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This article is about the bird. For the model used for clothing, see Mannequin. For the anatomical model used in education, see Transparent Anatomical Manikin. For the village, see Manakin-Sabot, Virginia.

Manakins
Male long-tailed manakin (Chiroxiphia linearis)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Parvorder: Tyrannida
Family: Pipridae
Rafinesque, 1815
Species

Many, see text

Manakin range

The manakins are a family, Pipridae, of small suboscine passerine birds. The group contains 55 species distributed through the American tropics. The name is from Middle Dutch mannekijn "little man" (also the source of the different bird name mannikin).[1]

Description

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Manakins range in size from 7 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in) and in weight from 8 to 30 g (0.28 to 1.06 oz). Species in the genus Tyranneutes are the smallest manakins, those in the genus Antilophia are believed to be the largest (since the genus Schiffornis are no longer considered manakins). They are compact stubby birds with short tails, broad and rounded wings, and big heads. The bill is short and has a wide gap. Females and first-year males have dull green plumage; most species are sexually dichromatic in their plumage,[2] the males being mostly black with striking colours in patches,[3] and in some species having long, decorative tail or crown feathers or erectile throat feathers. In some species, males from two to four years old have a distinctive subadult plumage.[2]

The syrinx or "voicebox" is distinctive in manakins, setting them apart from the related families Cotingidae and Tyrannidae. Furthermore, it is so acutely variable within the group that genera and even species may be identified by the syrinx alone, unlike birds of most oscine families. The sounds made are whistles, trills, and buzzes.[2]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Manakins occur from southern Mexico to northern Argentina, Paraguay, and southern Brazil, and on Trinidad and Tobago as well. They are highly arboreal and are almost exclusively forest and woodland birds. Most species live in humid tropical lowlands, with a few in dry forests, river forests,[2] and the subtropical Andes.[4] Some highland species have altitudinal migrations.

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]
Pipridae

Neopelma chrysolophum – Serra do Mar tyrant-manakin

Neopelma – 4 species: tyrant-manakins

Tyranneutes – 2 species: tyrant-manakins

Chiroxiphia – 5 species with Antilophia – 2 species

Ilicura – pin-tailed manakin

Corapipo – 3 species

Masius – golden-winged manakin

Xenopipo – 2 species

Chloropipo – 2 species

Cryptopipo – green manakin

Lepidothrix – 8 species

Heterocercus – 3 species

Manacus – 4 species

Pipra – 3 species

Machaeropterus – 5 species

Ceratopipra – 5 species

Pseudopipra – white-crowned manakin

Phylogeny based on a study of the suboscines by Michael Harvey and colleagues published in 2020. The genera Chiroxiphia and Neopelma were found to be paraphyletic.[5]

Feeding

[edit]

Manakins feed in the understory on small fruit (but often remarkably large for the size of the bird[4]) including berries, and to a lesser degree, insects. Since they take fruit in flight as other species "hawk" for insects, they are believed to have evolved from insect-eating birds. Females have big territories from which they do not necessarily exclude other birds of their species, instead feeding somewhat socially. Males spend much of their time together at courtship sites. Manakins sometimes join mixed feeding flocks.[2]

Reproduction

[edit]

Many manakin species have spectacular lekking courtship rituals, which are especially elaborate in the genera Pipra and Chiroxiphia. The rituals are characterized by a unique, species-specific pattern of vocalizations and movements such as jumping, bowing, wing vibration, wing snapping, and acrobatic flight.[6] The members of the genera Machaeropterus and Manacus have heavily modified wing feathers, which they use to make buzzing and snapping sounds. Members of Manacus and Ceratopipra have superfast wing movements.[7] The ability to produce these wing movements is supported by specialized peripheral androgen receptors in the muscular tissue.[8]

Building of the nest (an open cup, generally low in vegetation), the incubation for 18 to 21 days, and care of the young for 13 to 15 days are undertaken by the female alone, since most manakins do not form stable pairs. (The helmeted manakin does form pairs, but the male's contribution is limited to defending the territory.) The normal clutch is two eggs, which are buff or dull white, marked with brown.[2]

Lekking polygyny seems to have been a characteristic of the family's original ancestor, and the associated sexual selection led to an adaptive radiation in which relationships may be traced by similarities in displays. Manakin sexual displays within these leks among the ancestral subfamily Neopelminae are the most simple, while displays among the more evolutionarily recent subfamily Piprinae are the most complex.[9] An evolutionary explanation connecting lekking to fruit-eating has been proposed.[2]

Species list

[edit]

The family Pipridae was introduced (as Pipraria) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815.[10][11] The members of the genus Schiffornis were previously placed in this family, but are now placed in Tityridae.[12]

Image Genus Living species
Pseudopipra Kirwan et al, 2016
Pipra Linnaeus, 1764
Ceratopipra Bonaparte, 1854
Lepidothrix Bonaparte, 1854
Chiroxiphia Cabanis, 1847
Ilicura L. Reichenbach, 1850
Masius Bonaparte, 1850
Corapipo Bonaparte, 1854
Manacus Brisson, 1760
Machaeropterus Hahn, 1819
Xenopipo Cabanis, 1847
Cryptopipo Ohlson et al., 2013
Chloropipo Cabanis & Heine, 1859
Heterocercus Strickland, 1850
Neopelma P.L. Sclater, 1861
Tyranneutes P.L. Sclater & Salvin, 1881

References

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Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Manakin

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Manakins (family Pipridae) are a of approximately 55 small suboscine birds endemic to the Neotropical region, characterized by their compact build, elaborate male courtship displays, and primarily frugivorous diet. These birds range in size from 7.5 to 16 cm in length and typically weigh 10–40 g, featuring stubby bodies, short tails, rounded wings, and broad bills adapted for consumption. Most species exhibit striking , with males displaying vibrant in shades of black, red, yellow, blue, or white—often with iridescent highlights—while females are predominantly dull or brown for during nesting. maturation in males can be delayed for up to four years in some species, aligning with the development of display skills. Distributed from southern through to northern , , and southern —including —manakins inhabit diverse forested environments, predominantly the understory of humid tropical lowlands, but also dry forests, riverine areas, and subtropical Andean montane forests up to 2,500 m . They are non-migratory and maintain home ranges or lek territories, with densities varying by and but typically 1–3 individuals per in optimal conditions. Diet consists mainly of small fruits and berries from plants, supplemented by and spiders captured during brief aerial sallies or from foliage; foraging occurs primarily in the morning and late afternoon, with individuals spending much of the day at leks. Vocalizations include sharp calls, whistles, and mechanical sounds produced by wing snaps, which are integral to territory defense and attraction. Manakins are best known for their polygynous , where about 84% of species form leks—communal display arenas with 4–12 males competing to attract females through acrobatic . In several genera like Chiroxiphia and Pipra, males engage in displays, such as synchronized dances or high-speed flights, where dominant "alpha" males pair with subordinates to enhance showmanship, though only alphas typically mate. Females select mates based on display quality and build cup-shaped nests alone, laying 2 eggs that they incubate and feed via regurgitation. Conservation status varies, with most species classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, but habitat loss from threatens localized populations, particularly in the and Andean foothills; several species are threatened, including the Critically Endangered Araripe manakin (Antilophia bokermanni), and ongoing monitoring is recommended for range-restricted endemics.

Taxonomy and systematics

Classification and genera

The family Pipridae is classified within the suborder of suboscine passerines in the order Passeriformes, belonging to the parvorder Tyrannida. Within this group, Pipridae forms a well-supported sister to the Cotingidae, together comprising part of the broader Tyrannida assemblage that diverged from other suboscine lineages. This phylogenetic placement has been confirmed through analyses of nuclear and sequences, highlighting shared traits such as frugivory and elaborate male displays. As of 2025, Pipridae encompasses 17 genera and 55 , all restricted to Neotropical forests. The genera vary in size and display behaviors, with diagnostic traits including compact bodies, short tails, and in . Major genera include Manacus, which comprises four of "typical" manakins with bright male coloration (often yellow or white collars) and solitary lekking; its type is Manacus vitellinus (golden-collared manakin), primarily distributed in and northern . Another key genus is Pipra (restricted to three following revisions), featuring small, berry-eating manakins with males typically black-bodied and red-crowned; the type is Pipra mentalis (red-headed manakin). The white-crowned manakin, previously in Pipra, is now placed in the monotypic genus Pseudopipra (Pseudopipra pipra). Chiroxiphia, with following the 2023 merger of Antilophia, is notable for cooperative male courtship displays involving duets and chain formations; its type is Chiroxiphia pareola (blue-backed manakin), found from to southeastern . A recent addition is the genus Protopelma (erected in 2023 for the Serra do Mar tyrant-manakin, Protopelma chrysolophum), previously classified in Neopelma. Recent taxonomic revisions in Pipridae have been driven by molecular data, particularly phylogenomic studies using ultraconserved elements and RADseq approaches. The 2023 SACC update merged the genus Antilophia (including A. bokermanni and A. galeata) into Chiroxiphia after analyses showed the former embedded within the latter , despite morphological distinctions like crest shapes. Additionally, post-2020 research on Lepidothrix refined boundaries, elevating some to full status based on , such as distinctions within the L. isidorei complex and the split of L. velutina from L. coronata. These changes reflect ongoing integration of genomic data to resolve polyphyletic groupings within the family.

Evolutionary history

The manakins (family Pipridae) are a of Neotropical suboscine passerines within the parvorder Tyrannida, with the divergence of extant Tyrannida lineages, including the ancestors of Pipridae, estimated to have occurred during the , approximately 32–25 million years ago, based on molecular clock analyses of multilocus nuclear DNA data. This early split from other suboscines reflects the ancient radiation of passerines following transatlantic dispersal from the . Subsequent diversification within Pipridae took place during the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum, around 16–12 million years ago, aligning with favorable climatic conditions that promoted speciation in humid forest environments across . Phylogenetic reconstructions from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences in the have clarified the internal structure of Pipridae, confirming its and dividing it into two principal subfamilies: Neopelminae (encompassing the "tyrant-manakins" such as Neopelma and Tyranneutes) and the more diverse Piprinae (the "true manakins"). Within Piprinae, molecular analyses support two major clades or tribes—Ilicurini (including genera like Ilicura, Corapipo, and Chiroxiphia) and Piprini (including Manacus, Pipra, and Machaeropterus)—with the initial divergence between these groups dated to approximately 12 million years ago via Bayesian methods. These genomic studies, building on earlier multilocus approaches, highlight a pattern of driven by and ecological opportunities in the Amazonian and biomes. Key evolutionary adaptations in manakins, particularly within Piprinae, center on lek-based systems and elaborate displays shaped by . Phylogenetic analyses indicate that lekking evolved early in the family's history and exhibits strong phylogenetic conservatism, with cooperative and coordinated displays arising through a series of independent events rather than repeated convergence. Bright, sexually dimorphic and mechanical sound production, such as wing-snapping generated by specialized feathers during acrobatic flights, evolved convergently 5–6 times across lineages, likely as exaggerated signals to attract females and outcompete rivals in dense forest understories. These traits, including short broad-frequency pulses from modified feathers, represent high-impact innovations under intersexual selection, enhancing in polygynous systems. The fossil record of Pipridae remains sparse, with no definitive South American deposits identified to date, reflecting the generally poor preservation of small bones. However, an early (ca. 30 million years ago) specimen from , NT-LBR-014, represents the earliest known stem-Tyrannida form and exhibits morphological resemblances to modern piprids, such as a reduced triangular anteorbital and potential crest-like features akin to those in genera like Antilophia and Xenopipo, suggesting plesiomorphic traits shared with manakin ancestors. This European fossil underscores the deep evolutionary roots of Tyrannida prior to their full Neotropical radiation.

Physical description

Morphology and plumage

Manakins (family Pipridae) are small birds characterized by a compact body structure, typically measuring 7 to 15 cm in length and weighing 8 to 30 g, with variations across the approximately 55 . Their build features a relatively large head, short neck, and stout body, contributing to a rounded overall appearance that facilitates maneuverability in confined spaces. The wings are short and rounded, promoting agile, rapid flight, while the tail is notably brief and often squared or slightly rounded, aiding in quick turns and stability during foraging or navigation. Plumage in manakins varies significantly by sex and age, but generally, males exhibit vibrant hues derived from a combination of and mechanisms. Carotenoids produce reds, oranges, and yellows through dietary incorporation and metabolic modification, as seen in species like the golden-headed manakin (Ceratopipra erythrocephala), where derivatives create golden tones. , arising from feather nanostructures such as dense barbs that scatter light, generates iridescent blues, violets, and blacks without relying on , as demonstrated in Lepidothrix manakins. Females, in contrast, possess duller olive-green to brown for , often lacking the structural complexity of males. Molting occurs annually, with juveniles starting in female-like green and males gradually acquiring brighter adult colors over one to several years, sometimes delaying full maturation until their third year in species like the green manakin (Cryptopipo holochlora). in is evident, with males' bold patterns contrasting females' subdued ones, though specifics vary by species and are further explored in dedicated sections. The bill of manakins is short, broad, and slightly hooked at the tip, adapted for grasping and consuming small fruits and berries, their primary diet. This morphology allows efficient handling of soft, spherical food items in flight or while perched. Legs are short and robust, with weak, anisodactyl feet featuring short toes and claws suited primarily for perching on thin branches rather than ground-walking or strong grasping. Sensory adaptations include well-developed eyesight, enabling precise navigation through the dim, cluttered environment where light levels are low and obstacles abundant.

Sexual dimorphism and variation

Manakins (family Pipridae) exhibit pronounced in and body size across most , with males typically displaying bright, iridescent colors and patterns adapted for visual signaling during , while females possess dull, cryptic olive-green that provides in forested understories. This dichromatism is particularly evident in genera like Manacus and Pipra, where adult males feature bold contrasts of black, red, yellow, or blue, contrasting sharply with the uniform greenish tones of females. Size differences also occur, often with males being lighter than females in performing agile aerial displays, reflecting adaptations to energetic behaviors. Age-related variation is common, particularly in males, which undergo delayed plumage maturation through sequential molts, starting with juvenile resembling that of females—dull olive-green overall—and gradually acquiring brighter adult colors over 1–3 years or more. For instance, in the long-tailed manakin (Chiroxiphia linearis), males progress through distinct predefinitive stages, with full adult (vibrant red, black, and yellow) achieved only after multiple annual molts, enabling precise aging based on patterns. Females generally retain their cryptic throughout life, though some may develop minor male-like traits in old age. Intraspecific variation, including geographic color morphs, occurs in several species, often linked to environmental gradients or genetic factors. The blue-crowned manakin (Lepidothrix coronata) shows marked regional differences in male crown and body coloration, ranging from violet-blue in the west to green in the east, driven by both geographic distance and climatic variables that influence phenotypic diversity. Such variation highlights how local adaptations can modify dimorphic traits within a species' range. Exceptions to strong dimorphism exist in certain genera, such as Tyranneutes, where species like the tiny tyrant-manakin (T. virescens) and dwarf tyrant-manakin (T. stolzmanni) are largely monomorphic, with both sexes displaying similar drab olive-green plumage and minimal size differences, deviating from the family's typical pattern.

Distribution and habitats

Geographic range

Manakins (family Pipridae) are exclusively distributed across the Neotropical region of the , with their range extending continuously from southern through and into northern and central , including the islands of , and reaching as far south as northern , , and southern . This distribution encompasses approximately 55 species, all of which are non-migratory and resident within their respective areas year-round. The family is entirely absent from temperate zones outside the tropics, as well as from regions such as , where suitable forested habitats do not align with their ecological requirements. Patterns of are prominent on islands and in mainland hotspots. For instance, the Chiroxiphia pareola atlantica of the Blue-backed Manakin is endemic to , representing a geographically isolated . On the mainland, diversity peaks in the and Andean , where up to 10-12 can co-occur in a single locality due to the region's extensive humid forests and topographic complexity. Elevational limits generally restrict manakins to lowlands and , with most absent above 2,000 m, though a few extend into montane zones up to 2,200 m in the . Genetic data reveal historical range dynamics shaped by Pleistocene climate fluctuations. Phylogeographic analyses of in species like the Blue-crowned Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata) indicate post-Pleistocene range expansions following periods of fragmentation, with secondary contact zones forming in areas such as east-central and western . These expansions likely contributed to current distribution patterns, including colonization of peripheral areas after the .

Habitat preferences and adaptations

Manakins (family Pipridae) predominantly inhabit the of humid tropical and subtropical across the Neotropics, favoring lowland rainforests, second-growth edges, and thickets while generally avoiding dry or open habitats. These birds are most abundant in dense, moist environments where vegetation provides cover and resources, with species like the golden-headed manakin (Ceratopipra erythrocephala) commonly occurring in riverine and forest borders up to 1,200 m . In contrast, arid savannas or heavily cleared areas are unsuitable due to the lack of structural complexity needed for their secretive lifestyles. The family's altitudinal distribution is primarily below 1,000 m in lowland forests, though some extend to 2,400 m in montane cloud forests, such as the yellow-headed manakin (Chloropipo flavicapilla) which occupies humid montane habitats from 1,200–2,400 m. Adaptations to these dim conditions include relatively large eyes that enhance visual sensitivity in low-light environments, allowing effective navigation and display detection amid shaded foliage. As frugivores, many manakins exhibit behavioral flexibility in tracking seasonal fruit availability, with species like the white-ruffed manakin (Corapipo leucorrhoa) undertaking altitudinal migrations to follow fruit in variable forests. Microhabitat preferences further include vine tangles and fallen logs for lek sites, where structural features like horizontal branches or buttress roots optimize visual and acoustic signaling during . Habitat fragmentation poses challenges through edge effects, which alter microclimates and increase predation risk, leading to reduced lek attendance and survival in affected populations. For instance, white-throated manakins (Corapipo gutturalis) show disrupted lekking behavior in fragmented landscapes, with edge proximity correlating to lower male display activity and overall population resilience varying by species—such as greater tolerance in edge-adapted Manacus manacus compared to interior-forest specialists. These responses highlight manakins' sensitivity to habitat discontinuity, though some exploit secondary growth for expanded range in altered ecosystems.

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

Manakins (family Pipridae) are predominantly frugivorous birds, with small fruits—especially berries from plants in families such as , , and —forming the bulk of their diet, typically comprising 70–90% of foraging observations across species. Arthropods, including (e.g., Coleoptera, Diptera, ) and spiders (Araneae), supplement this plant-based diet, accounting for 10–30% of consumption and providing critical protein; females generally ingest a higher proportion of arthropods than males to support reproductive needs. In representative species like the helmeted manakin (Antilophia galeata), fruits from at least 17 plant species dominate stomach contents (85.7% of observations), while the white-bearded manakin (Manacus manacus) exploits 58 fruit species, swallowing berries up to 12 mm in diameter whole. Foraging occurs primarily in the forest understory at heights of 3–8 m, using techniques such as (plucking items directly from foliage or branches, ~35–39% of observations), short aerial sallies (snatching food in flight, ~46–59%), and occasional hover- for hard-to-reach items. Some , including members of Corapipo and Manacus, opportunistically feed on the ground for fallen s or arthropods when available. These agile maneuvers enable efficient exploitation of patchy fruit resources, with birds often perching briefly before striking. Dietary composition shifts seasonally, with increased insectivory during breeding periods to meet elevated protein demands for display and ; for instance, in the golden-collared manakin (Manacus vitellinus), arthropods rise from ~5% of caloric intake in the non-breeding season to higher levels in females during breeding. Manakins exhibit specialized gut morphology for frugivory, including short retention times (as low as 15–30 minutes for some fruits) and high assimilation efficiencies (>90% for sugars), facilitating rapid processing and nutrient extraction from low-protein fruits while minimizing risks. Interspecific variation exists in dietary emphasis; genera like Pipra (e.g., white-crowned manakin, Dixiphia pipra) are highly specialized on fruits, with broad consumption of 39–70 species per population, whereas forms in Machaeropterus or Antilophia show relatively greater arthropod reliance (up to 24% in stomach volumes) alongside similar fruit diversity.

Social structure and daily activities

Manakins exhibit a lek-based , in which males form aggregations at communal display sites known as leks, where they defend small individual territories or courts rather than larger home ranges. These leks typically consist of 2 to 20 males, with each male maintaining a cleared arena of about 1 m in diameter, often marked by perches or saplings, to facilitate displays and deter intruders. Females, in contrast, form loose aggregations without strong territorial bonds, visiting leks primarily for mate selection but otherwise leading more solitary lives. In like the wire-tailed manakin (Pipra filicauda), social networks within leks show stable hierarchies based on tenure, where older males hold central positions and younger ones on the periphery. Daily activities in manakins follow a diurnal , with peak activity occurring at dawn and dusk when males vocalize and interact at leks or sites. Throughout the day, individuals spend time , resting on perches, and making short sallies in the forest understory, often returning to the same perches repeatedly. Roosting is little documented but presumed to be solitary in sheltered sites within dense vegetation to avoid predators. In the golden-winged manakin (Masius chrysopterus), for example, males allocate much of their non-display time to perching quietly or near their arenas. Territorial behaviors are prominent within leks, where males use song perches to advertise ownership and engage in chases or aggressive displays against neighbors encroaching on boundaries. Alpha males often dominate these interactions, suppressing subordinates through vocal threats or physical confrontations, which helps maintain lek stability. In the golden-collared manakin (Manacus vitellinus), territorial males respond to intrusions with cheerr calls, rollsnaps, and boundary patrols, ensuring exclusive use of their courts. Such behaviors reinforce dominance hierarchies without extensive fighting, promoting cooperative lek persistence. Outside of leks, non-breeding interactions include participation in mixed-species flocks for enhanced foraging safety, particularly among females and immature males. These flocks, often comprising , warblers, and other birds, allow manakins to detect predators earlier and access resources more efficiently. For instance, blue-crowned manakins (Lepidothrix coronata) join flocks where adults and juveniles show varying participation levels based on and experience. A few species, such as certain Andean manakins, undertake seasonal altitudinal movements rather than long migrations, shifting elevations in response to availability while maintaining loose social ties.

Reproduction and displays

Courtlek displays and vocalizations

Manakins (family Pipridae) exhibit lekking behavior, where males gather at communal display arenas to perform elaborate rituals aimed at attracting females, with no provision of resources or involved in mate selection. These leks vary in structure across genera: classical leks feature tightly clustered courts, as seen in Manacus species where multiple males defend adjacent territories within a small area, while exploded leks occur in Chiroxiphia, with display sites dispersed over larger areas but still forming a loose aggregation. In both types, males clear small courts—typically bare patches of 1–2 m in diameter—from leaf litter to perform their routines, often year-round but peaking during the breeding season. Physical displays in manakins emphasize acrobatic movements and mechanical sounds produced by wings or tail feathers, showcasing male vigor and coordination to influence female . In Manacus species, such as the white-collared manakin (Manacus candei), solitary males execute rapid jump-snap sequences, leaping between vertical saplings while producing loud wing-snaps through forceful collisions of the primaries, creating trill-like sounds at frequencies up to 58 Hz in the golden-collared manakin (M. vitellinus). These displays, performed at speeds exceeding 25 jumps per minute, highlight physiological adaptations like fast-contracting flight muscles, with females assessing display endurance and precision as indicators of genetic quality. In contrast, Chiroxiphia species, like the long-tailed manakin (C. linearis), feature cooperative displays where an alpha male partners with a subordinate beta male in synchronized aerial maneuvers, including butterfly flights—rapid side-to-side oscillations—and coordinated jumps, often culminating in the alpha male's solo presentation to the female. Mechanical sounds here include wing-whirs from accelerated flights, enhancing the visual spectacle. The vocal repertoire of manakins is relatively simple compared to their visual and mechanical displays, consisting primarily of short calls and songs used to advertise presence, defend courts, and coordinate performances. Common elements include high-pitched whines, buzzes, and trills; for instance, the white-bearded manakin (M. manacus) produces snorts, rattles, and whirrs alongside wing-snaps during lek activity, while the long-tailed manakin delivers the species-specific "toledo" call—a 2–3 note phrase resembling "to-LEH-do"—in duets with partners to attract females from afar. In exploded leks of species like the blue-backed manakin (C. pareola), vocal output is high and sustained, with calls functioning as long-distance attractants, whereas in classical leks, calls are more intermittent but integrated with physical actions for short-range assessment. Females evaluate the consistency and vigor of these multimodal signals, preferring males whose combined vocal-mechanical performances demonstrate superior and health.

Breeding biology and parental care

Manakins exhibit breeding seasons that vary with latitude and local climate. In equatorial regions, many species breed year-round or during extended periods of up to eight months, often peaking during the dry season when fruit availability is high. Farther from the equator, breeding becomes more seasonal, typically lasting four to six months and aligning with rainy periods to support nestling growth. Clutch sizes are usually two eggs, though one-egg clutches occur occasionally, laid in a simple cup-shaped nest. Nests are constructed exclusively by females using plant fibers, , leaves, rootlets, and spider webs or for attachment and camouflage. These bulky, shallow cups are suspended between horizontal forks in understory shrubs or vines, typically 1-3 meters above the , with site selection prioritizing dense for concealment from predators. Females select locations that blend with surrounding foliage, enhancing nest survival in predator-rich tropical understories. Incubation is performed solely by females and lasts 18-21 days, during which they leave the nest only briefly to , brooding more attentively in the final days. Nestlings are fed regurgitated and by the female for 12-17 days until fledging, with males providing no post-copulatory care in the vast majority of . Fledglings remain dependent on the female for several weeks after leaving the nest. While is predominantly female-only across the , some genera like Chiroxiphia show cooperative male behaviors limited to displays rather than direct nest assistance. Nest predation rates are high, often exceeding 50% in understory sites, leading to overall nesting success of 40-70% depending on and season; for instance, Araripe Manakins achieve 72% success with 20% predation, but many other species face lower fledging rates due to snakes, mammals, and birds.

Conservation and human interactions

Threats and population status

Manakins (family Pipridae) face significant threats primarily from and degradation driven by across their Neotropical range. In the Brazilian Amazon, which encompasses much of the for numerous manakin , forest cover has declined by 17-21% from the to due to , , and development. exacerbates these pressures by isolating populations and reducing , particularly in secondary forests where manakins forage for fruit. further compounds these risks by altering rainfall patterns and fruit , leading to decreased food availability and survival rates during prolonged dry periods associated with events like El Niño. Population trends for manakins indicate widespread declines, with ongoing suspected to affect the majority of . According to assessments, approximately 10% of the roughly 55 manakin are of conservation concern, including one Near Threatened, three Vulnerable, and one Critically Endangered as of recent evaluations. Endemic , such as the Araripe manakin (Antilophia bokermanni), are particularly imperiled, with their tiny population continuing to decline due to rapid and fires in the Chapada do Araripe region of . In the , sharp population drops have been documented for forest-dependent birds, including manakins, attributable to cumulative alterations. Other anthropogenic factors pose lesser but notable risks. Hunting pressure on manakins remains minimal, as these small frugivores are not typically targeted by . Pesticides indirectly threaten populations by reducing availability in mixed diets, though manakins' primary reliance on fruit limits direct exposure. represent a minor concern, primarily on islands where some manakin species occur, but these impacts are localized and not widespread across the family's continental range. The Amazon and Central American regions emerge as critical hotspots, where intensified rates have led to the most pronounced vulnerabilities.

Conservation efforts and cultural significance

Conservation efforts for manakins primarily focus on habitat protection and restoration within key Neotropical regions, with notable initiatives in protected areas such as Ecuador's , which safeguards diverse manakin like the wire-tailed manakin through biodiversity monitoring and anti-deforestation measures. In Brazil, targeted programs for the critically endangered Araripe manakin include the creation of protected reserves and habitat restoration projects led by organizations like the American Bird Conservancy and local partner Aquasis, which have restored riverside forests essential for the ' survival. Reforestation efforts, such as those around the Araripe Plateau, aim to counteract by replanting native , supporting manakin populations restricted to fragmented habitats. While no manakin species is currently listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (), broader international agreements through bodies like and the IUCN facilitate conservation by classifying —such as the Araripe manakin as critically endangered—and promoting cross-border habitat protection. Manakins also contribute significantly to scientific , serving as key models in studies of due to their elaborate lekking behaviors, with genomic analyses revealing how traits like wing snaps and dances evolve under female choice pressures. In the , bioacoustics technologies have advanced manakin monitoring, enabling passive acoustic detection of species like the in Costa Rican forests to assess population trends without invasive methods. Culturally, manakins hold appeal in , particularly in , where birding lodges and guided tours in lowland rainforests highlight species like the long-tailed manakin, drawing visitors to support local economies and conservation funding through observation-focused experiences. Despite these advances, Neotropical faces persistent underfunding, with calls for increased allocations to address habitat loss across the region.

Species diversity

Major genera overview

The family Pipridae encompasses 17 genera and approximately 54 of manakins, primarily distributed across Neotropical forests from southern to northern . Phylogenetic studies divide the family into two subfamilies: Neopelminae (3 genera, 7 ) and Piprinae (14 genera, 47 ), reflecting evolutionary divergences in morphology, behavior, and habitat preferences dating back to the . Recent taxonomic revisions, informed by genomic data, have included splits such as the elevation of Protopelma in 2023 and Ceratopipra in 2014, increasing the recognized genera from 15 to 17 since 2015.
GenusSpecies CountDistinguishing Features
Tyranneutes2Smallest manakins (7-8 cm); cryptic plumage; dwell in humid forest understories with minimal and subdued vocalizations.
Neopelma4Dull green- birds resembling tyrant-flycatchers; inhabit forest edges and second growth; known for flycatcher-like foraging and simple songs.
Protopelma1Monotypic (Serra do Mar Tyrant-Manakin); recently split from Neopelma due to distinct vocalizations and genetics; restricted to highlands.
Chiroxiphia7Cooperative lekking with alpha-beta male alliances; males perform synchronized flights and calls; widespread in lowland forests.
Manacus4Explosive wing-snapping sounds in leks; highly dimorphic males with white collars; common in Central and South American lowlands.
Pipra3 specialists, including the golden-headed species; males with vivid red-black plumage; solitary leks in humid forests.
Ceratopipra5Formerly part of Pipra; some species with horn-like forehead crests; elaborate solitary dances; understory frugivores.
Masius1Monotypic highland specialist (Golden-winged Manakin); males with golden wing patches and blue crowns; Andean and dweller.
Ilicura1Pin-tailed Manakin; distinctive elongated tail feathers in males; cooperative displays in Amazonian lowlands.
Genera in Piprinae exhibit greater diversity in display strategies and , with lekking behaviors evolving independently multiple times, as evidenced by molecular phylogenies showing convergent adaptations for . For instance, while Chiroxiphia emphasizes group cooperation, Manacus and Pipra favor individual explosive performances, correlating with and resource distribution across subfamilies. Other notable genera include Lepidothrix (9 ; small, with iridescent male crowns and green females, favoring montane edges), Machaeropterus (5 ; wing-modified for buzzing sounds in dances), and Corapipo (3 ; white-throated males in cooperative leks), highlighting the family's radiation in display complexity tied to . Less speciose genera like Xenopipo (2 ; wire-tailed males) and Heterocercus (3 ; Andean specialists) underscore highland adaptations, with overall generic diversity peaking in Amazonian lowlands (over 70% of ).

List of species

The family Pipridae includes approximately 54 species of manakins distributed across the Neotropics, from southern to northern , primarily in humid forests. The taxonomy follows the South American Classification Committee (SACC) baseline classification. Most species are assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the (version 2024-1), reflecting stable or large populations despite localized habitat pressures, though a few face elevated risks due to restricted ranges and . Below is a comprehensive list organized by genus, with common and scientific names, IUCN status, and a brief range summary.

Neopelminae

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Serra do Mar Tyrant-ManakinProtopelma chrysolophumLC, southeastern
Dwarf Tyrant-ManakinTyranneutes stolzmanniLC, from to and
Tiny Tyrant-ManakinTyranneutes virescensLCNorthern , from to
Pale-bellied Tyrant-ManakinNeopelma pallescensLCWestern , from to and
Saffron-crested Tyrant-ManakinNeopelma chrysocephalumLCNorthern , from to
Wied's Tyrant-ManakinNeopelma aurifronsLC, eastern
Sulphur-bellied Tyrant-ManakinNeopelma sulphureiventerLCWestern , Peru and northern

Piprinae

Chloropipo

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Yellow-headed ManakinChloropipo flavicapillaNear ThreatenedAndean foothills, from to
Jet ManakinChloropipo unicolorLCAndean slopes, and

Chiroxiphia

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Yungas ManakinChiroxiphia bolivianaLC forests,
Blue-backed ManakinChiroxiphia pareolaLC and , from to
Long-tailed ManakinChiroxiphia linearisLC, from to
Lance-tailed ManakinChiroxiphia lanceolataLC, from to
Swallow-tailed ManakinChiroxiphia caudataLC, eastern
Araripe ManakinChiroxiphia bokermanniCritically EndangeredChapada do Araripe region, northeastern
Helmeted ManakinChiroxiphia galeataLC, eastern

Ilicura

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Pin-tailed ManakinIlicura militarisLC, eastern Brazil

Masius

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Golden-winged ManakinMasius chrysopterusLCAndean region, from to

Corapipo

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
White-ruffed ManakinCorapipo alteraLCDarién region, and
White-bibbed ManakinCorapipo leucorrhoaLC, from to
White-throated ManakinCorapipo gutturalisLCNorthern South America, from to

Xenopipo

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Xenopipo uniformisLC, from to
Xenopipo atronitensLC, from to

Cryptopipo

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Cryptopipo holochloraLCWestern , from to

Lepidothrix

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Velvety ManakinLepidothrix velutinaLCWestern and northwestern
Blue-capped ManakinLepidothrix coronataLC to northwestern
Snow-capped ManakinLepidothrix nattereriLCWestern , and
Golden-crowned ManakinLepidothrix vilasboasiVulnerableCentral , ,
Opal-crowned ManakinLepidothrix irisVulnerableWestern , and
Orange-bellied ManakinLepidothrix suavissimaLCWestern , from to
White-fronted ManakinLepidothrix serenaLC, from to
Blue-rumped ManakinLepidothrix isidoreiLCWestern , from to
Cerulean-capped ManakinLepidothrix coeruleocapillaLCWestern slopes of northern ,

Heterocercus

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Orange-crowned ManakinHeterocercus aurantiivertexLCSubtropical forests, southern
Yellow-crowned ManakinHeterocercus flavivertexLC and Andean foothills, from to
Flame-crowned ManakinHeterocercus linteatusLC, southeastern

Manacus

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
White-bearded ManakinManacus manacusLCNorthern , from to the and northern
White-collared ManakinManacus candeiLC, from to
Golden-collared ManakinManacus vitellinusLCDarién region to northern
Orange-collared ManakinManacus aurantiacusLCWestern and

Pipra

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Crimson-hooded ManakinPipra aureolaLC and northern
Wire-tailed ManakinPipra filicaudaLC, from to
Band-tailed ManakinPipra fasciicaudaLCSoutheastern , from to and

Machaeropterus

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Club-winged ManakinMachaeropterus deliciosusLCAndean foothills, from to
Striolated ManakinMachaeropterus striolatusLCWestern , from to
Painted ManakinMachaeropterus eckelberryiLCFoothills of central (described 2017)
Kinglet ManakinMachaeropterus regulusLC, from to
Fiery-capped ManakinMachaeropterus pyrocephalusLC and northern

Pseudopipra

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
White-crowned ManakinPseudopipra pipraLCWidespread in and

Ceratopipra

Common nameScientific nameIUCN statusRange
Scarlet-horned ManakinCeratopipra cornutaLCTepuis of southern and
Red-capped ManakinCeratopipra mentalisLC to northwestern
Golden-headed ManakinCeratopipra erythrocephalaLCAndean region, from to
Red-headed ManakinCeratopipra rubrocapillaLC, from to
Round-tailed ManakinCeratopipra chloromerosLCSouthwestern , and

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