Lamnidae distributions, with warming oceans causing poleward shifts and delays in seasonal migrations for species such as the shortfin mako and in the North Atlantic, as documented in studies up to 2025.

Habitat preferences

Members of the Lamnidae family exhibit a predominantly pelagic , primarily inhabiting the epipelagic zone from the surface to approximately 200 m depth, though they are capable of diving to depths exceeding 1,000 m during foraging or migration. This vertical distribution allows them to exploit prey resources across the , with species like the shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) showing a preference for the layer where gradients are pronounced. For instance, salmon sharks (Lamna ditropis) spend over 70% of their time shallower than 50 m, but routinely descend to 800 m or more in waters. Temperature preferences vary by , generally from 5–10°C for cold-temperate species like the and to 15–25°C for subtropical species like the shortfin mako, supporting their high metabolic demands and endothermic physiology. Tolerances across the family extend from about 2°C to 27°C. The ( carcharias), for example, favors 10–14°C in coastal habitats such as nearshore , with tolerances extending to 4–27°C across habitats, including cooler waters during some offshore excursions. Similarly, sharks () are most commonly associated with temperatures of 5–10°C in the northwest Atlantic, reflecting their adaptation to cooler temperate realms. Habitat use varies between coastal and oceanic realms, particularly by life stage, with juveniles often favoring nearshore shelf environments while adults shift to more offshore, open-ocean conditions. Juvenile sharks, for instance, aggregate in shallow, nearshore nurseries along the coast, such as the , where depths are typically under 50 m and productivity supports growth. In contrast, adults of the same species migrate to pelagic waters hundreds of kilometers offshore, avoiding shallow coastal zones post-maturity. Lamnids generally avoid polar ice-covered regions and hypersaline environments, confining their ranges to temperate and subtropical oceanic waters with salinities around 34–35 ppt. Adaptations to these habitats include regional endothermy, which enables tolerance of fluctuating salinities within typical marine ranges and low-oxygen conditions at depth through efficient oxygen-binding hemoglobins and countercurrent heat exchangers. This physiological trait, present across the family, allows species like the to maintain body temperatures up to 21°C above ambient, facilitating dives into colder, deeper layers without . Such endothermy also supports sustained activity in variable oxygen environments, as seen in makos navigating oxygen minimum zones during vertical migrations.

Biology and behavior

Feeding and diet

Members of the Lamnidae family are apex predators occupying high trophic positions in marine ecosystems, typically at levels 4 to 5, where they exert top-down control on prey populations. Their diet is predominantly composed of fishes such as tunas, herrings, and salmons, alongside cephalopods like squids, with larger individuals incorporating marine mammals including seals and sea lions. For instance, shortfin makos (Isurus oxyrinchus) frequently consume tunas and squids, while great whites (Carcharodon carcharias) target seals as a key prey item. Lamnids employ predation strategies, relying on sudden bursts of speed reaching up to 40 km/h to surprise and capture agile prey, often launching breaching attacks from below the surface. Their features serrated, triangular teeth adapted for slicing through flesh and holding onto fast-escaping victims, facilitating efficient prey dismemberment. Regional endothermy in these supports sustained high-speed pursuits, enhancing their effectiveness as active hunters. Stable isotope analyses reveal ontogenetic shifts in diet, with juveniles primarily consuming fishes and cephalopods at lower trophic levels (around 4), while larger adults transition to higher-trophic marine mammals, elevating their position to 4.5 or above. This progression, documented in species like the through vertebral isotope profiles, underscores adaptive changes that align with increasing body size and energy demands across the family.

Reproduction and development

Members of the Lamnidae family exhibit ovoviviparous reproduction, in which embryos develop internally within the mother's and are nourished without a direct placental connection, resulting in live birth. This mode is characterized by aplacental , where fertilized eggs hatch inside the , and developing young rely on unfertilized eggs () or, in some cases, siblings (adelphophagy) for sustenance. For instance, in the ( carcharias), embryos are initially supported by a lipid-rich uterine fluid known as histotroph during early , transitioning to as additional eggs are ovulated into the . Litter sizes typically range from 2 to 14 pups, varying by species and maternal size; great whites produce 2–10 offspring, while shortfin makos (Isurus oxyrinchus) can have 4–25. Sexual maturity in Lamnidae is generally delayed, occurring between 12 and 26 years of age, reflecting their slow growth and long lifespan, which contributes to low reproductive output. Males reach maturity earlier than females in most species; for example, porbeagle sharks (Lamna nasus) mature at approximately 8 years for males and 13 years for females, while great whites do so at approximately 26 years for males and 33 years for females (as determined by a 2015 study). Maturity ages can vary by population; for great whites in the northeastern Pacific, estimates align with the 26/33-year figures from Atlantic studies. Breeding cycles are often biennial or longer, with periods lasting 9–18 months; porbeagles have an annual cycle with 8–9 months , whereas shortfin makos exhibit a three-year cycle including 15–18 months of . During , males insert via paired claspers, often leaving bite marks on females as a result of aggressive , which has been observed across lamnids like the (Lamna ditropis). Embryonic development in Lamnidae involves rapid intrauterine growth facilitated by cannibalistic nutrition. In species such as the and , dominates, with embryos hatching from yolk sacs at 3–6 cm and consuming unfertilized eggs to reach birth sizes of 50–100 cm; early embryos develop functional teeth to aid in egg ingestion. Shortfin mako embryos similarly practice , with yolk stomach contents comprising up to 29% of body mass initially, but evidence of teeth in stomachs suggests potential adelphophagy, where stronger siblings consume weaker ones after egg supplies dwindle. Gestation concludes with live birth, typically one to several pups per , ensuring high initial survival through large neonate size despite small litter numbers.

Physiology

Lamnid sharks, members of the family Lamnidae, possess remarkable physiological adaptations that enable them to thrive in diverse marine environments, particularly through regional endothermy. This form of partial endothermy allows specific tissues, such as the red swimming muscles, cranial region, and viscera, to maintain temperatures elevated above ambient water levels, typically exceeding 3°C and often reaching 10–15°C warmer in core areas. The key mechanism involves intricate vascular networks called rete mirabile, which function as countercurrent heat exchangers to conserve metabolic heat generated by oxidative muscle activity and organ metabolism. For instance, the suprahepatic rete mirabile in the liver retains warmth in visceral organs like the intestine, optimizing digestion and nutrient absorption in cooler waters. These adaptations enhance muscle efficiency, supporting sustained high-speed pursuits and burst swimming critical for their predatory lifestyle. Their elevated metabolic rates further underscore these endothermic traits, with lamnids exhibiting some of the highest oxygen consumption among elasmobranchs to fuel heat production and activity. Species like the shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) display standard metabolic rates around 240 mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ at 16°C, while maximum rates can reach 541 mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹ during intense swimming, reflecting their aerobic capacity. This high demand is met by large surface areas with extensive lamellae, facilitating efficient oxygen extraction as obligate ram ventilators. Complementing this, lamnids employ -based , retaining high plasma urea levels (often over 350 mM) via the ornithine-urea cycle in the liver, low permeability, and renal reabsorption mechanisms. This strategy maintains near-neutral without a , reducing energy costs for locomotion by countering osmotic water loss and providing lift through dissolved solutes like urea and trimethylamine oxide. Sensory physiology in Lamnidae is equally specialized, enhancing detection of prey and environmental cues. Their olfactory system is highly acute, capable of detecting blood at concentrations as low as 1 part per million (ppm), allowing them to sense injured prey from hundreds of meters away in turbulent waters. This sensitivity arises from enlarged olfactory organs with numerous lamellae that increase surface area for odorant binding. Additionally, the lateral line system, comprising fluid-filled canals lined with neuromast sensory cells along the body flanks, detects subtle pressure changes and vibrations from distances of about 1-3 meters, aiding in navigation, schooling, and localizing odor plumes during hunts. These sensory capabilities integrate with endothermic efficiency to support precise, energy-intensive foraging behaviors.

Genera and species

Carcharodon

The genus Carcharodon comprises a single extant species, , commonly known as the , recognized for its status as one of the largest predatory sharks in the family Lamnidae. This species exhibits robust morphology adapted for ambush predation, featuring a streamlined body, powerful caudal fin, and serrated triangular teeth up to 7 cm in height, which facilitate cutting through tough prey such as marine mammals. Carcharodon carcharias attains a maximum total length of approximately 6.4 , with verified records supporting lengths up to 6 and weights reaching 2,268 kg, though exceptional claims extend to 7 based on historical but unverified captures. Females typically grow larger than males, maturing at 4–5 , while males mature at 3.5–4.1 , reflecting that influences reproductive strategies. The has a cosmopolitan distribution in coastal and shelf waters of temperate and subtropical regions worldwide, including the northeastern and southwestern Atlantic, , eastern and western North Pacific, and southern oceans around , , and . It prefers water temperatures between 12–24°C, often inhabiting nearshore areas up to 200 m deep but capable of diving to over 1,200 m during migrations. Ecologically, C. carcharias functions as an , primarily targeting marine mammals such as pinnipeds, cetaceans, and occasionally sea turtles, using a "bite-and-spit" strategy to test and dismember prey. Juveniles focus on and elasmobranchs, transitioning to larger prey with maturity, which helps regulate coastal food webs by controlling populations. The undertakes long-distance migrations, including seasonal movements to aggregation sites like the "White Shark Café" in the northeastern Pacific, where individuals travel up to 2,400 km offshore for months, possibly for foraging or mating. Conservation efforts for C. carcharias have intensified since the 1990s, when many nations, including the , , and , implemented bans on targeted fisheries for fins, jaws, and meat, reducing direct exploitation. Despite these measures, the species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the due to ongoing threats from bycatch in commercial fisheries, habitat degradation, and illegal , with population declines estimated at 30–50% over three generations in some regions. International protections under Appendix II since 2002 monitor trade, while protected areas around key sites like support recovery. Fossil evidence places Carcharodon carcharias in a distinct lineage within Lamnidae, separate from the extinct Otodus megalodon. Both share a distant common ancestor in the order , but recent analyses indicate no direct descent; instead, great white sharks may have competed with late-surviving megalodons before the latter's around 3.6 million years ago. Tooth similarities reflect convergent adaptations for large prey.

Isurus

The genus Isurus includes two species of mako sharks renowned for their hydrodynamic bodies and exceptional swimming speeds, adaptations that enable them to thrive as apex predators in open environments. These species, Isurus oxyrinchus and Isurus paucus, possess a shape, large eyes for low-light hunting, and powerful tails that facilitate rapid acceleration and endurance during pursuits. Their features slender, sharply pointed teeth ideal for grasping fast-moving prey, while their endothermy allows regional warming of the body to maintain high metabolic rates in cooler waters. Isurus oxyrinchus, the shortfin mako, is the more widespread and well-studied species, attaining lengths of 3.2 to 4.5 meters and weights up to 570 kilograms in females. It holds the distinction of being the fastest , capable of burst speeds reaching 74 km/h, which aids in chasing down agile prey like and . This species occupies tropical to subtropical pelagic zones across all major oceans, often at depths from the surface to 500 meters. Its diet primarily comprises bony fishes such as mackerels and sardines, as well as and occasionally smaller sharks or cephalopods. Due to intense in commercial tuna longline fisheries, the shortfin mako is classified as Endangered (EN) on the (assessed 2018; as of 2025), with global population declines of approximately 46% over three generations. In contrast, Isurus paucus, the longfin mako, is distinguished by its elongated pectoral fins, which span nearly half the body length and likely improve lift and maneuverability during turns or in deeper waters. This adaptation correlates with observations of deeper diving behaviors, often exceeding 600 meters, compared to the shortfin's more surface-oriented habits. Rarer than its shortfin relative, the longfin mako is infrequently sighted and documented, with limited available; it shares a similar global range in warm-temperate to tropical waters but appears more restricted to deeper offshore habitats. Like the shortfin, it preys on fishes and pelagic , facing parallel threats from , though assessment data remain insufficient for precise population trends—IUCN lists it as Endangered with calls for enhanced monitoring. Both mako species demonstrate highly migratory behaviors, with 2020s acoustic and satellite tagging studies revealing transoceanic journeys spanning thousands of kilometers, such as crossings between the western Atlantic and eastern Pacific via equatorial currents. These findings underscore their to international fisheries and the need for transboundary conservation measures.

Lamna

The genus Lamna comprises two extant species of mackerel sharks adapted to temperate and cold-water environments, primarily in the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, where they exploit seasonally abundant prey in coastal and oceanic habitats. These sharks exhibit regional endothermy, enabling elevated muscle temperatures that enhance swimming performance and foraging efficiency in cooler waters below 18°C. Unlike more tropical lamnids, Lamna species prioritize piscivory on mid-trophic-level fishes, with physiological traits supporting sustained activity in nutrient-rich, stratified waters. Lamna nasus, commonly known as the , reaches a maximum total length of approximately 3.7 m, with females growing larger than males, and is noted for its robust build and occasional schooling , particularly among juveniles and during migrations. This has an Atlantic-centric distribution, ranging from subarctic to subtropical waters but preferring cold-temperate zones along continental shelves and slopes, where it undertakes seasonal movements to follow prey aggregations. Its diet consists predominantly of bony fishes such as (Clupea harengus), , and , supplemented by cephalopods and smaller elasmobranchs, reflecting opportunistic predation on schooling pelagic . Conservation efforts have addressed historical from directed fisheries and in the 1960s–1990s; the is currently assessed as Vulnerable globally by the IUCN due to past declines of up to 80% in some populations, though quota reductions and bans in regions like the Northeast Atlantic and Canadian waters have supported partial recovery since the early 2000s. Lamna ditropis, the salmon shark, inhabits the North Pacific from subarctic to temperate latitudes, favoring cool coastal and epipelagic waters where it conducts long migrations across the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea. Attaining lengths up to 3 m and weights exceeding 450 kg, it possesses a streamlined form suited for burst speeds, with endothermy providing a key advantage by maintaining red muscle temperatures up to 20°C above ambient seawater, thereby boosting metabolic rates and predatory success in frigid environments below 6°C. Its diet emphasizes salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), alongside herring, squid, and sablefish, enabling exploitation of anadromous runs in productive upwelling zones. Dietary studies using stable isotope analysis in the 2010s have revealed ontogenetic shifts toward higher-lipid prey, supporting elevated fat reserves in liver and muscle tissues that aid energy storage and buoyancy regulation in cold, oxygen-variable waters. The salmon shark is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (assessed 2018; as of 2025), due to its wide distribution and lack of major threats, though regional monitoring is recommended. Both Lamna species demonstrate adaptations to cooler niches through regional endothermy and diets rich in energy-dense prey, as evidenced by carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in tissues indicating consistent high-trophic on fatty teleosts; this contrasts with warmer-water lamnids by emphasizing sustained over explosive pursuits.

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  49. https://www.livescience.com/49874-sharks-mature-later-thought.html
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  56. https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/chemical/chemistry-and-seawater/elemental-abundance/weird-science-compare-your-sense-smell-shark-s-sense-smell
  57. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/sharks/shark-biology/
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  65. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Isurus-oxyrinchus.html
  66. https://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/62
  67. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/39341/2903170
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  72. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Lamna_nasus/
  73. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/porbeagle/
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  75. https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/sharks/bio-research/porbeagle-shark-eng.html
  76. https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=salmonshark.main
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  78. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11211/155489179
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