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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

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Admirals Jay L. Johnson and Vern Clark of the United States Navy salute each other during a change of command ceremony. Clark is relieving Johnson as Chief of Naval Operations.

Military courtesy is one of the defining features of a military force. The courtesies form a strict and sometimes elaborate code of conduct. It is an extension and a formalization of courtesies practiced in a culture's everyday life. It is intended to reinforce military discipline and the chain of command by defining how soldiers will treat their superiors and vice versa. They are also thought to enhance esprit de corps.

Some military courtesies include proper forms of address ("Sir", "Ma'am", "Mister") and when each should be used; the salute and the related concept of standing at attention; proper wear of military headgear; obeisance; and the rules for behavior in various ceremonies. Specifics can vary depending on an individual's rank, location, and circumstances. A military funeral, for example, requires stricter etiquette than on a normal day. Courtesies are sometimes relaxed under battlefield conditions; officers may discourage salutes in combat areas to avoid making themselves a target for snipers. In the United States of America as well as some Commonwealth nations, it is forbidden to salute both indoors and in "the field," as snipers are likely to pick out officer targets watching for salutes.

There are military customs that have specific purposes. In the United States Navy, "bracing" is the practice of bracing one's self against the bulkhead (wall) at the position of attention as a superior officer walks by. The practice arose because of the narrow passageways on ships. Since officers may need to quickly move about the ship, sailors would get out of the officer's way by bracing. The tradition has extended to include the corridors and hallways of buildings (depending on the situation), and it is mostly an obeisance, but it still serves a useful purpose aboard ships (especially submarines).

According to Field Manual 7-21.13 4-4:^[1]

"Courtesy among members of the Armed Forces is vital to maintain military discipline. Military courtesy means good manners and politeness in dealing with other people. Courteous behavior provides a basis for developing good human relations. The distinction between civilian and military courtesy is that military courtesy was developed in a military atmosphere and has become an integral part of serving in uniform."

Military courtesy has been established, over the years, to establish and maintain order and structure that is the backbone of the military.

Military courtesies may also be adopted by paramilitary organizations.

References

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^ "Army Publishing Directorate – Details Page". Army Publishing Directorate. Retrieved 2023-02-06.

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Military courtesy encompasses the formalized customs, protocols, and polite behaviors observed within the armed forces to demonstrate respect for authority, symbols of the nation, and fellow service members, thereby maintaining discipline, unit cohesion, and professional standards.^[1] Rooted in tradition and regulated by branch-specific guidelines, such as the U.S. Army's AR 600-25 on salutes, honors, and visits of courtesy, it includes practices like rendering salutes to officers and the national flag, addressing superiors by rank, and participating in ceremonial honors.^[2] These courtesies apply across all military branches, promoting mutual respect and a sense of shared history while adapting to operational contexts, such as no-salute zones in combat areas.^[3] The importance of military courtesy lies in its role as a foundational element of military discipline, fostering esprit de corps and reinforcing core values like respect and integrity in services such as the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Space Force.^[4]^[5] For instance, in the Navy, courtesies extend to shipboard protocols like saluting the ensign upon boarding and rendering passing honors between vessels, which symbolize naval heritage and operational readiness.^[4] Similarly, the Air Force emphasizes courtesies as reflections of professional identity, including proper addressing of ranks (e.g., "Chief" for senior enlisted) and standing at attention during the national anthem to build trust and morale.^[3] In the Marine Corps, these practices link generations of service members, as seen in traditions like the birthday cake-cutting ceremony, where the first slice honors the guest of honor, the second the oldest Marine, and the third the youngest, symbolizing the transfer of wisdom and continuity.^[6] Key aspects of military courtesy also include exceptions for practicality, such as not saluting indoors unless reporting or during specific ceremonies, and extending courtesies to allied forces and certain civilians to support joint operations and international relations.^[2] Violations of these standards can undermine unit effectiveness and lead to corrective actions under regulations like AR 600-20, underscoring courtesy's integral connection to overall military conduct and ethical leadership.^[1] Across branches, adherence to these protocols not only enhances interpersonal relations but also upholds the professionalism expected in high-stakes environments, ensuring that service members embody the values of their respective forces.^[3]

Definition and Purpose

Definition

Military courtesy refers to the formalized system of behaviors, rituals, and protocols within armed forces that express respect for superiors, peers, and national symbols, while reinforcing hierarchical structure and unit cohesion.^[7] It encompasses mandatory practices designed to uphold discipline and tradition, distinguishing it from informal social interactions by its emphasis on rank-based obligations and ceremonial precision.^[4] Unlike civilian courtesy, which relies on optional gestures of politeness to foster general social harmony, military courtesy is a structured code tied directly to duty, authority, and operational readiness, often enforced through regulations to ensure uniformity across ranks.^[7] This mandatory nature promotes mutual respect and pride in service, serving as a foundational element of military discipline without which hierarchical order could erode.^[4] Key components include physical gestures such as the hand salute to acknowledge rank, verbal forms like using proper titles (e.g., "sir" or "ma'am") in address, and procedural actions like standing at attention during honors or reporting.^[7] These elements collectively form a comprehensive framework that honors individuals and institutions, ensuring courtesies are rendered consistently in both routine and ceremonial contexts.^[4]

Purpose and Importance

Military courtesy serves as a foundational code of conduct within armed forces, primarily designed to instill instant obedience to lawful orders and prevent insubordination by reinforcing respect for authority and the chain of command.^[8] This structured etiquette promotes a disciplined environment where personnel promptly recognize and respond to superiors, fostering mutual respect among ranks and upholding professional standards of ethical conduct across services.^[8] Furthermore, it builds esprit de corps by cultivating camaraderie, collective commitment, and a shared sense of pride in service, which enhances unit cohesion and morale through traditions that connect individuals to the military's historical legacy.^[9] By signaling professionalism and order to civilians, military courtesy distinguishes service members as representatives of national defense, thereby maintaining public trust and institutional integrity.^[4] In operational contexts, military courtesy plays a critical role in ensuring quick recognition of authority during combat or high-stress situations, thereby reducing confusion and enabling efficient decision-making.^[7] These practices enhance coordination among personnel by standardizing interactions, which supports combat readiness and mission success through disciplined, cohesive teamwork under pressure.^[8] For instance, protocols that emphasize respect for rank facilitate seamless command structures, minimizing errors in dynamic environments and reinforcing the obedience necessary for effective operations.^[4] Beyond the immediate military sphere, military courtesy contributes to national pride by embodying service members' commitment to duty and sacrifice, which resonates with the public and bolsters societal appreciation for the armed forces.^[9] It enhances recruitment appeal by showcasing a professional, values-driven institution that attracts individuals seeking purpose and belonging, thereby supporting talent acquisition and retention.^[9]

Historical Origins

Ancient and Medieval Roots

The roots of military courtesy trace back to ancient civilizations, where gestures and formations served to demonstrate non-hostility, trust, and hierarchical respect among warriors. In ancient Rome, soldiers and civilians alike used the right hand—known as the dextera—as a symbol of trust, friendship, and loyalty, often extending an empty right hand to indicate the absence of weapons and thus peaceful intent, particularly when approaching officials or superiors.^[10] This practice is evidenced in historical accounts, such as Cicero's description of Octavian swearing allegiance to Julius Caesar by extending his right hand, and in military routines where troops saluted centurions, tribunes, and generals daily by raising their hands in acclamation.^[10] Flavius Josephus further documents these salutes in the Roman legions, noting their role in formal addresses (adlocutio) and arrivals (adventus), underscoring a structured etiquette that reinforced command authority and unit cohesion.^[10] Similarly, in ancient Greece, the hoplite phalanx formation exemplified early military discipline that laid groundwork for courteous order in warfare. This tightly packed infantry array, where soldiers interlocked shields and spears to form an impenetrable wall, demanded absolute coordination and loyalty to maintain effectiveness against larger forces, fostering a culture of mutual respect and adherence to rank within the unit.^[11] The phalanx's reliance on collective discipline—evident in battles like those at Marathon and Thermopylae—extended to interactions among hoplites, where breaking formation or failing to heed commands was seen as a profound breach of trust, paralleling later courtesy norms.^[12] Such structured conduct ensured that greetings and movements within the ranks were orderly, emphasizing the phalanx's role in promoting hierarchical respect over individual action.^[13] Parallel developments occurred in non-Western militaries, such as the disciplined hierarchies in ancient Chinese armies under the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), where rituals of respect and strict protocols reinforced command structures and unit loyalty, as described in texts like Sun Tzu's The Art of War.^[14] During the medieval period in Europe, these ancient traditions evolved amid feudal warfare, where chivalric gestures and oaths formalized respect for rank and peaceful intent. According to a popular legend, knights clad in full armor would raise their visors with the right hand upon encountering fellow warriors or superiors, revealing their identity and signaling non-aggression—a courteous act rooted in the need to verify allegiance on the battlefield.^[15] This gesture, documented in medieval chronicles and military customs, transitioned into early salute-like protocols within chivalric orders, blending practical utility with codes of honor that demanded deference to lords and peers.^[16] These medieval developments were deeply intertwined with feudal loyalty systems, which integrated oaths of fealty and homage into military culture, establishing precedents for rank-based respect. Vassals swore personal oaths of loyalty to lords in exchange for land and protection, often kneeling and placing hands between the lord's as a symbolic gesture of submission and service, including military aid.^[17] This ritual, central to European warfare from the 9th to 15th centuries, reinforced a hierarchical honor system where breaches of courtesy—such as failing to honor oaths—could lead to feudal conflicts, thus embedding mutual respect and disciplined conduct as core military virtues.^[18] Chivalric codes, emerging from these feudal bonds, further codified piety, valor, and loyalty, influencing how knights interacted in both combat and courtly settings.^[19]

Development in Modern Militaries

The development of military courtesy in modern militaries began in the 18th century with the formalization of hand salutes influenced by British naval practices. Sailors in the Royal Navy adopted a palm-down gesture, possibly to avoid displaying tar- and pitch-stained hands from handling ropes and rigging—a popular but unproven explanation that distinguished naval salutes from the British Army's palm-outward version established around 1745 by the Coldstream Guards as a modification of hat-tipping customs.^[20]^[21] This naval influence spread through British colonial armies, where regiments in territories like North America and India incorporated standardized British drill and courtesy protocols to maintain discipline among diverse forces, ensuring uniformity in saluting and hierarchical respect during expansions of the empire in the 19th century.^[22] The 20th century saw further standardization driven by the scale of global conflicts, particularly the World Wars, which necessitated uniform codes to integrate large, multinational forces. In the United States, the 1917 Infantry Drill Regulations formalized military courtesy, including hand and rifle salutes, as essential to discipline and unit cohesion.^[23] World War II amplified this trend, as allied coordination required consistent protocols for salutes and greetings to foster interoperability among troops from different nations. The formation of NATO in 1949 extended this standardization to alliance-wide procedures, incorporating doctrines on honors and courtesies into joint military guidelines to support collective defense operations.^[24]^[25] Post-World War II adaptations reflected broader societal shifts toward inclusivity and joint operations during the Cold War. The integration of women via the 1948 Women's Armed Services Integration Act contributed to broader evolutions in military practices toward gender neutrality, including in courtesies like saluting and addressing superiors, as reflected in subsequent U.S. Army regulations emphasizing equal respect.^[26] Cold War-era doctrines, particularly within NATO, further adapted courtesies for multinational joint exercises, prioritizing standardized verbal greetings and movements to enhance coordination in simulated conflict scenarios against potential adversaries.^[24] These changes ensured military courtesy supported both internal discipline and alliance interoperability in an era of ideological confrontation.^[7]

Key Principles

Respect for Rank and Authority

Respect for rank and authority forms the cornerstone of military courtesy, emphasizing deference to superiors through a structured hierarchy that distinguishes officers from enlisted personnel and dictates all interactions within the armed forces. This recognition ensures the chain of command operates efficiently, allowing orders to flow seamlessly from leaders to subordinates without disruption, which is essential for mission accomplishment in high-stakes environments. In the U.S. Army, for instance, the chain of command is defined as a series of interlocking command relationships that enable commanders to direct and control forces, with rank serving as the primary indicator of authority.^[27] Similarly, the U.S. Navy upholds this principle by requiring personnel to acknowledge the precedence of higher ranks in all official proceedings.^[28] Symbolic acts of respect further embody this principle, such as juniors yielding the right-of-way to seniors in passageways or during movement on bases, which symbolizes submission to authority and maintains orderly conduct. In formal settings like briefings or dining facilities, seating arrangements prioritize higher-ranking individuals, often with seniors positioned at the head of tables or in designated positions of honor to reflect their leadership role. For example, U.S. Army regulations stipulate that commanders escort visiting dignitaries based on their rank, with senior officers handling higher-level personnel to demonstrate institutional deference.^[7] These practices, while simple, visibly reinforce the hierarchy and promote a culture of professionalism across services.^[28] Philosophically, military courtesy in this context serves to bolster authority by cultivating loyalty and averting disorder, as respect for rank instills a sense of unity and prevents the erosion of command structures that could lead to unit anarchy. Military discipline, upon which these courtesies are built, is explicitly founded on self-discipline and respect for properly constituted authority, ensuring that personnel embrace core values like duty and integrity to sustain operational effectiveness.^[29] By embedding deference into everyday routines, such practices foster mutual trust between ranks, ultimately enhancing cohesion and readiness while honoring the traditions that bind military institutions.^[27]

Discipline and Order

Military courtesy plays a pivotal role in maintaining order within armed forces by enforcing structured routines that promote punctuality and uniformity among personnel. Daily formations, such as those conducted 5 to 10 minutes before ceremonial events, require units to assemble in precise lines or columns using commands like "FALL IN," ensuring synchronized alignment and accountability at designated times.^[30] Flag ceremonies, including Reveille (typically in the early morning, such as 0700 at some installations) to raise the national ensign and Retreat (typically in the late afternoon, such as 1630 or 1700) to lower it, further reinforce these principles through standardized procedures where all personnel face the flag, render honors, and maintain attention until the music concludes.^[31] These practices, equivalent to morning and evening colors, instill habitual precision and collective discipline, transforming individual actions into a unified military rhythm.^[4] Beyond individual routines, military courtesy enhances unit cohesion by preventing interpersonal conflicts and building trust, particularly through adherence to the chain of command. Protocols that prohibit "going over the heads" of superiors ensure issues are addressed hierarchically, reducing friction and fostering mutual respect among ranks.^[32] This structured deference to authority, as seen in practices like saluting officers, promotes esprit de corps and solidarity, where cohesive teams exhibit stronger bonds and perform better under stress than fragmented ones.^[33] By emphasizing courteous interactions, such as addressing superiors as "Sir" or "Ma'am," these customs create an environment of reliability and teamwork, directly supporting operational effectiveness.^[34] Over the long term, habitual politeness embedded in military courtesy correlates with improved morale and fewer disciplinary incidents, as evidenced by military research. Surveys show high levels of enforcement of customs and courtesies, such as uniform standards, contributing to good order and discipline, with consistent enforcement by leaders predicting higher organizational commitment and unit pride.^[35] Studies further link strong disciplinary frameworks, bolstered by courteous behaviors, to reduced insubordination and enhanced morale, where voluntary adherence fosters initiative and lowers risks of discord or failure in high-stress scenarios.^[36] This sustained practice not only minimizes lapses in conduct but also cultivates a professional culture that sustains trust and resilience across units.^[37]

Standard Practices

Saluting Protocols

Saluting serves as the primary non-verbal gesture of military courtesy, symbolizing respect for rank, authority, and the uniform across armed forces worldwide. It is a standardized action performed to acknowledge superiors and foster discipline within military hierarchies. The salute's execution and application are governed by precise protocols to ensure uniformity and professionalism. The standard technique for the hand salute involves raising the right arm sharply in a one-count movement, with the hand and wrist straight, fingers and thumb extended and joined, and the upper arm horizontal. The tip of the right forefinger touches the rim of the headgear or the appropriate point on the temple if uncovered, while the palm faces down in many forces, such as the U.S. Army, and remains steady until returned by the superior. For personnel without headgear, the salute is rendered similarly but without contacting the brow, maintaining the same posture to convey respect. This method ensures the gesture is crisp and unmistakable, held until acknowledged to complete the exchange.^[7] Salutes are typically rendered outdoors when in uniform upon recognizing an officer or warrant officer, including when approaching on foot or in official vehicles, at a distance of six to thirty paces. Indoors, saluting is limited to formal reporting to a superior or during ceremonial occasions, with personnel standing at attention otherwise. Additional contexts include rendering the salute during the playing of the national anthem or when passing uncased colors within six paces, whether outdoors or indoors, to honor national symbols. In multinational settings, salutes are exchanged with officers of friendly foreign militaries upon recognition, promoting international military courtesy.^[7] Exceptions to saluting occur under practical constraints to prioritize safety and efficiency, such as when carrying articles with both hands, under arms (where a weapon-specific salute is used instead), in formation during routine duties, or in situations of physical stress like combat training. These exemptions prevent saluting from hindering operational effectiveness while upholding the principle of respect for rank.^[7] Historically, the hand salute traces its origins to medieval knights raising their visors to reveal their faces as a sign of peaceful intent and recognition to superiors, evolving into a universal military gesture of honor and non-threat by the 18th century.

Verbal Courtesies and Addressing

In military settings, verbal courtesies form a critical component of demonstrating respect for rank and authority, ensuring clear communication and maintaining discipline during interactions. Superiors, particularly commissioned officers, are typically addressed using the titles "Sir" or "Ma'am" to acknowledge their position without using first names, which are avoided to preserve formality and hierarchy.^[32]^[4] For non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and enlisted personnel, addressing conventions emphasize rank combined with the last name, such as "Sergeant Smith" or "Petty Officer Jones," rather than generic terms like "Sir" or "Ma'am," which are reserved for officers.^[32]^[3] This practice reinforces the chain of command and prevents familiarity that could undermine authority.^[4] Common verbal phrases are standardized to promote brevity, clarity, and immediate compliance in responses to superiors. Affirmative replies often include "Yes, Sir" or "Yes, Ma'am" to confirm understanding of orders, while negative responses use "No, Sir" or "No, Ma'am" to maintain respect without ambiguity.^[32]^[4] In naval contexts, the phrase "Aye, aye, Sir" or "Aye, aye, Ma'am" specifically indicates both comprehension and intent to execute the directive promptly.^[4] Reporting statements, such as "Sir/Ma’am, Private Jones reports" upon entering a superior's presence, ensure accountability and set a formal tone for the exchange.^[32] Greetings timed by the time of day, like "Good morning, Sir" before noon or "Good afternoon, Ma'am" from noon to sunset, accompany these interactions to blend courtesy with operational efficiency.^[4] These verbal elements are applied across various contexts to uphold order and respect, with adaptations for the situation to balance formality and practicality. In formations or group settings, a designated individual may call "Attention" upon a superior's approach, followed by the superior issuing "At ease" to allow relaxation while maintaining readiness, emphasizing collective discipline over individual comfort.^[32] During briefings or one-on-one encounters, personnel stand at attention when addressed, responding with concise phrases like "Yes, Sir" to questions or directives, which supports focused communication without unnecessary elaboration.^[3] In casual or passing encounters, such as meeting a superior in a hallway, a brief "Good afternoon, Sergeant" suffices, prioritizing clarity to avoid disrupting duties while still conveying deference.^[4] Verbal courtesies thus complement physical gestures like saluting, integrating spoken respect into the broader framework of military protocol.^[32]

Reporting and Movement Procedures

Reporting procedures in military settings emphasize structured entry and announcement to maintain discipline and respect for authority. When approaching an officer's office indoors, personnel knock once on the door and wait for permission to enter before proceeding sharply to a position approximately two steps in front of the desk, centered on the individual.^[32] Upon arrival, they come to attention, render a salute if applicable, and announce their presence with a concise statement such as "Sir/Ma’am, [Rank] [Last Name] reports" or "reports as ordered," remaining at attention until directed otherwise.^[32] For non-commissioned officers (NCOs), the procedure mirrors this but omits the salute, focusing instead on the verbal report while at attention.^[32] Outdoors, individuals halt at a distance of about two steps (60 inches), execute the salute and report similarly, and depart only after the superior acknowledges by returning the salute.^[38]^[32] Movement etiquette ensures orderly navigation and deference to rank, minimizing disruptions in shared spaces. When accompanying a superior, the junior member walks to the left and slightly behind, allowing the senior to lead while maintaining a professional formation.^[32] In group movements, such as marching in single file through hallways or academic buildings, personnel proceed at attention on the right side of the path, halting briefly at doorways to avoid impeding traffic and entering only after yielding to higher ranks.^[38] Within rooms or meeting spaces, positioning adheres to rank hierarchy, with seniors occupying seats to the right of the host or at the head of the table, while juniors arrange themselves accordingly to facilitate clear communication and respect.^[39] This protocol extends to transports, where subordinates board vehicles first, allowing superiors to exit first, and select seats that do not encroach on senior positions, ensuring efficient and courteous travel.^[40] In practical scenarios like office visits, the full reporting sequence applies to deliver briefings or receive orders without unnecessary delay, promoting operational efficiency. During inspections, personnel enter designated areas in rank order, coming to attention upon arrival and reporting individually if required, to allow systematic evaluation.^[7] For transports such as vehicles or aircraft, movement procedures dictate that juniors assist with loading gear for seniors first, then position themselves to avoid blocking access, thereby supporting mission readiness through disciplined conduct.^[40] These practices, rooted in longstanding military doctrine, foster a culture of mutual respect and streamlined interactions across units.^[4]

Variations Across Services

Ground Forces

In ground forces, military courtesy adapts to the demands of land-based operations, emphasizing protocols that maintain discipline amid mobility and potential threats. Saluting while armed is a key field-specific practice, where personnel render the salute prescribed for their weapon rather than the hand salute. For instance, with a rifle, soldiers execute "present arms," holding the weapon vertically in front of the body to demonstrate respect without compromising readiness. This adaptation ensures courtesies align with tactical needs during patrols or maneuvers.^[41] During patrols and squad-level movements, courtesies extend to positioning that shows deference and provides protective cover for superiors. The lower-ranking individual walks to the left and slightly behind the senior, allowing the leader to face forward unobstructed while subordinates maintain vigilance on potential threats from the side or rear.^[41] In combat zones or high-threat environments, commanders may suspend formal saluting to prioritize operational security, replacing it with verbal acknowledgments or nods to avoid signaling officer presence to adversaries. These practices reinforce hierarchy at the small-unit level, fostering cohesive maneuvers without halting momentum. Uniform and terrain considerations further shape ground forces courtesies, particularly in outdoor and vehicular contexts. Personnel in vehicles encountering superiors typically dismount to render a hand salute, with the senior occupant or vehicle commander exiting first to lead the courtesy, while others remain seated for efficiency.^[41] In the U.S. Army and Marine Corps, such protocols emphasize squad-level respect during field exercises, where juniors defer entry or exit from vehicles and formations to seniors, ensuring orderly transitions across varied terrains like urban or rugged landscapes. These adaptations highlight the balance between tradition and practicality in army and marine-like services.

Naval Forces

Naval courtesy in sea-based forces, such as navies, adapts traditional military protocols to the unique constraints of shipboard life, emphasizing hierarchical respect in confined, operational environments. These practices prioritize safety, efficiency, and order during voyages, where physical movements are limited by narrow passageways and constant watch duties. Core elements include formalized boarding procedures and ceremonial honors that reinforce command structure while minimizing disruption to ship operations.^[4] Shipboard protocols center on the quarterdeck, designated as the ceremonial heart of the vessel, where personnel must maintain silence, wear full uniforms, and avoid casual behavior to uphold its sanctity. Upon boarding between 0800 and sunset, individuals face aft to salute the national ensign, then turn to salute the officer of the deck (OOD) while verbally requesting "permission to come aboard, sir," a gesture that acknowledges authority and ensures controlled access. For senior officers or dignitaries, the arrival is marked by "piping over the side," executed by a boatswain's mate using a pipe whistle, accompanied by side boys—who stand in formation and salute in unison—followed by ruffles, drums, and music if warranted. In tight quarters below decks, courtesies shift toward verbal acknowledgments and brief nods to superiors, as full hand salutes could impede navigation through ladders and compartments, promoting mutual respect without compromising mobility.^[4]^[42] At sea, variations account for underway conditions, where hand salutes are often impractical during routine operations and are largely reserved for ceremonial occasions, such as passing honors between vessels within 600 yards, initiated by a verbal "attention" call followed by salutes and national anthems if international. Watchstanding courtesy underscores verbal protocols, with the OOD and petty officer of the watch issuing announcements for reliefs, hourly reports (e.g., "All hands present and accounted for"), and alerts to maintain discipline without physical gestures that might distract from duties like steering or lookout. Sentries at gangways continue to render salutes to officers in small boats approaching the ship, but overall emphasis lies on clear communication to sustain operational readiness.^[4] These practices trace their origins to British Royal Navy influences, adopted by the U.S. Navy during its formative years, including the evolution of the hand salute from the custom of juniors removing headgear to superiors and the formalized request for permission to board, which ensured security on wooden warships. Such traditions, carried over from 18th-century maritime customs, continue to symbolize the enduring hierarchy and camaraderie essential to naval service.^[43]^[44]

Air and Space Forces

In military aviation, courtesies are integrated into operational routines to maintain respect for rank and ensure safety, particularly on flight lines and during aircraft handling. Personnel accessing flight lines must adhere to strict protocols, including obtaining certification and badges, avoiding red safety lines except at designated points, and participating in foreign object debris (FOD) prevention walks to protect aircraft. For distinguished visitors (DVs), such as general officers, a greeting party is assembled with the senior member positioned to the right; salutes are rendered as the aircraft taxis in, and a red carpet is placed at the primary DV parking spot post-engine shutdown. These practices underscore discipline while honoring authority in high-risk environments.^[45] Pre-flight briefings emphasize hierarchical seating and structured interactions, with senior officers typically positioned at the head or in positions of honor to facilitate command oversight, similar to vehicle seating protocols where the highest-ranking individual occupies the back right seat. Saluting aircraft commanders occurs during transitions, such as when aircrew board or depart, symbolizing the handover from ground maintenance to flight operations; maintenance personnel often render a salute to the departing aircraft, acknowledging the pilot's authority and the collaborative effort in mission success. This gesture fosters mutual respect between aviators and support staff.^[46]^[47] Radio communications in aviation rely on precise etiquette to prevent errors, with brevity codes standardizing interactions; for instance, "cleared hot" is issued by a joint terminal attack controller to authorize ordnance release during close air support, ensuring coordinated respect for ground and air hierarchies under tactical constraints. In hangars and simulators, courtesies manifest through pilot-officer dynamics, where junior personnel yield to senior pilots during briefings or sessions, prioritizing clear verbal acknowledgments and adherence to safety hierarchies to simulate real-world command structures without physical salutes.^[48]^[49] The US Space Force, established in 2019 and operating as of 2025, primarily follows Air Force customs and courtesies as outlined in SPFI 36-2903, with adaptations for space domain operations emphasizing structured communications and verbal respect in mission control centers. These protocols reinforce chain-of-command hierarchies during real-time decision-making for satellite control and domain awareness, without physical salutes in operational environments to prioritize efficiency and security.^[50]

International Perspectives

United States Armed Forces

Military courtesy in the United States Armed Forces is fundamentally regulated by Department of Defense (DoD) policies that emphasize respect, discipline, and unity across all branches. The Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), codified in Title 10 of the U.S. Code, serves as the legal framework enforcing these standards, with Article 134 specifically addressing general articles of conduct prejudicial to good order and discipline or service-discrediting, which encompasses violations of courtesy such as failure to salute or show proper respect to superiors.^[51] For instance, in the Army, Army Regulation 600-25 provides comprehensive guidance on salutes, honors, ceremonies, and visits of courtesy, mandating their observance to maintain esprit de corps and operational effectiveness.^[7] These regulations are echoed in similar directives for other services, ensuring a standardized approach rooted in tradition and necessity for joint operations. Joint service norms reinforce interoperability and mutual respect among the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. A key protocol requires all enlisted personnel and junior officers to salute all commissioned and warrant officers, irrespective of branch affiliation, when in uniform and outdoors, unless otherwise directed by specific circumstances like engagement in duties.^[7] During national anthem renditions, all personnel in uniform must face the flag (if displayed) or the source of the music, render a hand salute at the first note, and hold it until the last note concludes, symbolizing allegiance and collective honor.^[52] These practices extend to indoor settings when under arms or during formal ceremonies, promoting a cohesive force identity. In the post-9/11 era, U.S. military courtesy has evolved to prioritize inclusivity amid a diversifying force, with DoD initiatives fostering respect for personnel from varied backgrounds, including greater integration of women, racial minorities, and LGBTQ+ service members across ranks. This shift underscores courtesies as tools for building trust in diverse units, adapting traditional protocols to modern demographics without altering core requirements. Variations in application exist across services, such as nuanced naval protocols for shipboard honors. As of 2025, these practices continue to support joint operations with allies, including NATO, emphasizing standardized salutes in multinational exercises.^[53]

British Commonwealth Militaries

Military courtesy in the British Commonwealth militaries is deeply rooted in royal traditions, emphasizing hierarchical respect and ceremonial precision. The palm-out salute, a hallmark of British Army practice, originated in the early 1800s when the Coldstream Guards modified the traditional hat-tip to avoid staining their white gloves with black powder from muskets; this led to the open-hand salute with the palm facing outward.^[54] This salute, adopted across Commonwealth forces like those in Canada and Australia, symbolizes loyalty to the Crown and is performed with the right arm raised in a deliberate arc, palm forward, to acknowledge superiors or national symbols. The origins of the salute are debated, with some theories tracing it to 18th-century evolutions from civilian hat-tipping customs, though medieval knight visor-lifting remains a common but unverified legend.^[20] Commonwealth nations have adapted these traditions to reflect local contexts while preserving core principles. In the Canadian Armed Forces, salutes are generally not rendered indoors within public or service buildings, except during parades, ceremonial events, or designated areas, to balance practicality with respect in operational environments.^[55] Australian Defence Force protocols align closely with British norms, featuring the palm-forward salute initiated by the junior rank to denote mutual respect, though adaptations include specific emphases on reciprocity during commemorative events like ANZAC Day, where the gesture reinforces national unity without altering the fundamental motion.^[56] New Zealand's Defence Force integrates Māori cultural elements, such as the haka—a traditional challenge and welcome dance—into military courtesies, using it for farewells, promotions, and joint ceremonies to honor comrades and embody collective strength alongside standard salutes.^[57] Ceremonial events prominently display these courtesies, highlighting the hierarchical structure of Commonwealth forces. Trooping the Colour, an annual British Army parade marking the sovereign's official birthday, exemplifies this through synchronized salutes, including the Royal Salute upon the monarch's arrival and regimental honors as colors are trooped past ranks, reinforcing discipline and allegiance across participating units.^[58] This tradition, observed by Commonwealth allies in aligned events, underscores the enduring royal influence on military etiquette, where precise compliments to officers and symbols maintain order and tradition.^[59]

Other Global Militaries

In the Russian Armed Forces and its Soviet predecessors, military courtesy emphasizes disciplined gestures and ideologically infused verbal interactions. The standard salute involves raising the right hand with the palm facing down to touch the right temple lightly, performed only when the head is covered by headgear such as a helmet or cap; this practice traces back to 18th-century reforms under General Alexander Suvorov and remains a symbol of respect for the uniform rather than the individual.^[60] Historically, during the Soviet era, the closed-fist salute—often a raised right fist—served as a political gesture of solidarity and loyalty, particularly in parades and ceremonial contexts honoring communist leaders, distinguishing it from the open-hand military salute used in routine operations. Verbal courtesies further highlighted political allegiance, with subordinates addressing superiors as "tovarishch" (comrade) followed by rank, such as "Tovarishch polkovnik" (Comrade Colonel), to reinforce the ideological unity of the armed forces under the Communist Party.^[61] These elements evolved post-1991 to a more professional tone in modern Russia, yet retain the palm-down salute and formal rank-based addresses without the overt political prefix.^[60] The People's Liberation Army (PLA) of China integrates military courtesy with the hierarchical structure of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), where protocols underscore party loyalty and collective discipline. The routine salute mirrors international standards, with the right hand raised straight to the bill of the cap, palm facing down and fingers together, executed while standing at attention to greet superiors or the national flag. In grand parades, such as those marking national anniversaries, units have employed raised fist salutes in some historical contexts to symbolize revolutionary fervor and unity under CCP leadership, as seen in the 2015 Victory Day event. Indoor and ceremonial protocols are particularly stringent, prohibiting casual interactions and requiring deferential bows or nods when addressing senior party officials, who hold dual military and political ranks; for instance, salutes must be held until acknowledged, reflecting the PLA's subordination to CCP directives outlined in its internal regulations.^[62]^[63] Across Middle Eastern and other Asian militaries, courtesy practices often blend global standards with cultural or religious nuances, adapting Western-influenced protocols to local contexts. In Islamic-majority armed forces, such as those of Saudi Arabia or Jordan, the standard open-palm salute to the temple is prevalent, but religious considerations shape variations: salutes avoid any resemblance to prostration, and verbal greetings may incorporate "Assalamu alaikum" (peace be upon you) in non-combat settings to align with Islamic etiquette, as permitted under Sharia interpretations that view military gestures as permissible forms of respect without idolatrous intent.^[64] The Indian Armed Forces exemplify Asian adaptations, retaining the British-derived open-palm salute—hand raised to the forehead with fingers extended and palm facing outward—while infusing local customs like responding to orders with "Jai Hind" (victory to India) or using Hindi phrases in reporting procedures, a synthesis that honors colonial legacies alongside post-independence national identity amid ongoing efforts to indigenize traditions. These variations prioritize operational discipline while accommodating cultural hierarchies, ensuring courtesies reinforce both military and societal values.

Training and Enforcement

Incorporation in Military Training

Military courtesy is a foundational element integrated into basic training programs across armed forces, where recruits learn essential protocols such as saluting, reporting procedures, and addressing superiors to foster discipline and respect from the outset. In the U.S. Army's Basic Combat Training (BCT), which spans 10 weeks, customs and courtesies are introduced early in the Red Phase (weeks 1-3) through instruction on drill and ceremony, rank identification, proper responses to officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs), and the historical context of courtesies, with enabling learning objectives that require recruits to explain and demonstrate protocols.^[65] These sessions cover rank identification, proper responses to officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs), and the historical context of courtesies, with enabling learning objectives that require recruits to explain and demonstrate protocols. Similarly, the U.S. Navy's 9-week Recruit Training Command program includes general military customs and courtesies as core classroom topics alongside naval history and professional knowledge, emphasizing behaviors like proper addressing and movement in formation.^[66] In the U.S. Air Force's 7.5-week Basic Military Training (BMT), Week 1 focuses on military etiquette, rank structure, and courtesies through introductory classes, building a foundation for Air Force core values and daily application.^[67] The U.S. Marine Corps' 13-week recruit training incorporates customs and courtesies early, such as in Phase 1 (weeks 1-4), covering Marine Corps history, ethics, rank recognition, and protocols like saluting and reporting to instill discipline and core values.^[68] Beyond initial recruit phases, military courtesy receives advanced integration in officer development programs and unit-level sustainment to prepare leaders for upholding and enforcing standards. At the U.S. Military Academy Preparatory School, cadet candidates undergo instruction in military customs and courtesies as part of their foundational military program, including drill and ceremony to instill leadership-oriented respect.^[69] The U.S. Air Force ROTC's General Military Course incorporates weekly laboratories dedicated to customs and courtesies, combining them with health and physical education to develop officer candidates' professional demeanor.^[70] In operational units, annual refreshers maintain proficiency; for instance, Army units conduct periodic drill and ceremony reviews to ensure ongoing adherence to courtesies like saluting protocols during formations.^[65] Teaching methods emphasize practical, immersive techniques to embed courtesies as instinctive behaviors rather than rote memorization. Hands-on simulations and role-playing scenarios are central, where recruits practice reporting to superiors or rendering salutes in controlled environments mimicking real-world interactions, such as entering a commander's office or passing colors. Multimedia aids, including instructional videos on protocol execution, supplement field training in programs like Air Force BMT, allowing visual reinforcement of standards like uniform presentation during courtesies. These approaches, tested through check-on-learning evaluations, ensure recruits transition from civilian norms to military precision, with daily uniform wear and interactions providing continuous reinforcement across all services.^[71]^[67]

Disciplinary Actions

Military courtesy violations are typically addressed through a structured disciplinary framework designed to correct behavior while maintaining unit cohesion and discipline. For minor infractions, such as forgetting to salute a superior officer or minor lapses in addressing ranks, initial responses often involve non-punitive measures like verbal counseling or written reprimands to reinforce awareness of customs without escalating to formal punishment.^[72] These actions aim to educate the service member on the importance of courtesy in fostering respect and order, drawing from principles of progressive discipline where early intervention prevents recurrence.^[73] More structured penalties apply to repeated or slightly more noticeable breaches, including extra duty, restriction to base, or retraining sessions focused on military customs. Under Article 15 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), nonjudicial punishment (NJP) allows commanders to impose these without a full court-martial for offenses like isolated failures in rendering courtesies, with possible outcomes such as 14 days of extra duty, reduction in rank by one grade, or forfeiture of up to half pay for two months.^[74] This approach ensures swift correction while preserving the service member's career for first-time or low-impact errors. Serious violations of military courtesy, such as deliberate refusal to salute or using disrespectful language toward a superior, fall under punitive UCMJ articles and can lead to formal proceedings. Article 89, UCMJ, prohibits disrespectful behavior toward a superior commissioned officer, explicitly including acts like refusing to salute or neglecting proper military courtesy, with maximum punishments of a dishonorable discharge, forfeiture of all pay and allowances, and confinement for one year in peacetime.^[74] Similarly, Article 92, UCMJ, addresses failure to obey regulations governing courtesies—such as those outlined in Army Regulation 600-25 for saluting protocols—with penalties up to a dishonorable discharge, total forfeiture of pay, and two years' confinement for willful violations.^[74] These can result in courts-martial, demotion, or administrative separation, particularly if the breach undermines authority in operational settings. Remediation follows a progressive discipline model, escalating from informal counseling to NJP and ultimately courts-martial for persistent or egregious cases, ensuring proportionality to the infraction's severity. In practice, this model has been applied in scenarios where repeated failures to observe courtesies, such as inconsistent saluting during routine interactions, lead to escalating measures like mandatory retraining before formal charges.^[72] For instance, in high-stakes environments like deployed operations—where courtesies must balance with tactical needs—isolated lapses might trigger immediate counseling, but patterns could invoke Article 92 charges, as seen in documented NJP cases involving dereliction related to order compliance.^[74] This tiered system upholds accountability while prioritizing rehabilitation to sustain military effectiveness.

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