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A Master of Science degree conferred by Columbia University in New York City

A master's degree[note 1] (from Latin magister) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.[1] A master's degree normally requires previous study at the bachelor's level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. Within the area studied, master's graduates are expected to possess advanced knowledge of a specialized body of theoretical and applied topics; high order skills in analysis, critical evaluation, or professional application; and the ability to solve complex problems and think rigorously and independently.

Historical development

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Medieval era to 18th century

[edit]

The master's degree dates back to the origin of European universities, with a Papal bull of 1233 decreeing that anyone admitted to the mastership in the University of Toulouse should be allowed to teach freely in any other university. The original meaning of the master's degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank (degree) of master (i.e. teacher) in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendī (licence to teach). Originally, masters and doctors were not distinguished, but by the 15th century it had become customary in the English universities to refer to the teachers in the lower faculties (arts and grammar) as masters and those in the higher faculties as doctors.[2] Initially, the Bachelor of Arts (BA) was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts (MA) for the study of the quadrivium.[3]

From the late Middle Ages until the 19th century, the pattern of degrees was therefore to have a bachelor's and master's degree in the lower faculties and to have bachelor's and doctorates in the higher faculties. In the United States, the first master's degrees (Magister Artium, or Master of Arts) were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation.[4] In Scotland, the pre-Reformation universities (St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen) developed so that the Scottish MA became their first degree, while in Oxford, Cambridge and Trinity College Dublin, the MA was awarded to BA graduates of a certain standing without further examination from the late 17th century, its main purpose being to confer full membership of the university.[5] At Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the master's degree had to pass a public examination,[6] but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style three years after the BA.[7]

19th century

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The 19th century saw a great expansion in the variety of master's degrees offered. At the start of the century, the only master's degree was the MA, and this was normally awarded without any further study or examination. The Master in Surgery degree was introduced by the University of Glasgow in 1815.[8] By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England and the University of Dublin in Ireland.[9] When the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, "the same as that in Europe".[10]

In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid-19th century,[11] although there were major doubts as to the quality of the Scottish degrees of this period. In 1832 Lord Brougham, the Lord Chancellor and an alumnus of the University of Edinburgh, told the House of Lords that "In England the Universities conferred degrees after a considerable period of residence, after much labour performed, and if they were not in all respects so rigorous as the statutes of the Universities required, nevertheless it could not be said, that Masters of Arts were created at Oxford and Cambridge as they were in Scotland, without any residence, or without some kind of examination. In Scotland, all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter."[12]

It 1837, separate examinations were reintroduced for the MA in England, at the newly established Durham University (even though, as in the ancient English universities, this was to confer full membership), to be followed in 1840 by the similarly new University of London, which was only empowered by its charter to grant degrees by examination.[13][14][15] However, by the middle of the century the MA as an examined second degree was again under threat, with Durham moving to awarding it automatically to those who gained honours in the BA in 1857, along the lines of the Oxbridge MA, and Edinburgh following the other Scottish universities in awarding the MA as its first degree, in place of the BA, from 1858.[16] At the same time, new universities were being established around the then British Empire along the lines of London, including examinations for the MA: the University of Sydney in Australia and the Queen's University of Ireland in 1850, and the Universities of Bombay (now the University of Mumbai), Madras and Calcutta in India in 1857.

In the US, the revival of master's degrees as an examined qualification began in 1856 at the University of North Carolina, followed by the University of Michigan in 1859,[17] although the idea of a master's degree as an earned second degree was not well established until the 1870s, alongside the PhD as the terminal degree.[18] Sometimes it was possible to earn an MA either by examination or by seniority in the same institution; for example, in Michigan the "in course" MA was introduced in 1848 and was last awarded in 1882, while the "on examination" MA was introduced in 1859.[19]

Probably the most important master's degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science (MS in the US, MSc in the UK). At the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858: "in course", first awarded in 1859, and "on examination", first awarded in 1862. The "in course" MS was last awarded in 1876.[19] In Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. When London introduced its Faculty of Sciences in 1858, the university was granted a new charter giving it the power "to confer the several Degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, in Arts, Laws, Science, Medicine, Music",[20] but the degrees it awarded in science were the Bachelor of Science and the Doctor of Science.[21] The same two degrees, again omitting the master's, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the standard undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland.[22] In 1862, a royal commission suggested that Durham should award master's degrees in theology and science (with the suggested abbreviations MT and MS, contrary to later British practice of using MTh or MTheol and MSc for these degrees),[23] but its recommendations were not enacted. In 1877, Oxford introduced the Master of Natural Science, along with the Bachelor of Natural Science, to stand alongside the MA and BA degrees and be awarded to students who took their degrees in the honours school of natural sciences.[24] In 1879 a statute to actually establish the faculty of Natural Sciences at Oxford was promulgated,[25] but in 1880 a proposal to rename the degree as a Master of Science was rejected along with a proposal to grant Masters of Natural Sciences a Master of Arts degree, in order to make them full members of the university.[26] This scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science.

The Master of Science (MSc) degree was finally introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham,[27] followed by the new Victoria University in 1881.[28] At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durham's MA in requiring a further examination for those with an ordinary bachelor's degree but not for those with honours.[29]

20th century

[edit]

At the start of the 20th century, there were four different sorts of master's degree in the UK: the Scottish MA, granted as a first degree; the Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin), granted to all BA graduates a certain period after their first degree without further study; master's degrees that could be gained either by further study or by gaining an honours degree (which, at the time in the UK involved further study beyond the ordinary degree, as it still does in Scotland and some Commonwealth countries); and master's degrees that could only be obtained by further study (including all London master's degrees). In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs "the most stupendous of academic frauds" and "bogus degrees".[30] Ensuing correspondence pointed out that "A Scotch M.A., at the most, is only the equivalent of an English B.A." and called for common standards for degrees, while defenders of the ancient universities said that "the Cambridge M.A. does not pretend to be a reward of learning" and that "it is rather absurd to describe one of their degrees as a bogus one because other modern Universities grant the same degree for different reasons".[31][32]

In 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science (MCS), first awarded in 1902. This was the first master's degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA.[33] The idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903.[34] Over the first half of the century the automatic master's degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK. In the 1960s, new Scottish universities (except for Dundee, which inherited the undergraduate MA from St Andrews) reintroduced the BA as their undergraduate degree in arts, restoring the MA to its position as a postgraduate qualification. Oxford and Cambridge retained their MAs, but renamed many of their postgraduate bachelor's degrees in the higher faculties as master's degrees, e.g. the Cambridge LLB became the LLM in 1982,[35] and the Oxford BLitt, BPhil (except in philosophy) and BSc became the MLitt, MPhil and MSc.[36]

In 1983, the Engineering Council issued a "'Statement on enhanced and extended undergraduate engineering degree courses", proposing the establishment of a four-year first degree (Master of Engineering).[37][38] These were up and running by the mid-1980s and were followed in the early 1990s by the MPhys for physicists and since then integrated master's degrees in other sciences such as MChem, MMath, and MGeol, and in some institutions general or specific MSci (Master in Science) and MArts (Master in Arts) degrees. This development was noted by the Dearing Report into UK Higher Education in 1997, which called for the establishment of a national framework of qualifications and identified five different routes to master's degrees:[39]

  • Four year (five in Scotland) first degrees in certain subjects, such as the MEng
  • Conversion degrees, sometimes below the standard of undergraduate degrees in the same subject
  • The honours arts undergraduate degree awarded by the four ancient universities of Scotland
  • Postgraduate programmes, such as the MA, MSt and MSc
  • The Oxford and Cambridge MA, and MA from Trinity College Dublin, awarded without additional study several years after the award of a BA.

This led to the establishment of the Quality Assurance Agency, which was charged with drawing up the framework.

21st century

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In 2000, renewed pressure was put on Oxbridge MAs in the UK Parliament, with Labour MP Jackie Lawrence introducing an early day motion calling for them to be scrapped and telling the Times Higher Education it was a "discriminatory practice" and that it "devalues and undermines the efforts of students at other universities".[40][41] The following month the Quality Assurance Agency announced the results of a survey of 150 major employers showing nearly two thirds mistakenly thought the Cambridge MA was a postgraduate qualification and just over half made the same error regarding the Edinburgh MA, with QAA chief executive John Randall calling the Oxbridge MA "misleading and anachronistic".[42]

The QAA released the first "framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland" in January 2001. This specified learning outcomes for M-level (master's) degrees and advised that the title "Master" should only be used for qualifications that met those learning outcomes in full. It addressed many of the Dearing Report's concerns, specifying that shorter courses at H-level (honours), e.g. conversion courses, should be styled Graduate Diploma or Graduate Certificate rather than as master's degrees, but confirmed that the extended undergraduate degrees were master's degrees, saying that "Some Masters degrees in science and engineering are awarded after extended undergraduate programmes that last, typically, a year longer than Honours degree programmes". It also addressed the Oxbridge MA issue, noting that "the MAs granted by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not academic qualifications".[43] The first "framework for qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland", also published in January 2001, used the same qualifications descriptors, adding in credit values that specified that a stand-alone master should be 180 credits and a "Masters (following an integrated programme from undergraduate to Masters level study)" should be 600 credits with a minimum of 120 at M-level. It was specified that the title "Master" should only be used for qualifications that met the learning outcomes and credit definitions, although it was noted that "A small number of universities in Scotland have a long tradition of labelling certain first degrees as 'MA'. Reports of Agency reviews of such provision will relate to undergraduate benchmarks and will make it clear that the title reflects Scottish custom and practice, and that any positive judgement on standards should not be taken as implying that the outcomes of the programme were at postgraduate level."[44]

The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). This established a three-cycle bachelor's—master's—doctorate classification of degrees, leading to the adoption of master's degrees across the continent, often replacing older long-cycle qualifications such as the Magister (arts), Diplom (sciences) and state registration (professional) awards in Germany.[45] As the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the integrated master's degrees and one-year master's degrees in the UK.[46] However, the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and the Framework for Qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland have both been aligned with the overarching framework for the EHEA with these being accepted as masters-level qualifications.

Titles

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See also: List of master's degrees

Master's degrees are commonly titled using the form 'Master of ...', where either a faculty (typically Arts or Science) or a field (Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, Business Administration, etc.) is specified. The two most common titles of master's degrees are the Master of Arts (MA/AM) and Master of Science (MSc/MS/SM) degrees, which normally consist of a mixture of research and taught material.[47][48]

The title of Master of Philosophy (MPhil) indicates (in the same manner as Doctor of Philosophy) an extended degree with a large research component.[49] Other generically named master's programs include the Master of Studies (MSt)/Master of Advanced Study (MASt)/Master of Advanced Studies (M.A.S.), and Professional Master's (MProf). Integrated master's degrees and postgraduate master's degrees oriented towards professional practice are often more specifically named for their field of study ("tagged degrees"), including, for example, Master of Business Administration, Master of Divinity, Master of Engineering, Master of Physics, and Master of Public Health.

The form "Master in ..." is also sometimes used, particularly where a faculty title is used for an integrated master's degree in addition to its use in a traditional postgraduate master's degree, e.g. Master in Science (MSci) and Master in Arts (MArts). This form is also sometimes used with other integrated master's degrees[50] and occasionally for postgraduate master's degrees (e.g. Master's in Accounting).[51] Some universities use Latin degree names; because of the flexibility of syntax in Latin, the Master of Arts and Master of Science degrees may be known in these institutions as Magister artium and Magister scientiæ or reversed from the English order to Artium magister and Scientiæ magister. Examples of the reversed usage include Harvard University and the University of Chicago, leading to the abbreviations AM and SM for these degrees. The forms "Master of Science" and "Master in Science" are indistinguishable in Latin.

In the UK, full stops (periods) are not commonly used in degree abbreviations.[52][53] In the US, The Gregg Reference Manual recommends placing periods in degrees (e.g. B.S., Ph.D.), while The Chicago Manual of Style recommends writing degrees without periods (e.g. BS, PhD).[54]

Master of Science is generally abbreviated MS in countries following United States usage and MSc in countries following British usage, where MS would refer to the degree of Master of Surgery. In Australia, some extended master's degrees use the title "doctor": Juris doctor and Doctors of Medical Practice, Physiotherapy, Dentistry, Optometry and Veterinary Practice. Despite their titles these are still master's degree and may not be referred to as doctoral degrees, nor may graduates use the title "doctor".[55]

Types

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  • Postgraduate/graduate master's degrees (MA/AM, MPhil, MSc/MS/SM, MBA, LLM, MAsc, etc.) are the traditional formal form of master's degree, where the student already holds an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree on entry. Courses normally last one year in the UK and two years in the US.[47][48]
  • Integrated master's degrees (MChem, MEng, MMath, MPharm, MPhys, MPsych, MSci, etc.) are UK degrees that combine an undergraduate bachelor's degree course with an extra year at master's level (i.e. a total of four years in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and five years in Scotland). A 2011 survey of UK Higher Education Institutes found that 64% offered integrated master's course, mostly in STEM disciplines, with the most common degrees being MEng, MSci and MChem. 82% of respondents conferred only a master's degree for the course, while 9% conferred a bachelor's degree at the end of the bachelor's-level stage and a master's degree at the end of the course and a further 9% conferred both bachelor's and master's degrees at the end of the course.[56][57]
  • Non-master's level master's degrees The ancient universities of the UK and Ireland have traditionally awarded MAs in a different manner to that usual today. The Scottish MA is a bachelor's-level qualification offered by the four ancient universities of Scotland. The Oxbridge MA is not an academic qualification; it is granted without further examination to those who have gained a BA from Oxford or Cambridge Universities in England,[56] and the MA of Trinity College Dublin in Ireland is granted to its graduates in a similar manner.[58]

The UK Quality Assurance Agency defines three categories of master's degrees:[59]

  • Research master's degrees are primarily research based, although may contain taught elements, particularly on research methods. Examples are the MLitt (usually, but not always a research degree), the Master's by Research, and the MPhil. The Master's by Research (MbyRes, ResM), which is a research degree, is distinct from the Master of Research (MRes), which is a taught degree concentrating on research methods.[60]
  • Specialised or advanced study master's degrees are primarily taught degrees, although commonly at least a third of the course is devoted to a research project assessed by dissertation. These may be stand-alone master's courses, leading to, e.g., MSc, MA or MRes degrees, or integrated master's degrees.
  • Professional or practice master's degrees (see also professional degree) are designed to prepare students for a particular professional career and are primarily taught, although they may include work placements and independent study projects. Some may require professional experience for entry. Examples include MBA, MDiv, LLM and MSW as well as some integrated master's degrees. The name of the degree normally includes the subject name.

The United States Department of Education classifies master's degrees as research or professional. Research master's degrees in the US (e.g., MA/AM or MS) require the completion of taught courses and examinations in a major and one or more minor subjects, as well as (normally) a research thesis. Professional master's degrees may be structured like research master's (e.g., ME/MEng) or may concentrate on a specific discipline (e.g., MBA) and often substitute a project for the thesis.[48]

The Australian Qualifications Framework classifies master's degrees as research, coursework or extended. Research master's degrees typically take one to two years, and at least two-thirds of their content consists of research, research training and independent study.[61] Coursework master's degrees typically also last one to two years, and consist mainly of structured learning with some independent research and project work or practice-related learning. Extended master's degrees typically take three to four years and contain significant practice-related learning that must be developed in collaboration with relevant professional, statutory or regulatory bodies.[62]

In Ireland, master's degrees may be either Taught or Research. Taught master's degrees are normally one to two year courses, rated at 60 – 120 ECTS credits, while research master's degrees are normally two year courses, either rated at 120 ECTS credits or not credit rated.[63]

Structure

[edit]
Further information: Master's degree in North America and Master's degree in Europe

There is a range of pathways to the degree with entry based on evidence of a capacity to undertake higher level studies in a proposed field. A dissertation may or may not be required depending on the program. In general, structure and duration of a program of study leading to a master's degree will differ by country and university.

Duration

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Master's programs in the US and Canada are normally two years (full-time) in length. In some fields/programs, work on a doctorate begins immediately after the bachelor's degree, but a master's degree may be granted along the way as an intermediate qualification if the student petitions for it.[48] Some universities offer evening options so that students can work during the day and earn a master's degree in the evenings.[64]

In the UK, postgraduate master's degrees typically take one to two years full-time or two to four years part-time.[65] Master's degrees may be classified as either "research" or "taught", with taught degrees (those where research makes up less than half of the volume of work) being further subdivided into "specialist or advanced study" or "professional or practice". Taught degrees (of both forms) typically take a full calendar year (180 UK credits, compared to 120 for an academic year), while research degrees are not typically credit rated but may take up to two years to complete. An MPhil normally takes two calendar years (360 credits). An integrated master's degree (which is always a taught degree) combines a bachelor's degree course with an additional year of study (120 credits) at master's level for a four (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) or five (Scotland) academic year total period.[56][66][67]

In Australia, master's degrees vary from one year for a "research" or "coursework" master's following on from an Australian honours degree in a related field, with an extra six months if following on straight from an ordinary bachelor's degree and another extra six months if following on from a degree in a different field, to four years for an "extended" master's degree. At some Australian universities, the master's degree may take up to two years.[62]

In the Overarching Framework of Qualifications for the European Higher Education Area defined as part of the Bologna process, a "second cycle" (i.e. master's degree) programme is typically 90–120 ECTS credits, with a minimum requirement of at least 60 ECTS credits at second-cycle level.[68] The definition of ECTS credits is that "60 ECTS credits are allocated to the learning outcomes and associated workload of a full-time academic year or its equivalent",[69] thus European master's degrees should last for between one calendar year and two academic years, with at least one academic year of study at master's level. The Framework for Higher Education Qualification (FHEQ) in England Wales and Northern Ireland level 7 qualifications and the Framework for Qualification of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland (FQHEIS) level 11 qualifications (postgraduate and integrated master's degrees, except for MAs from the ancient universities of Scotland and Oxbridge MAs) have been certified as meeting this requirement.[70][71]

Irish master's degrees are one to two years (60–120 ECTS credits) for taught degrees and two years (not credit rated) for taught and research degrees. These have also been certified as compatible with the FQ-EHEA.[72]

Admission

[edit]

Admission to a master's degree normally requires successful completion of study at bachelor's degree level either (for postgraduate degrees) as a stand-alone degree or (for integrated degrees) as part of an integrated scheme of study. In countries where the bachelor's degree with honours is the standard undergraduate degree, this is often the normal entry qualification.[59][73] In addition, students will normally have to write a personal statement and, in the arts and humanities, will often have to submit a portfolio of work.[74]

In the UK, students will normally need to have a 2:1. Students may also have to provide evidence of their ability to successfully pursue a postgraduate degree to be accepted into a taught master's course, and possibly higher for a research master's.[75] Graduate schools in the US similarly require strong undergraduate performance, and may require students to take one or more standardised tests, such as the GRE, GMAT or LSAT.[76]

Comparable European degrees

[edit]
See also: Master's degree in Europe

In some European countries, a magister is a first degree and may be considered equivalent to a modern (standardized) master's degree (e.g., the German, Austrian and Polish university Diplom/Magister, or the similar five-year Diploma awarded in several subjects in Greek,[77] Spanish, Portuguese, and other universities and polytechnics).[clarification needed]

Under the Bologna Process, countries in the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) are moving to a three-cycle (bachelor's - master's - doctorate) system of degrees. Two-thirds of EHEA countries have standardised on 120 ECTS credits for their second-cycle (master's) degrees, but 90 ECTS credits is the main form in Cyprus, Ireland and Scotland and 60-75 credits in Montenegro, Serbia and Spain.[78] The combined length of the first and second cycle varies from "3 + 1" years (240 ECTS credits), through "3 + 2" or "4 + 1" years (300 ECTS credits), to "4 + 2" years (360 ECTS credits). As of 2015, 31 EHEA countries have integrated programmes that combine the first and second cycle and lead to a second-cycle qualification (e.g. the UK integrated master's degree), particularly in STEM subjects and subjects allied to medicine. These typically have a duration of 300 – 360 ECTS credits (five to six years), with the integrated master's degrees in England, Wales and Northern Ireland being the shortest at 240 ECTS credits (four years).[79]

  • In Denmark there are two forms of master's degree. The Master's Degree or candidatus is a FQ-EHEA second-cycle qualification worth 120 ECTS credits. These degrees are research-based and offered through universities (e.g. University of Copenhagen and Copenhagen Business School). The second form is the Master Degree (no possessive) within the adult continuing education system, which is worth 60 ECTS credits and is taught part-time.[80] The candidatus degree is abbreviated cand. and upon completion of, for instance, an engineering master's degree, a person becomes cand.polyt. (polytechnical). Similar abbreviations, inspired by Latin, apply to a large number of fields, e.g.: sociology (cand.scient.soc), economics (cand.merc., cand.polit. or cand.oecon), law (cand.jur), humanities (cand.mag) etc. Use of a cand. title requires a master's degree. Holders of a cand. degree are also entitled to use MSc or MA titles, depending on the field of study. In Finland and Sweden, the title of kandidaatti/kandidat (abbreviated kand.) equates to a bachelor's degree.[81]
  • In France, the master's degree (diplôme de master) takes two years and is worth 120 ECTS credits.[82] The two years are often called the master 1 (M1) and master 2 (M2), following the Bologna Process. Depending on the goal of the student (a doctorate or a professional career) the master can also be called a "Master Recherche" (research master) or a "Master Professionnel" (professional master), each with different requirements.
    A French diplôme d'ingénieur (postgraduate degree in engineering of grandes écoles) is also the equivalent of a master's degree, provided the diploma is recognised by the Commission des titres d'ingénieur, as are qualifications recognised at Level 7 of the répertoire national des certifications professionnelles (national register of professional certificates).[83][84]
  • In Italy the master's degree is equivalent to the two-year Laurea magistrale, which can be earned after a Laurea (a three-year undergraduate degree, equivalent to a bachelor's degree). In particular fields, namely law, pharmacy and medicine, this distinction is not made. University courses are therefore single and last five to six years, after which the master's degree is awarded (in this case referred to as Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico). The old Laurea degree (Vecchio Ordinamento, Old Regulations), which was the only awarded in Italy before the Bologna process, is equivalent[85] to the current Laurea Magistrale.
  • In the Netherlands the titles ingenieur (ir.), meester (mr.) and doctorandus (drs.) may be rendered, if obtained in the Netherlands from a university, after the application of the Bologna process, as: MSc instead of ir., LLM instead of mr. and MA or MSc instead of drs.[86] This is because a single program that led to these degree was in effect before 2002, which comprised the same course load as the bachelor and master programs put together. Those who had already started the program could, upon completing it, bear the appropriate title (MSc, LLM or MA), but alternatively still use the old-style title (ir., mr. or drs.), corresponding to their field of study. Since these graduates do not have a separate bachelor's degree (which is – in retrospect – incorporated into the program), the master's degree is their first academic degree. Bearers of foreign master's degree can use the titles ir., mr. and drs. only after obtaining a permission to bear such titles from the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs. Those who received their mr., ir. or drs. title after the application of the Bologna process have the option of signing as A. Jansen, MA or A. Jansen, MSc, depending on the field in which the degree was obtained, since the ir., mr. and drs. titles are similar to a master's degree, and the shortcut MA or MSc may officially be used in order to render such title as an international title.[87][88][89][90]
  • In Belgium, the higher education system is governed by the communities and have separately implemented the Bologna Process. In Flanders, a master's degree can be obtained when completing a two-year study at university (120 ECTS), although there also exist some master's studies which only require 1 year of education (60 ECTS). This discrepancy has various reasons, but the main cause is the transition from the pre-Bologna Process degrees. Degrees like industrial engineering were previously not obtained through university and only took one year, but got transferred to universities, hence why the master's degree for industrial engineering only takes one year at university currently. Similar situations arose for other one-year degrees obtained before 2013 and are therefore now converted to master's degrees through a special certificate.[91] Other master's degrees, such as the degrees from the faculty of Arts and Literature are historically only one year, just like they were before the Bologna Process ratification. Master's degrees for medicine take 3 years to be completed. The situation for the French Community of Belgium is similar in many ways, but has implemented it differently.
  • In Switzerland, the old Licence or Diplom (4 to 5 years in duration) is considered equivalent to the master's degree.[92]
  • In Slovenia and Croatia, during the pre-Bologna process education, all academic degrees were awarded after a minimum of four years of university studies and a successful defence of a written thesis and are considered equivalent to the master's degree.[citation needed] After the completion of that first cycle of the pre-Bologna higher education, the students obtained professional degrees with the titles of Professor (abbreviation "prof.") for educational studies, Engineer (abbreviation "ing.") for technical studies, or Licensed professional of their field of expertise (abbreviation "dipl." with a reference to the profession) for other studies. The title of Magister Scientiae (abbreviation "mr. sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate university programme (and therefore qualified for a doctorate programme), while the title of Scientiae Doctor (abbreviation "dr. sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate doctoral programme. Slovenia is a full member of the Bologna Process since 1999[93] and Croatia since 2001.[94]
  • In Baltic countries there is a two-year education program that offers a chance to gain a master's degree in interdisciplinary issues. The system offers an education in different areas, such as humanities, environmental and social issues, whilst paying specific consideration to the Baltic Sea area. It is a joint-degree program, which is part of a team effort with four universities. There is for example the University of Tartu in Estonia, Vytautas Magnus University in Lithuania and the University of Latvia. The educational programmes allow students to be mobile within the system, for example one semester may be taken in a confederate school without paying additional membership or tuition fees. Subsequently, after passing the qualifications provided, people may procure teaching qualifications and continue their scholastic research around doctoral studies, or carry on studying within their career in the private or public sector. Graduates of the program, within the Baltic Sea area are also given the chance to continue onwards with their studies within the postgraduate system if they have studied the social sciences or humanities field.
  • In Greece, the metaptychiako (μεταπτυχιακό) which literally translates as post-degree (...programme or title), lasts normally from one to, more often, two years, and can be studied after a, at least, four-years undergraduate ptychio, which means degree.
    Also, the five-year diploma (δίπλωμα) awarded in all Polytechnics (schools of engineering) and the Athens School of Fine Arts is considered equal to a graduate degree plus a master's degree.[77]
  • In Russia master (магистр) degree can be obtained after a two-year master course (магистратура) which is available after a four-year bachelor or a five-year specialist course. A graduate may choose a master course completely different from his/her previous one. During these two years master students attend specialized lectures in chosen profile, choose a faculty advisor and prepare their master thesis which is eventually defended before certifying commission consisting mostly of professors, leading by the professor from another university.
  • In the United Kingdom, first degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science are considered equivalent to master's degrees despite, for historical reasons, often having the titles of bachelor's degrees.[56]
  • The old Spanish degrees of Licenciado (Licenciate), Arquitecto (Architect) and Ingeniero (Engineer) are also equivalent to master's degrees. They were integrated programmes of study that combined first and second cycles and led to a second cycle qualification. The Spanish government issued a royal decree in 2014 establishing the official equivalences between the Spanish pre-Bologna degrees and the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) levels.[95] Most (if not all) Licenciado, Arquitecto and Ingeniero degrees were placed in level 7 (Master) of the EQF. These programmes have been phased out and replaced with the new Bologna programmes of Máster, to be completed after completion of a programme of Grado (Bachelor's).

Nomenclature

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In Spain and Latin America, the Master's degree nomenclature in the Spanish language varies from one country to another. It is known as:

  • Maestría: in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, and the Dominican Republic.
  • Máster: in Spain, Guatemala, and Paraguay. Magíster (abbreviated Mag.): in Chile, Colombia, Uruguay, and Peru.
  • Magister Scientiae (abbreviated MSc.): in Venezuela and Peru. The term magíster is used to refer to someone who has received the corresponding degree.

Note: In Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, and Uruguay, the term "magíster" is used to refer to a person who has completed a master's degree and received the corresponding title.

Brazil

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After acquiring a Bachelor's, Technologist or Licenciate Degree, students are qualified to continue their academic career through Master's Degree ("mestrado", in Portuguese, a.k.a. stricto sensu post-graduation) or Specialization Degree ("especialização", in Portuguese, a.k.a. lato sensu post-graduation) programs. At the Master's program there are 2–3 years of graduate-level studies. Usually focused on academic research, the Master's Degree requires, on any specific knowledge area, the development of a thesis to be presented and defended before a board of professors after the period of research. Conversely, the Specialization Degree, also comprehends a 1–2 years studies, but does not require a new thesis to be proposed and defended, being usually attended by professionals looking for complementary training on a specific area of their knowledge.

In addition, many Brazilian universities offer an MBA program. However, those are not the equivalent to a United States MBA degree, as it does not formally certify the student with a Master's degree (stricto sensu) but with a Specialization Degree (lato sensu) instead. A regular post-graduation course has to comply with a minimum of 360 class-hours, while an MBA degree has to comply with a minimum of 400 class-hours. Master's degree (stricto sensu) does not require a set minimum of class-hours, but it is practically impossible to finish it in less than 18 months due to the workload and research required; an average time for the degree is 2.5 years[citation needed]. Specialization (lato sensu) and MBA degrees can be also offered as distance education courses, while the master's degree (stricto-sensu) requires physical attendance. In Brazil, the degree often serves as additional qualification for those seeking to differentiate themselves in the job market, or for those who want to pursue a PhD It corresponds to the European (Bologna Process) 2nd Cycle or the North American master's.

Asia

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Hong Kong

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Hong Kong requires one or two years of full-time coursework to achieve a master's degree. For part-time study, two or three years of study are normally required to achieve a postgraduate degree.

As in the United Kingdom, the MPhil is the most advanced master's degree and usually includes both a taught portion and a research portion which requires candidates to complete an extensive original research for their thesis. Regardless of subject, students in all faculties (including sciences, arts, humanities and social sciences) may be awarded the Master of Philosophy.

Pakistan

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In Pakistani education system, there are two different master's degree programmes.[citation needed] Master’s degrees are earned after having received a bachelor’s pass degree and one year after the honours degree. The master's program generally lasts for two years.[96]

  • 2 years master's programmes: these are mostly Master of Arts (MA) leading to MPhil/PhM
  • 4 years master's programmes: these are mostly Master of Science (MS) leading to PhD

Both MA and MS are offered in all major subjects.

India

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In the Indian system, a master's degree is a postgraduate degree following a Bachelor's degree and preceding a Doctorate, usually requiring two years to complete. The available degrees include but are not limited to the following:

Indonesia

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In the Indonesian higher education system, a master's degree (Indonesian: magister) is a postgraduate degree following a bachelor's degree, preceding a doctorate and requiring a maximum of four years to complete.[97] Master's degree students are required to submit their thesis (Indonesian: tesis) for examination by two or three examiners. The available degrees include but are not limited to the following:[98]

Israel

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Postgraduate studies in Israel require the completion of a bachelor's degree and is dependent upon this title's grades; see Education in Israel#Higher education. Degrees awarded are the MA, MSc, MBA and LLM; the Technion awards a non-thesis MEng.[99] There also exists "a direct track" doctorate degree, which lasts four to five years. Taking this route, students prepare a preliminary research paper during their first year, after which they must pass an exam before being allowed to proceed, at which point they are awarded a master's degree.

Nepal

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In Nepal, after completing a bachelor's degree, students must spend at least three or four years studying full-time in college and university, with an entrance test for those who wish to pursue master's, PhD, and doctorate degrees. All doctoral and PhD degrees, as well as third cycle degrees, are research and experience oriented, with a focus on results.

After completing a successful bachelor's degree, students pursue master's degrees in engineering, education, and arts, as well as all law and medicine-related courses.

MBBS is only a medical degree with six and a half years of study resulting in a medical doctor and must finish its study in four years after master's degree with minimum education of 15 or 16 years of university bachelor's degree education.

The following are the most professional and internationalized programs in Nepal:

Taiwan

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In Taiwan, bachelor's degree courses are about four years in length, while an entrance examination is required for people who want to study for master's degrees and doctorates. The courses leading to these higher degrees are normally research-based.

Tuition is less expensive than would be the case in North America, costing as little as US$5000 for an MBA.[citation needed] As an incentive designed to increase foreign student numbers, the government and universities of Taiwan have redoubled their efforts to make a range of high-quality scholarships available[100] in the form of university-specific scholarships that include tuition waivers of up to NT$20,000 per month. The government offers the Taiwan Scholarship amounting to NT$20,000–30,000 per month (US$654–981) for a two-year program.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Master's degree

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from Grokipedia
A Master's degree is a postgraduate academic qualification awarded by universities upon successful completion of an advanced program of study, typically lasting one to two years after obtaining a , that signifies specialized expertise and mastery in a particular field or discipline. These programs generally require 30 to 60 credit hours of coursework, emphasizing in-depth research, critical analysis, and practical application, often culminating in a , capstone project, or to demonstrate scholarly achievement. Admission typically demands a from an accredited , along with prerequisites such as a minimum GPA, scores like the GRE, letters of recommendation, and sometimes professional experience. The roots of the Master's degree lie in medieval European universities, where it originated as the Latin "magister," a to teach granted to scholars who had mastered the seven liberal arts—comprising the (, , logic) and (arithmetic, , astronomy, music). By the , institutions like and awarded it concurrently with bachelor's degrees to denote superior academic standing, but in the 19th and 20th centuries, it evolved into distinct specialized credentials, such as the , reflecting the rise of scientific and professional disciplines amid industrialization and expanding knowledge domains. This transformation positioned the Master's as a bridge between and doctoral pursuits or professional careers, with approximately 880,000 such degrees conferred annually in the United States as of the 2021–22 . Master's degrees encompass a wide array of types tailored to diverse academic and professional goals, broadly categorized by focus and structure. The Master of Arts (MA) predominates in , social sciences, and liberal arts, fostering theoretical insight, research, and critical writing through coursework and a . In contrast, the Master of Science (MS) targets technical and scientific fields like , , and , prioritizing quantitative analysis, experimentation, and applied skills. Professional variants include the (MBA) for leadership and management training, (MEd) for pedagogical advancement, Master of Public Health (MPH) for health policy expertise, and (MFA) for creative disciplines like writing or design. These can be research-oriented (-based), professional (coursework-focused), or integrated with prior bachelor's study in some systems. While structures vary globally, the Master's degree promotes mobility and comparability through frameworks like Europe's , initiated in 1999, which standardizes it as a two-year cycle (90–120 ECTS credits) following a three-year bachelor's, facilitating credit transfer across 49 countries in the . In the United States and many other nations, it remains flexibly one to three years, often accommodating part-time or online formats to suit working professionals. Pursuing a Master's enhances and earnings—holders earn a median weekly wage of $1,840 compared to $1,543 for bachelor's recipients—with approximately 25.3 million Americans holding one as of 2023, representing about 11% of adults aged 25 and older and driving advancements in fields from technology to .

Overview

Definition and Characteristics

A master's degree is a postgraduate awarded by universities upon completion of a program of study following the attainment of a , signifying advanced knowledge and skills in a specialized field. It represents the second level of higher education in many systems, building on foundational undergraduate learning to foster deeper expertise, , and often or professional competencies. Key characteristics of master's programs include a typical duration of 1 to 2 years of full-time study, equivalent to 30 to 60 credits in systems like the United States or 60 to 120 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits in Europe and aligned regions. These programs emphasize specialization, distinguishing them from bachelor's degrees through greater depth in coursework, independent inquiry, and practical application rather than broad introductory education. Most culminate in a substantial capstone experience, such as a thesis, dissertation, or project, which demonstrates the student's ability to synthesize and apply advanced concepts. Globally, master's degrees are recognized under level 7 of the (ISCED), a framework that standardizes educational qualifications for international comparability and mobility. Common abbreviations include MA for , typically in humanities and social sciences; for , in natural and applied sciences; and for , focused on technical fields.

Purposes and Benefits

Master's degrees serve several primary purposes, including providing advanced specialization in a chosen field, preparing individuals for doctoral studies, enhancing professional skills, and facilitating career advancement in sectors such as , and healthcare. For instance, they enable learners to deepen expertise beyond undergraduate levels, often through specialized or , which is essential for roles requiring nuanced knowledge. In professional contexts, these degrees equip graduates with practical competencies tailored to industry needs, such as in or pedagogical innovation in . Additionally, they act as a bridge to PhD programs by fostering methodologies and , allowing students to explore unanswered questions in their disciplines. The benefits of a master's degree are multifaceted, encompassing improved economic outcomes, mobility, and personal growth. Graduates often experience higher earning potential, with data indicating that individuals with a master's or equivalent degree earn approximately 83% more over their lifetimes compared to those with only upper , representing a substantial premium even relative to holders. is also enhanced, as master's recipients are about 4 percentage points more likely to be employed than those with a , with rates averaging 90% for 25-34-year-olds across countries. Furthermore, these programs offer networking opportunities through collaborations with peers and faculty, while contributing to by producing experts capable of advancing in emerging areas. On a societal level, master's degrees foster specialized expertise to address global challenges, such as and crises, by training professionals who can develop evidence-based solutions. They also promote , encouraging continuous skill development amid rapid technological and economic shifts, which supports broader and . OECD reports highlight that master's graduates contribute to higher overall and , with tertiary-educated individuals driving progress in . This expertise not only benefits individuals but also strengthens societal resilience through informed policy and interdisciplinary approaches to complex issues.

Historical Development

Medieval Origins to 18th Century

The master's degree originated in the medieval universities of during the 12th and 13th centuries, evolving as a qualification known as the Magister Artium that signified mastery in the liberal arts and granted the licentia docendi, or license to teach. This degree represented the culmination of advanced studies following the bachelor's level and was essential for assuming teaching roles within the academic community. The system's roots lay in the emerging scholastic tradition, which emphasized dialectical reasoning and the integration of Aristotelian philosophy with to foster rigorous intellectual inquiry. A pivotal moment came in 1233 when issued a establishing the and explicitly conferring the licentia ubique docendi—the universal right to teach—upon approved masters in any faculty, allowing them to instruct across without local restrictions. This decree marked the first formal papal endorsement of the master's qualification as a portable academic privilege, influencing the structure of subsequent universities and elevating the degree's prestige. Universities such as (founded c. 1088), focused on law but incorporating arts instruction; (c. 1150), a center for theology and arts; and (c. 1096), emphasizing liberal arts, adopted the master's as the gateway to scholarly authority in the arts faculty. These institutions operated as guild-like corporations of masters (universitas magistrorum) or students, regulating curricula, examinations, and privileges to protect members from or secular interference. By the 14th century, the master's degree had formalized further at institutions like , where the Magister Artium required several years of additional study and rigorous examinations in the (grammar, , logic) and (arithmetic, , , astronomy) beyond the bachelor's, enabling graduates to lecture independently. profoundly shaped this progression, with masters engaging in public disputations to demonstrate expertise, as seen in the works of figures like at . Access remained restricted to a scholarly elite, often clerics or , due to the demanding prerequisites and costs. Into the , the degree retained its core role in arts education across , though at , it began acquiring honorary dimensions, symbolizing full membership in the university corporation rather than purely instructional competency, while still limited to those who had completed the requisite residency and fees.

19th and 20th Centuries

In the , the master's degree began transitioning from its primarily honorary status in the United States to a more structured academic credential, influenced by European models of advanced study. established its Graduate Department in 1872, marking the introduction of earned master's degrees, such as the (MA), which required additional coursework and examinations beyond the bachelor's level, departing from earlier automatic conferrals. This shift was part of a broader adoption of the German Humboldtian model, which emphasized the integration of research and teaching in graduate seminars, promoting original scholarship and intellectual independence at institutions like the University of Berlin founded in 1810. In the , the MA at and evolved into a prominent during this period, often awarded automatically after a set number of years post-bachelor's, signifying social prestige and eligibility for certain professions rather than rigorous advanced training. By the early , master's programs expanded into professional fields amid industrialization, with the () emerging as a key innovation. launched the world's first MBA program in 1908, focusing on practical training through case studies to meet the demands of growing corporations, enrolling 59 students initially. This development reflected a shift toward applied graduate , contrasting with the more theoretical orientations of traditional arts and sciences master's degrees. The saw gradual growth, but catalyzed a significant boom in access, particularly in the United States, where the of 1944 provided tuition and living stipends to over 2 million veterans, leading to a surge in higher education enrollment that increased participation by nearly 50% by 1947. In the mid-20th century, standardization efforts further shaped master's degrees, especially in , as nations rebuilt educational systems post-war. In the UK, the 1963 recommended expanding higher education to meet economic needs, resulting in the creation of new universities and a clearer distinction between taught master's programs—structured around and skills—and research-based ones emphasizing independent theses, with postgraduate enrollment doubling by the early 1970s. This reform influenced global dissemination through colonial legacies, as British-style master's degrees were adopted in former colonies like and parts of via affiliated universities and external degree programs from institutions such as the , facilitating the spread of standardized graduate in the developing world during . Key milestones from the 1940s to highlight the massification of master's education in and . In the , higher education enrollment rose dramatically from about 1.5 million in 1940 to over 8 million by 1970, driven by the and subsequent federal investments like the , which broadened access to advanced degrees. experienced parallel surges, with countries like and expanding university capacity post-1945 reconstruction, leading to significant growth in higher education students (doubling or more in select nations by the ) to support industrial and scientific advancement. These developments transformed the master's degree from an elite pursuit into a widespread for mobility.

21st Century Developments

The Bologna Process, initiated in 1999 by European ministers of education, has significantly shaped master's degree programs across Europe by standardizing the second cycle of higher education to typically 60-120 ECTS credits, facilitating student and staff mobility through a common credit transfer system. This harmonization aimed to create a cohesive European Higher Education Area (EHEA), enhancing comparability of qualifications and promoting cross-border exchanges, with over 48 countries participating by the 2020s. Beyond Europe, the process has influenced higher education reforms in non-EU regions, including adaptations in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, where countries like Australia and several in the Middle East have adopted similar three-cycle structures (bachelor's, master's, doctorate) to improve global recognition of their degrees. Global enrollment in , encompassing master's programs, has expanded dramatically in the , rising from approximately 100 million students in 2000 to 264 million by 2023, according to data. This growth reflects increased access to higher education worldwide, with a notable rise in international students pursuing master's degrees, tripling from 2 million in 2000 to nearly 6.9 million in 2023, many of whom opt for second-cycle programs to enhance career prospects. The proportion of internationally mobile students in total tertiary enrollment also increased from 2.1% to 2.7% over this period, driven by and demand for specialized skills. Key trends in master's degrees have shifted toward , with programs increasingly incorporating practical , internships, and industry partnerships to align with labor market needs. and digital skills have become integral, as curricula integrate topics like environmental management and data analytics to address global challenges such as and technological disruption, including emerging emphases on AI integration as of 2025. The accelerated the adoption of online delivery formats, with many institutions transitioning to hybrid models that persist post-2020, expanding access for working professionals and remote learners. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, including degree inflation, where an oversupply of master's holders has led to diminished returns on investment and heightened competition for jobs traditionally requiring only bachelor's degrees. Accessibility remains uneven in developing regions, with lower enrollment rates due to economic barriers and infrastructure limitations, exacerbating global disparities. In the 2020s, policy changes like the UK's post-Brexit visa reforms, including shortening the Graduate visa to 18 months from January 2027 and stricter dependency rules implemented in 2024, have contributed to reduced international student inflows as of 2025.

Types and Titles

Research-Based Master's Degrees

Research-based master's degrees emphasize independent scholarly inquiry and the production of original , distinguishing them from coursework-oriented programs by prioritizing the development of a substantial as the core component. These degrees typically require students to conduct in-depth investigation under supervision, culminating in a dissertation of 20,000 to 40,000 words that demonstrates critical , methodological rigor, and a contribution to existing in the field. The structure often involves minimal or no formal taught modules, allowing candidates to focus primarily on from the outset, which fosters advanced skills in , , and . Such degrees are prevalent in disciplines including the , natural sciences, and social sciences, where they serve as a bridge to doctoral studies by honing competencies essential for PhD-level work. For instance, in the sciences, candidates might explore experimental methodologies or theoretical modeling, while in the , the focus could involve archival analysis or interpretive frameworks. These programs are designed to equip graduates with the ability to identify research gaps and propose innovative solutions, making them ideal preparation for academic careers or -intensive roles in industry. Common titles for research-based master's degrees include the (MPhil), which typically spans one to two years of full-time study and involves a defended before a panel, and research variants of the (MA) or (MSc), tailored to specific disciplinary traditions. The MPhil, in particular, is often positioned as a standalone qualification or a probationary stage toward a PhD, emphasizing philosophical and methodological depth over breadth. In contrast to taught master's degrees, which prioritize structured learning and practical application, research-based programs demand greater autonomy and originality from the outset. Assessment in these degrees centers on the thesis itself, evaluated through a viva voce examination where the candidate orally defends their work against external examiners' scrutiny, alongside written feedback on , originality, and scholarly impact. elements may involve input from supervisory committees or departmental panels to ensure the meets academic standards. The evaluation prioritizes the thesis's adherence to ethical practices, logical argumentation, and tangible advancements in the field, rather than rote or professional skills.

Taught and Professional Master's Degrees

Taught master's degrees, also known as coursework-based master's programs, emphasize structured academic learning through a combination of lectures, seminars, tutorials, and practical assignments, typically culminating in a short dissertation or project that constitutes about one-third of the total credits. These programs are designed to build advanced knowledge in a specific field, often mirroring the pedagogical style of but at a higher level of depth and . Unlike research-based master's, which prioritize original independent inquiry, taught degrees focus on applying established theories and methods through guided coursework. Professional master's degrees represent a specialized subset of taught programs, tailored to develop practical skills for specific career paths in applied fields such as , , , and . For instance, the (MBA) centers on management, incorporating case studies of real-world scenarios to analyze strategic decision-making, alongside core modules in , , and operations. Many MBA programs also integrate or experiential projects to bridge theory and practice, enhancing professional networks and . Similarly, the (MPA) equips students for roles in and nonprofit sectors through coursework in , , and organizational , often requiring a capstone project or focused on challenges. The (MEd) targets educators and administrators, featuring modules on design, instructional strategies, and assessment techniques, with practical components like field experiences to improve teaching efficacy. In , the (LLM) provides advanced study in legal topics through seminars and electives, allowing specialization in areas such as international or , typically without a lengthy thesis. Common titles for these degrees include (MA) and (MSc) for taught programs in and sciences, respectively, while professional designations encompass MBA, MPA, MEd, and LLM. These programs often follow a modular structure, where credits are accumulated through discrete units—such as 180 UK credits or 90-120 ECTS—allowing flexibility in course selection and part-time study options. Key features include collaborative elements like group projects and presentations to foster , alongside an emphasis on transferable skills such as critical analysis, communication, and problem-solving to boost career prospects in professional settings. Dissertations or projects in these degrees are generally concise, around 10,000-15,000 words, synthesizing into an applied investigation rather than original .

Integrated and Honorary Variants

Integrated master's degrees combine undergraduate and postgraduate-level study into a single program, allowing seamless progression without separate admission for the advanced portion. In the , these programs typically span four years (five years in ) and are common in fields such as , sciences, and . They include at least one full-time equivalent to master's level (Level 7 in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications), culminating in awards like the (MEng), (MSci), or Master of Chemistry (MChem). For instance, the MEng is accredited by professional bodies such as the UK and equips graduates for chartered status. Unlike traditional postgraduate master's degrees, integrated variants emphasize extended undergraduate preparation with built-in advanced study, often incorporating research projects or professional placements. These programs total 480 credits in , , and (with at least 120 at master's level) or 600 credits in . They are designed for students entering directly from , providing depth equivalent to a bachelor's honors degree plus master's-level expertise in a unified . Honorary variants of master's degrees serve ceremonial or recognition purposes rather than requiring additional academic work, often awarded automatically or upon meeting non-academic criteria. At the Universities of and , the (MA) is an degree granted to (BA) holders after a set period—typically four years for Oxford and three years for Cambridge following the BA award—without further study or examination. This MA replaces the BA on the recipient's record, conferring alumni privileges and status within the university, subject to a fee and formal process. Originating from medieval traditions, it evolved into a symbolic upgrade by the , distinct from earned postgraduate qualifications. In , the MA is an undergraduate honors degree in arts and , awarded after four years of study and equivalent to a BA elsewhere in the UK or internationally. Offered by ancient universities like and , it involves broad foundational years followed by specialization, but holds no postgraduate status despite the title. This reflects historical practices rather than advanced study. Pre-Bologna Process reforms in , the magisterexamen was a four-year requiring full-time study in a specialized field, akin to an integrated bachelor's-master's hybrid but without formal postgraduate extension. It emphasized depth in one discipline, totaling at least 160 Swedish credits (equivalent to 240 ECTS), and served as a professional qualification before the 2007 shift to separate bachelor's and master's structures. Other honorary master's degrees may be conferred on distinguished individuals who have not completed formal graduate study, recognizing exceptional contributions in fields like or . These awards, less common than honorary doctorates, follow institutional policies for eminent achievement and do not confer academic credit. Such variants highlight how master's titles can denote recognition or progression beyond standard postgraduate pathways.

Program Structure

Admission Requirements

Admission to master's degree programs typically requires applicants to hold a bachelor's degree or its equivalent from an accredited institution, often with a minimum grade-point average (GPA) of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale or equivalent, such as a 2:2 honors degree in the UK. Relevant academic transcripts must be submitted to verify prior performance, along with letters of recommendation from academic or professional referees to assess the applicant's potential. Additional requirements vary by program and region but commonly include standardized tests for certain fields; for instance, the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) is accepted by over 1,300 schools worldwide for MBA and specialized master's admissions, while the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) is primarily used for programs to evaluate analytical and quantitative skills. Non-native English speakers must demonstrate language proficiency through tests like the TOEFL iBT, accepted by more than 13,000 institutions globally, or IELTS, which assesses skills on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) scale. In creative fields such as fine arts or design, applicants are required to submit a portfolio of 15-20 works showcasing their artistic abilities and . The application process often involves submitting materials through centralized platforms, such as in the UK for postgraduate courses, where eligibility is determined by undergraduate qualifications and subject relevance. Interviews are conducted in competitive fields like business or clinical programs to evaluate fit and motivation, with questions focusing on career goals and academic background. Equity considerations, such as in the , have historically aimed to promote diversity in graduate admissions by holistically reviewing applications, though recent rulings have limited race-based factors. Requirements differ by degree type; research-based master's programs, such as MPhil or MRes, typically demand a research proposal outlining the intended study, along with evidence of prior research experience like a thesis. Professional master's degrees, including MBAs or executive programs, often require 2-4 years of relevant work experience to ensure applicants can apply practical insights, with some specifying at least three years for mid-career professionals.

Duration and Delivery Formats

The duration of master's degree programs varies significantly by region, program type, and delivery mode, typically ranging from one to two years for full-time study. , taught master's programs are commonly completed in one year of full-time study, focusing on intensive coursework without an extensive requirement. , research-oriented master's degrees often require two years, incorporating substantial work or comprehensive examinations. Across much of , the standard full-time duration is two years, aligning with the to ensure comparability. Part-time options, designed for working professionals, generally extend this to two to four years, allowing flexibility around employment schedules. Delivery formats for master's programs include traditional on-campus instruction, fully options, and hybrid models that blend in-person and virtual elements. On-campus programs emphasize direct interaction and access to facilities like laboratories, while formats, which gained prominence with the integration of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) in the , enable remote participation through asynchronous or synchronous platforms. Hybrid programs, combining coursework with periodic on-site sessions, cater to diverse learner needs and are increasingly common in professional fields. Full-time enrollment suits recent graduates seeking immersion, whereas part-time formats accommodate professionals by spreading coursework over evenings or weekends. Several factors influence program length, including credit requirements and disciplinary demands. In the , master's programs typically require 30 to 60 semester credits, equivalent to one to two years of study. In , the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) mandates 90 to 120 credits for most programs, supporting a standardized two-year framework. In science and applied fields, additional time for laboratory work, fieldwork, or internships can extend durations; for instance, programs in or may add several months for supervised practical components. Accelerated options, often 9 to 12 months, are available in select taught programs through condensed schedules or prior credit transfers, though they demand high intensity. Recent trends reflect a surge in flexible delivery, particularly online master's degrees, which saw enrollment growth at 11 times the pre-2020 pace between 2019 and 2022, driven by the and demand for accessible education. The global online degree market expanded from $36 billion in 2019 to a projected $74 billion by 2025, underscoring this shift. Additionally, micro-credentials—short, skill-focused certifications—are increasingly stacking toward full master's degrees, allowing learners to build qualifications modularly and transition into formal programs.

Curriculum and Assessment Methods

The curriculum of a master's degree program typically emphasizes advanced, specialized knowledge building on undergraduate foundations, with structures varying between taught and research-based formats. In taught master's programs, students usually complete 8 to 12 courses, comprising core modules that provide foundational expertise in the field, electives for customization, and specializations to deepen focus in sub-areas such as data analytics or . For research-based master's degrees, the curriculum shifts emphasis to independent inquiry, with approximately 70% of the program dedicated to a substantial or dissertation, alongside fewer coursework modules to support methodological skills. Teaching methods in master's programs promote active engagement and , moving beyond traditional lectures to interactive formats suited to postgraduate learners. Common approaches include seminars for in-depth discussions and peer collaboration, or practical sessions for hands-on application in fields like sciences or , and flipped classrooms where students review materials beforehand to facilitate problem-solving during class time. Interdisciplinary options are increasingly integrated, allowing students to draw from multiple fields through joint modules or collaborative projects, enhancing adaptability for complex real-world challenges. Assessment methods evaluate both knowledge acquisition and higher-order skills, using a mix of formative and summative tools tailored to program type. In taught programs, evaluations often include written exams (20-50% weighting), essays or reports demonstrating analytical depth, oral presentations for communication proficiency, and continuous assessments like group projects, with overall grades determined by weighted averages. Research-based programs prioritize the dissertation, weighted at 60-100% of the final grade, assessed via viva voce defense and rubrics evaluating originality, methodology, and contribution to the field. Grading systems commonly employ categories such as pass (50-59%), merit (60-69%), distinction (70%+), or pass/fail, with honors distinctions for exceptional performance. Program outcomes are designed to align with established quality frameworks, ensuring graduates achieve defined competencies. In the UK, curricula adhere to the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) Master's Degree Characteristics Statement, which specifies advanced subject knowledge, critical evaluation skills, and ethical awareness as core learning goals. For business-related master's, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) standards require evidence-based learning outcomes focused on strategic thinking, ethical reasoning, and professional readiness, verified through ongoing assessment. These frameworks guide curriculum development to produce versatile professionals capable of innovation and leadership.

Regional Variations

Europe

The Bologna Process, launched in 1999 through the Bologna Declaration signed by education ministers from 29 European countries, established a harmonized framework for higher education across Europe to enhance mobility, employability, and comparability of degrees. Under this process, master's degrees form the second cycle of a three-cycle system, typically requiring 60-120 ECTS credits and building directly on a first-cycle bachelor's degree of 180-240 ECTS credits. This structure, formalized in subsequent communiqués such as those from Berlin in 2003 and Bergen in 2005, equates to 1-2 years of full-time study and emphasizes advanced knowledge, skills, and research competencies to prepare graduates for professional roles or doctoral studies. By standardizing credit allocation and learning outcomes via the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), the process facilitates recognition of qualifications across the 49 participating countries in the European Higher Education Area. In the , master's programs reflect a mix of national traditions and alignment, with taught degrees like the (MA) and (MSc) commonly lasting one academic year full-time, comprising taught modules, seminars, and a substantial dissertation or project worth 30 ECTS. Research-oriented degrees, such as the (), extend to 1-2 years and focus primarily on independent research under supervision, culminating in a thesis that demonstrates original contribution to knowledge. Integrated variants like the (MEng) combine undergraduate and postgraduate study into a four-year program, awarding a master's-level qualification upon completion without a separate . Following in 2020, higher education institutions have prioritized international for these programs, introducing policies like the Graduate Route to allow post-study work and thereby maintaining the sector's global appeal despite reduced EU participation. Germany's master's degrees adhere closely to the Bologna model as consecutive programs, such as the (M.A.), spanning two years or four semesters (120 ECTS credits) and requiring a for admission, with coursework, electives, and a typically completed in the final semester. The , often involving 3-6 months of , is defended orally, alongside modular examinations to assess specialized . For regulated professions including , , , and , additional state examinations () are mandated, either integrating with or supplementing the master's to ensure professional competency as defined by federal and state laws. In , the master's (Master) follows a similar consecutive structure within the Licence-Master-Doctorat (LMD) system, lasting two years (120 ECTS credits) after the three-year licence , emphasizing disciplinary deepening through seminars, internships, and a . These programs are nationally accredited by the Ministry of Higher Education, with professional master's often incorporating practical training for fields like business or engineering. Nordic countries, including , , and , implement two-year master's programs (120 ECTS credits) aligned with standards, featuring a balanced structure of advanced in the first year and intensive work in the second, where the thesis—often 30 ECTS—requires original empirical or theoretical analysis under faculty guidance. This format fosters interdisciplinary skills and research autonomy, with programs typically offered in English to attract international talent. Eastern European nations, such as , , and , have undergone significant reforms since joining the in the early 2000s, transitioning from pre-existing multi-year systems to the standardized second-cycle master's of 60-120 ECTS credits to align with European norms and enable cross-border recognition. This adoption, supported by the and national agencies, has replaced traditional long-cycle degrees with modular bachelor's-master's pathways, though some legacy programs in regulated fields persist during the phase-in period.

North America

In North America, master's degrees are offered across the , , and , with structures emphasizing both and orientations, typically spanning 1 to 2 years of full-time study. These programs build on a and often require 30 to 60 credits, focusing on advanced , practical application, or original to prepare graduates for specialized careers or further doctoral pursuits. In the United States, master's programs generally last 1 to 2 years full-time and require 30 to 36 credits for most disciplines, though professional variants like the (MFA) in fine arts may extend to 2 to 3 years with a focus on studio practice and creative portfolio development rather than traditional research. Research-oriented degrees, such as the (MA) or (MSc), culminate in either a demonstrating independent scholarly work or comprehensive examinations assessing broad knowledge in the field, while non-thesis tracks emphasize applied projects or capstone experiences. Canada's master's degrees mirror the U.S. model, with MA and MSc programs typically requiring 1 to 2 years of study and 30 to 45 credits, divided between , seminars, and a or major research paper for academic tracks. In , where the () is a 3-year program, master's degrees follow directly and often last 1 to 2 years, integrating advanced specialization in fields like or sciences with options for internships. opportunities, such as assistantships (TA) or research assistantships (RA), are common for both thesis-based and course-based programs, providing stipends and tuition remission to support students' academic and . In , the maestría (master's degree) is predominantly -focused and spans 2 years to 80 to 120 credits under the SATCA system, requiring a based on original investigation to earn the title of or Maestría en Ciencias. Programs in sciences and technology often receive funding from the National Council of Humanities, Sciences and Technologies (CONAHCYT, formerly CONACYT), which supports scholarships covering tuition, living expenses, and costs for high-achieving students pursuing advanced studies domestically or abroad. Across , master's programs commonly offer funding through TA and RA positions, where students assist in teaching undergraduate courses or faculty in exchange for financial support, fostering hands-on experience in academia. is overseen by bodies like the (CHEA) in the U.S., ensuring program quality and recognition, while in and , provincial or national ministries handle similar oversight to maintain standards for and further study.

Latin America

In Latin America, master's degrees are typically structured as postgraduate programs that build on a bachelor's qualification, emphasizing both academic research and tailored to regional contexts. These programs often reflect a blend of colonial Iberian traditions and contemporary adaptations, with durations generally ranging from 1 to 2 years full-time. Unlike more research-intensive models elsewhere, many Latin American master's programs incorporate practical applications to address local socioeconomic challenges, such as environmental sustainability and . In , the mestrado serves as the standard master's degree, offered in two main modalities: the academic mestrado, which focuses on and requires a defense, and the mestrado profissional, designed for working professionals with an emphasis on applied skills rather than a traditional dissertation. Both are stricto sensu graduate programs regulated by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), under the Ministry of Education, which conducts periodic evaluations to ensure program quality based on criteria like faculty qualifications, output, and performance. These programs typically last 2 years, comprising coursework, seminars, and a final or for the academic track, fostering expertise in fields like to tackle Brazil's unique environmental and social issues. Argentina's posgrado programs encompass master's degrees that usually span 2 years and allow for specializations in areas such as , , or , often culminating in a or capstone project. These programs are offered by public and private universities, with many emphasizing interdisciplinary approaches to regional concerns like and . In , the magíster en ciencias or similar titles denote master's degrees lasting 1 to 2 years, frequently 4 semesters of intensive study, including and a component; professional variants prioritize practical training for sectors like and . Across the region, master's curricula increasingly highlight sustainability and other pressing Latin American issues, such as and inequality, with programs integrating case studies from local ecosystems and economies. delivery formats are expanding rapidly, enabling greater accessibility amid urbanization trends, though hybrid models remain common to balance virtual learning with hands-on regional fieldwork. Accreditation efforts are coordinated through national bodies like Brazil's CAPES and regional frameworks such as the Educational Sector Agreement (ARCU-SUR), which harmonize standards for degree recognition among member countries, akin to systems in other regions. Despite these advancements, challenges persist, including limited access for students in rural areas due to geographic isolation, inadequate , and socioeconomic disparities that hinder enrollment and completion rates. Aligning programs with international standards also poses difficulties, as varying national regulations can complicate cross-border mobility and equivalence recognition, though initiatives like UNESCO's Regional Convention on the Recognition of Studies aim to mitigate these barriers.

Asia

In , Master's degrees are typically two-year postgraduate programs pursued after a three-year , with common offerings including the Master of Technology (MTech) in engineering and Master of Business Administration (MBA) in management. Admission to these programs often requires competitive national entrance examinations, such as the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) for MTech or the University Grants Commission National Eligibility Test (UGC NET) for certain academic fields, alongside a minimum of 55% marks in the undergraduate degree. These structures emphasize a blend of coursework, practical training, and sometimes a , aligning with the National Education Policy's framework for flexible . In and , Master's programs generally span two to three years and are predominantly research-oriented, culminating in titles like Shuoshi in or a standard Master's in . In , entry involves a national postgraduate following a four-year Bachelor's, with programs focusing on advanced coursework and a under faculty supervision. Japan's graduate schools similarly require a Bachelor's completion and university-specific entrance exams or interviews, prioritizing original and often conducted in Japanese, though English options are expanding. Both countries extend undergraduate systems like indirectly through these rigorous graduate admissions, fostering specialized expertise in fields such as science and technology. Across other Asian regions, variations reflect local influences and durations. In Hong Kong, one-year taught Master's programs predominate, modeled on the UK's compact structure, emphasizing professional skills through coursework rather than extensive research. Pakistan's two-year MS or MPhil degrees follow 16 years of prior education, requiring at least 30 credit hours including a thesis and a GAT-General test score of 50%. Indonesia's Magister (S2) programs last one to two years after a four-year Bachelor's, combining classes and a final project for professional advancement. In Taiwan, standard two-year Master's with a mandatory thesis follow a Bachelor's, allowing up to four years for completion in research-intensive fields. Asia's Master's landscape shows rapid expansion, driven by the proliferation of and a surge in English-medium programs to attract global talent and support . Enrollment in higher education has doubled since 2000, with private institutions now accounting for over 60% of capacity in countries like and , offering flexible, market-oriented degrees. English-taught options have grown exponentially, from hundreds in the early to thousands by 2020, particularly in East and , enhancing and cross-border mobility.

Africa and Middle East

In , master's degree programs typically last 1 to 2 years and reflect colonial legacies, with English-speaking countries like drawing from British models, such as the (MPhil), which emphasizes research and can be completed in 1 to 2 years at institutions like the . Francophone nations, influenced by French systems, often structure programs around a 2-year cycle post-baccalauréat or licence, as seen in and Côte d'Ivoire, where curricula integrate regional development focuses. Access remains limited due to resource constraints, with enrollment rates below 10% of the relevant age group in many countries, but initiatives like the African Union's Pan African University (PAU) provide full scholarships for master's programs across its institutes in , , , and , targeting talented applicants under 30 to foster continental expertise. In , Egypt's master's degrees, known as the or magister, generally span 2 years following a bachelor's, offered in or English at universities like the , where programs in fields such as studies combine coursework, language training, and a . follows a similar 2-year post-licence model, equivalent to 120 ECTS credits, leading to a mastère spécialisé or professionnel, with emphasis on professional tracks in and at institutions like the University of Tunis El Manar. Across the , Saudi Arabia's master's programs typically require 2 years of study, including options for integration with Quranic sciences, as in the Master of the Qur'an and Its Sciences at Majmaah University, which combines theological and linguistic coursework in . In the , professional master's like MBAs last 1 to 2 years, often part-time for working professionals, with programs at focusing on practical specializations such as and . Regional challenges include significant brain drain, with over 70,000 skilled African professionals emigrating annually, driven by limited research funding and job opportunities, exacerbating talent loss in higher education. disparities persist in participation, despite women achieving tertiary education at rates equal to or higher than men in most MENA countries due to cultural barriers and workforce gaps, even with higher female rates in urban areas. Post-2020, online master's access has grown through platforms like , with partnerships in and the UAE enabling over 500,000 enrollments in MENA by 2025, including AI and business certificates aligned with national visions like Saudi Vision 2030.

Oceania

In Oceania, master's degrees have evolved from British colonial influences, emphasizing structured that aligns with regional qualifications frameworks. Countries like and offer robust systems at level 9 of their respective frameworks, typically spanning 1 to 2 years and blending , , and applications, while Pacific nations rely heavily on regional institutions for access to such programs. Australia's master's degrees are positioned at (AQF) level 9, requiring advanced knowledge and skills for professional practice or . These programs are categorized into , , and extended formats, with master's degrees—such as the Master by —focusing on structured modules and practical application over 1 to 2 years, often culminating in a capstone project. master's degrees emphasize original investigation, while extended variants integrate substantial professional components, like the Master of Teaching, which prepares educators through a blend of theory and supervised practice. In , master's degrees adhere to (NZQA) standards at level 9, generally requiring 120 credits and lasting 1 to 2 years, with structures similar to Australia's, including taught and research pathways that foster advanced disciplinary expertise. Programs often incorporate cultural relevance, such as those emphasizing and Pacific studies; for instance, the in /Pacific and Indigenous Peoples' Law integrates indigenous legal perspectives to address regional and issues. Postgraduate offerings in Pacific Studies further highlight societal development, languages, and environmental challenges unique to the region. Master's programs in the Pacific Islands are more limited due to geographic and resource constraints, often delivered through partnerships with international or regional bodies rather than standalone national systems. The (USP), a collaborative institution serving 12 Pacific nations including , offers 2-year postgraduate degrees such as the and programs in Pacific Studies, focusing on , , and environmental via multi-campus delivery. These initiatives provide essential access for students from smaller islands, emphasizing practical skills for local challenges like . Oceania's master's education attracts a significant cohort, with and positioning themselves as export-oriented destinations through policies like post-study work visas. In , the Temporary Graduate visa (subclass 485) Post-Higher Education Work stream allows graduates of master's programs to live, work, and study for up to 2-3 years, depending on the qualification and location. 's Post Study Work Visa similarly grants 1 to 3 years of open employment rights to level 9 graduates, encouraging skilled migration and knowledge retention. Additionally, curricula across the region increasingly integrate sustainability, reflecting environmental vulnerabilities; for example, 's Master of Sustainability programs at institutions like the address , policy, and global challenges through interdisciplinary approaches.

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