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Ratel IFV
Ratel IFV
Ratel IFV
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The Ratel is a South African infantry fighting vehicle. It was the first wheeled infantry fighting vehicle to enter service worldwide[10] and was built on a modified MAN truck chassis.[1] The Ratel was designed in response to a South African Army specification for a light armoured vehicle suited to the demands of rapid offensives, providing maximum firepower and strategic mobility to mechanised infantry units intended to operate across the vast distances of Southern Africa.[1] Primarily envisaged in SADF doctrine as a vehicle that could deliver mechanised infantry and supporting fire to tanks in conventional warfare, it was also anticipated that the Ratel could form the centrepiece for semi-independent battlegroups where logistics or politics precluded the use of tanks.[11] The Ratel was a simple, economical design which helped reduce the significant logistical commitment necessary to keep heavier combat vehicles operational in undeveloped regions.[1] It was generally regarded as an influential concept[3] which incorporated a number of novel features, such as a mine-protected hull, an extended operating range of 1,000 kilometres, and a 20 mm autocannon fitted with what was then a unique twin-linked ammunition feed, allowing turret gunners to rapidly swap between ammunition types during combat.[1]

Key Information

The first Ratel prototype appeared in March 1972,[2] and serial production commenced in 1976.[3] Rights to the original prototype were also sold to Belgium, which produced an amphibious derivative known as the SIBMAS.[12] The Ratel was produced in three distinct marks[3] between 1976 and 1987, when production ceased.[5] All three marks were modified for a number of diverse battlefield roles.[3] Specialised variants of the Ratel carried mortars, anti-tank guided missiles, or a turret-mounted 90 mm rifled gun.[3]

Development history

[edit]

During the 1950s, the South African Defence Force (SADF) had been primarily organised to operate alongside the British Armed Forces in the event of a military crisis affecting the British Empire's African or Middle Eastern dependencies.[1][13] This reflected South Africa's longstanding defence ties to the United Kingdom and the other member states in the Commonwealth of Nations.[13] As a result of its strategic priorities, the SADF adopted equipment which was either British in origin or otherwise compatible with Commonwealth doctrine.[1] South African infantry units were equipped primarily with Alvis Saracen armoured personnel carriers.[1] This reflected traditional British infantry doctrine, which placed a disproportionate emphasis on dismounted infantry; the role of armoured vehicles like the Saracen was to function as general transporters conveying infantrymen to a battlefield.[10] Afterwards, the infantry was expected to disembark and fight on foot rather than remaining mounted.[10]

The deterioration of relations between South Africa and the United Kingdom in the wake of the Sharpeville Massacre marked a shift in the SADF's doctrine and strategic priorities.[1] The SADF became more focused on the threat of domestic insurgency or limited bush conflicts rather than a major conventional war overseas.[1] Additionally, the British government's refusal to supply the SADF with new armoured vehicles forced it to turn to alternative suppliers, namely France and West Germany.[14] Both nations cooperated closely with South African firms like Sandock-Austral to set up the country's first armoured vehicle factory at Boksburg.[12][14] West Germany was especially instrumental in the transfer of defence technology; in exchange it received a higher import quota for its automotive products to South Africa.[12] One result was that German companies came to dominate several sectors of the South African civilian and military vehicle market, including achieving a virtual monopoly on the sale of trucks to the SADF.[12] Much of this business was conducted through local subsidiaries such as Springfield-Büssing SA, an East Rand company which was the franchise holder for all Büssing products in South Africa.[15] Springfield-Büssing assembled its vehicles with locally manufactured bodies and engine and chassis components imported from its German parent firm.[15]

In 1968, the SADF began formulating a new mobile warfare doctrine which centered around the independent deployment of mechanised infantry to defend the vast borders of South West Africa (Namibia), which were deemed vulnerable to the threat of insurgency and external infiltration.[2] Mechanised infantry mounted in their own infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) could arrive sooner at contact points, with greater firepower to engage and destroy the enemy where contact was made, as well as greater protection and convenience for troops.[2] During wargaming exercises designed to simulate a foreign invasion of South West Africa, the SADF found none of its preexisting armoured vehicles suitable to fill this role, so development of a new dedicated IFV was undertaken.[2] Any South African IFV had to be a simple, economical design which helped ease the significant logistical commitment to maintain armoured vehicles in border regions otherwise lacking in advanced support or transport infrastructure.[1] Excessive track wear inflicted by the abrasive, sandy terrain of the South West African border prompted South African officials to specify a wheeled vehicle.[1] Wheeled IFVs were also favoured because they possessed a much greater operating range than tracked vehicles, and did not require the use of transporters on South West Africa's limited road and rail network.[1] This marked a significant departure from Soviet and Western IFV doctrine, which had rejected wheeled IFVs for their inferior cross-country capability and weight-carrying capacity, as well as the vulnerable nature of their tyres to small arms fire and artillery fragments.[10] However, improvements in power train, suspension, and run-flat tyre technology during the late 1960s helped make the concept of wheeled IFVs more viable.[10] The SADF initially had no other requirements other than a chassis and hull combination capable of supporting a two-man turret.[2]

Springfield-Büssing proposed a six-wheeled IFV built on a modified MAN truck chassis;[1] the first prototype appeared as the Springfield-Büssing Buffel in March 1972.[2] After the SADF had evaluated and rejected a number of other designs, including the Thyssen Henschel UR-416, Berliet VXB-170, Panhard M3, and the EE-11 Urutu, the Springfield-Büssing prototype was accepted for service as the Ratel.[2] Production was undertaken by Sandock-Austral, which produced the vehicle hulls at its shipyard in Durban before having them transported by rail to its Boksburg facility for integration with the chassis and drive train.[2] Each Ratel was powered by a Büssing D 3256 six-cylinder diesel engine fitted in a compartment at the left rear of its hull with access panels in the roof for ease of maintenance; it could be changed by two technicians with a crane in thirty minutes.[3] It was armed with a 20 mm autocannon, which was standard armament for most Western IFVs at the time and suitable for engaging low-flying aircraft, light armour, and dismounted personnel.[10] The SADF had selected the Hispano-Suiza HS.820 for the Ratel's primary armament due to its prior success during trials with Eland armoured cars; however, at the time of production this was superseded by a variant of the Modèle F2 produced under licence as the Denel GI-2.[3]

The Ratel was first tested in combat during Operation Reindeer, a major South African raid on People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) insurgents based out of neighbouring Angola.[16] For the purposes of Operation Reindeer, the SADF experimented with an integrated combat team consisting of mechanised infantry mounted in the new Ratels, backed by attached Eland armoured cars.[17] This caused a number of delays and complications, since the four-wheeled Elands lacked sufficient mobility to keep pace with the Ratels and had to be frequently towed out of thick sand or mud.[18] Operation Reindeer was also complicated by the fact that the Elands utilised petrol engines, which necessitated a separate logistics tail from that of the diesel-powered Ratels.[19]

Ratel Mk II, identifiable by its exposed headlamps and the armoured cover plates over its wheel hubs.[6]

Although PLAN possessed little conventional warfare capabilities, it was frequently backed by its allies in the Cuban and Angolan armed forces, which were skilled at constructing well-fortified defensive positions and had access to heavy armour.[20] The addition of attached Eland squadrons to mechanised infantry units was considered necessary because they carried 60 mm breech-loading mortars or large 90 mm guns, which were more useful than the Ratel's 20 mm autocannon for engaging fixed fortifications, dug-in troops, and enemy armour as needed.[16] However, the Eland's shortcomings in terms of mobility and logistics prompted the SADF to replace it with new variants of the Ratel carrying the same armament.[21] The Ratel-90 fire support vehicle utilised an Eland turret with a 90 mm rifled cannon firing conventional high explosive and high explosive anti-tank shells, while the Ratel-60 mortar carrier was fitted with an Eland turret mounting a 60 mm mortar.[8] A third variant, the Ratel Command, was introduced shortly thereafter and functioned as a mobile command post.[22] The Ratel Command was fitted with additional radio equipment, a public address system, and map tables; it carried a 12.7 mm machine gun as its main armament.[22] The Ratel-81 was a turretless variant with an 81 mm mortar installed in the passenger compartment.[3] The Ratel ZT3 was the final variant to be produced and was armed with a bank of ZT3 Ingwe anti-tank guided missiles.[22]

In 1979, Sandock-Austral introduced the Ratel Mk II, which included a number of functional modifications designed to optimise the vehicle for southern African conditions and improve mechanical reliability.[3] In 1985, the Ratel Mk II was superseded by the Ratel Mk III, which incorporated a new cooling system and an automatic cocking mechanism for the 20 mm autocannon.[3] Production ceased in 1987,[3] at which point 1,381 Ratels had been manufactured.[6]

Service history

[edit]

At the time of the Ratel's introduction, South African military officials were attempting to bring combined arms integration to the lowest tactical level, using brigade or even battalion-sized units as the standard all-arms unit rather than divisions.[19] In these theoretical combat battle groups, armoured squadrons and mechanised infantry, transported in Ratels, would be integrated at the company level, giving them sufficient flexibility to operate in concert.[19] The SADF's first integrated battle group was Combat Group Juliet, which was envisaged as a conventional strike unit to be activated for raids on guerrilla sanctuaries and infiltration routes along the borders of South West Africa and neighbouring Angola.[19] Combat Group Juliet consisted of two companies of mechanised infantry and a squadron of Eland armoured cars.[19] Later combat groups replaced the Eland squadron with Ratel-90s, which essentially functioned in the same role.[19]

Ratels formed the mainstay of the SADF's ad hoc battle groups for most of the South African Border War. As the Ratel and most of the SADF's other combat vehicles were lightly armoured, South African mechanised doctrine came to revolve around such tactics as rapid movement, striking from the flank, and confusing the enemy with continuous manoeuvring.[23] In this regard the SADF differed greatly from Western IFV doctrine–which confined the IFV's role to assisting the forward momentum of tanks–as well as Soviet IFV doctrine, which dictated that IFVs must occupy and hold terrain as needed.[24] Although capable of operating independently, Ratel-based battle groups were not expected to occupy and hold static positions; their primary task was to outmanoeuvre an enemy unit[25] before destroying it with a concentrated fire and movement tactic known as a firebelt action.[26] This doctrine was suited for the wide, densely wooded expanses of southern Angola which enabled the South African forces to carry out evasive manoeuvres and strike quickly from unexpected directions without being prematurely detected.[25] Manoeuvre-oriented warfare depended on the Ratel's speed and mobility, which were used to maximum effect to compensate for its relatively light armour.[1]

A notable feature of the South African Border War was a cyclical pattern of increasing cross-border infiltration and raids by PLAN guerrillas, primarily from Angola, during the annual rainy season.[27] The SADF's Ratels and other wheeled combat vehicles were hampered by thick mud, and the increased foliage cover provided PLAN with concealment from patrols.[27] The rainy season in South West Africa and southern Angola lasted from February to April.[27] At the end of April or early May, when the heaviest rains ceased, South African mechanised battle groups launched retaliatory raids to capture or kill the insurgents in their external sanctuaries.[27] While carrying out an attack, Ratels interspersed into arrowhead-shaped formations, with a platoon of Ratel-20s and a troop of Ratel-90s on each flank, the command Ratels located in the centre, and the remaining Ratels following in reserve.[28][29] If the mechanised battle group was integrated with tanks—as during Operation Hooper and Operation Packer—the tanks spearheaded the formation to engage hostile armour, while the Ratel-20s and Ratel-90s followed closely on the flanks to suppress any accompanying infantry.[28] Ratel-81s, if present, occupied a place in the centre of the formation, directly behind the command Ratels.[28]

One of the primary threats to the Ratels were hidden bunkers and the maze of trench complexes constructed around PLAN and Angolan military camps.[16] It was not uncommon for a Ratel crew to unwittingly drive atop an insurgent bunker, which collapsed under the weight of their vehicle and rendered it immobile.[16] More frequently, Ratels were surrounded and cut off by PLAN defenders after bogging down in trenches.[30] This necessitated their being towed out with recovery vehicles or other Ratels, often under heavy fire.[16] PLAN training camps were defended by a number of ZU-23-2 anti-aircraft guns, and these were used in the ground support role with deadly results for immobilised Ratel crews.[1]

During the early 1980s, PLAN carefully re-sited its training camps near Angolan military installations so it could take advantage of the security provided by the attached Angolan armoured and mechanised brigades.[31] This gave PLAN ready access to the logistical and communications infrastructure of its local allies and increased the risk to SADF raids targeting those camps exponentially.[32] The SADF remained conscious of this fact and established a number of improvised anti-tank platoons composed of Ratel-90s to engage Angolan armour if necessary.[33] During Operation Protea and Operation Askari, Ratel-90s were to face Angolan T-34-85, PT-76, and T-54/55 tanks, with mixed results.[34] While the Ratel-90s were for the most part adequate in countering Angola's largely obsolete and second-line Soviet tanks, they remained hindered by mediocre standoff ranges, inferior fire control, and a lack of stabilised main armament.[35] Ratel crews often had to manoeuvre behind the tanks and fire on them from the rear to destroy them.[30] This required intense coordination between the vehicle commanders, who directed each other by radio until they were in a position to concentrate volleys on a tank's exposed side or rear.[1] As the Angolan tank crews were in no position to out-manoeuvre the Ratels, they prioritised mobility kills.[28] A common tactic was to fire a round beneath the Ratel, destroying the differentials on its axles and rendering it immobile.[28] This stripped the Ratel of its most crucial advantage and made it an easy target for the other tanks.[28]

SANDF troops and a Ratel attached to UNAMID in Darfur, 2009.

In the wake of Operation Askari, South African field commanders began complaining that Ratel-90s were being expected to fulfill the role of light tanks rather than serving in their intended role of infantry support.[19] This was a violation of SADF mechanised and armoured doctrine.[19] Consequently, the SADF introduced the Ratel ZT3 anti-tank missile carrier, a Ratel variant designed as a dedicated tank destroyer, in 1987.[3] It was first deployed with marked success against Angolan T-54s during Operation Moduler.[3] The Ratel ZT3 also saw limited action against Cuban T-55s during Operation Excite/Hilti.[23]

The cessation of hostilities with Angola in 1989 and the amalgamation of the SADF into the new South African National Defence Force (SANDF) in 1995 ushered in consistent budget cuts to defence spending, resulting in a reduction of personnel and equipment.[36] At least 354 Ratels were declared surplus to requirements and sold beginning in 2005.[37] Much of the remaining Ratels have been handicapped by the SANDF's limited maintenance budget and inadequate numbers of trained maintenance personnel.[38]

The Ratel was intended to be at least partly superseded in SANDF service by a new eight-wheeled infantry fighting vehicle, the Badger IFV.[38] Work on this project was suspended in 2024 without any being delivered. The South African military is considering options to extend the service of the remaining Ratels following the deferment of the Badger project.[39]

Foreign service

[edit]

After 1977, the domestic South African arms industry was driven by the economic realities of a universal arms embargo imposed on the SADF as a result of United Nations Security Council Resolution 418.[40] The embargo deprived the SADF of many new weapons systems available to other major arms importers, curtailed its attempts to obtain defence technology on the open market, and raised the cost of obtaining spare parts and components for its preexisting equipment.[40] While South Africa was able to partly compensate by developing its local arms industry, the SADF's requirements were too small to make the manufacture of a wide range of armaments economically profitable.[40] Defence contractors were compelled to tool up for uneconomical and short production runs of sophisticated hardware, including military vehicles.[40] Furthermore, the domestic manufacture of obsolete equipment items had to be sustained long after their basic technology had become quite dated, simply because no alternatives were available.[12] These unprofitable practices threatened to result in stagnation for the defence sector; firms like Sandock-Austral looked for new ways to gain badly needed funds for future research and development efforts and counter their own rapidly rising production costs.[40] In the early 1980s, South Africa's defence contractors turned to export orders to help create the economy of scale necessary to keep their operations viable.[40] They embarked on a massive international marketing drive which included extensive advertising campaigns and exhibits at arms fairs.[40] As a result, public information on vehicles like the Ratel became more readily available in connection with their manufacturers' marketing efforts.[41]

The Royal Moroccan Army became the first prospective client to show an interest in the Ratel; it was then purchasing arms from a vast array of sources for use in the Western Sahara War.[42] This was pursued as part of a massive re-armament programme being funded through generous military subsidies from Saudi Arabia.[42] Morocco initially made contact with Sandock-Austral after soliciting a French firm, Panhard, for new AML armoured cars.[16] As Panhard was closing its AML production line, it declined the order but referred the Moroccan government to South Africa, where Sandock-Austral was still producing an AML derivative under licence as the Eland.[16] Though extensively modified, the Eland was still familiar to Moroccan crews and maintenance personnel who had been trained by French instructors on the AML.[43] Morocco received the first Elands in 1976[44] and obligingly placed orders for more vehicles, including a few dozen Ratels, from Sandock-Austral.[42] These were delivered between 1978 and 1980.[42] The Royal Moroccan Army ordered another 80 Ratels in 1979, which were delivered between 1980 and 1981.[45] They were deployed in counter-insurgency operations against the Polisario Front, which captured several Ratel-20s and pressed them into service.[46][47] In 2016, Morocco was still operating 30 Ratel-20s and 30 Ratel-90s.[38] All of these were the Ratel Mk III variant.[38]

Jordanian Ratel-20 in the Royal Tank Museum, Amman.

Sandock-Austral's attempts to secure new export customers for the Ratel were somewhat curtailed by the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 558, which amended the arms embargo to prohibit all member states from importing South African military equipment.[40] At the time production of the Ratel ceased in 1987, no new export orders had been placed.[48] Export of the Ratel only resumed again in the early 2000s, when the SANDF declared hundreds of its own IFVs surplus to requirements and offered them for sale.[37] The chief recipient of these vehicles was the Royal Jordanian Army, which ordered 100 in 2002 and subsequently, another 221 in 2004.[48] The Jordanian government worked closely with a number of South African contractors, such as the Mechanology Design Bureau and Paramount Group, to maintain and refurbish its Ratel fleet.[49] Some Jordanian Ratel-20s have been retrofitted with a new Cummins QSM11-C330 diesel engine developing 329 hp (246 kW).[49] This improved mechanical performance and extended the Ratels' maximum road speed to 110 km/h.[49] The new engine necessitated a relocated engine compartment in the centre of the hull.[49]

A number of Jordanian Ratels were retrofitted with a BAU-23 turret carrying twin 23 mm autocannon.[50] Others may have also been retrofitted with a turret carrying both the original 20 mm autocannon in addition to a bank of ZT3 Ingwe missiles.[51] In addition to service with the Royal Jordanian Army, these modified Ratels were exported in small numbers to Yemen between 2008 and 2011.[52] In Yemeni service, the Ratel was utilised for reconnaissance purposes and essentially fulfilled the role of an armoured car.[38] During the Yemeni Revolution, photographs of Ratels seized by defecting army personnel were circulated in the international press, evoking considerable controversy.[52] The South African government acknowledged that it was notified of Jordan's intention to deliver the vehicles to Yemen, but had not formally consented to their transfer or amended the original end-user agreement, which made no provision for the re-export of Jordanian Ratels to third parties.[52] A similar controversy erupted when Ratels began appearing in Libyan service in 2013, prompting Democratic Alliance defence spokesman David Maynier to call for a formal inquiry into how Libya could have acquired the vehicles without the knowledge of South Africa's National Conventional Arms Control Committee (NCACC).[53] Maynier suggested that Libya, like Yemen, had likely obtained the Ratels from another country in violation of an end-user agreement.[53] Ratels are currently operated by the Libyan National Army,[54] as well as a number of unaffiliated militias such as the Zintan Brigades and the February 17th Martyrs Brigade.[55]

Ratels of the Rapid Intervention Battalion deployed in Far Northern Cameroon in January 2019.

Small quantities of second-hand Ratels have been delivered by the SANDF to a number of other African states, including Ghana, which received 15 Ratel-20s and 24 Ratel-90s in 2004, and Rwanda, which received 15 Ratel-90s and 20 Ratel-60s in 2007.[48] Senegal ordered 26 Ratel-20s in 2008 and had received them by 2010.[48] Zambia also received 20 refurbished ex-SANDF Ratel-20s in 2012.[48] Djibouti purchased 12 Ratel-90s in 2004 from an unknown source.[48] Cameroon's Rapid Intervention Battalion acquired 12 Ratel-20s between 2015 and 2016 for demining operations in areas affected by the Boko Haram insurgency.[56]

In 2007, the SANDF committed to donate up to 18[38] Ratel-90s to the Central African Republic (CAR) under the auspices of Operation Vimbezela.[57] This effort collapsed due to a variety of unforeseen problems: the SANDF was only willing to supply previously decommissioned Ratel-90s and insisted that the donation was contingent on the Central African government making its own arrangements to have them shipped to Bangui.[57] The latter possessed insufficient funds to restore all the Ratel-90s to serviceable condition or cover the shipping cost.[57] Only 2 were delivered while the remainder were reclaimed by the South African contractor responsible for their refurbishment, citing unpaid shipping fees.[57] Both Ratels arrived without adequate parts, maintenance equipment, or ammunition; nevertheless, they were utilised for training purposes by the SANDF mission in the CAR.[58] At least three local crews were trained between 2010 and 2013,[59] after which the vehicles were formally adopted by the Central African Army.[58] The Ratel-90s were deployed without success against Séléka militants during the country's 2012–2014 civil war.[58] Their inexperienced crews failed to use them effectively in an offensive role,[58] and ammunition shortages became so acute that President François Bozizé made personal appeals to South African officials for additional stocks of 90 mm shells.[57] After the end of the civil war, it was not clear whether the army retained the Ratel-90s or if either was operational.[38] An arms control panel appointed by the UN Security Council reported that they were still in the CAR in July 2014.[60]

The SANDF has also donated Ratels to multinational peacekeeping forces, namely the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO).[61]

Description

[edit]

The Ratel was based on a commercial MAN truck chassis, from which many mechanical parts were utilised.[1] Its use of parts otherwise ubiquitous to the civilian automotive industry proved to be an advantage in circumventing the universal arms embargo imposed on South Africa, which extended only to purpose-built military products.[62] The vehicle is not amphibious and is not fitted with an NBC overpressure system.[63] Most production model Ratels did not have any specialised night vision equipment.[63] As an interim measure, the SADF occasionally issued Ratel crews with night vision goggles, which aided navigation in the Angolan bush where the use of headlamps was precluded due to proximity to enemy positions.[64] This was impractical for night fighting as muzzle flashes could blind the crew and the bulky goggles hampered movement and reaction speed in the turret.[64] In the 1990s, Denel Land Systems developed night sights which could be fitted on new Ratel-20 turrets or retrofitted on older turrets.[65]

The Ratel possesses rear-mounted engine and fighting compartments, while its turret ring and driving compartment are located towards the front of the vehicle.[63] It has a long, box-shaped hull with slightly sloped vertical sides and rear.[4] The hull is of all-welded construction, with a maximum armour thickness of 20 mm on the hull front.[4] Each Ratel hull is protected against 7.62×39mm armour-piercing ammunition at any angle; it is also capable of stopping 12.7×108mm armour-piercing ammunition on the frontal arc.[63] The bottom of the hull structure is blastproof and vee-shaped to deflect mine explosions away from the passengers and crew.[16] Ratels frequently detonated stacked anti-tank mines during the South African Border War with little injury to their occupants and minimal drive train damage.[3] On many occasions they were able to keep moving after basic field repairs.[3] Anti-tank mines common in Angola, such as the TMA-3, could destroy a Ratel's axles and occasionally damage its gearbox, but almost never penetrated its hull.[3]

The Ratel's crew consists of a section commander, driver, turret gunner, and rear gunner.[63] In addition to the crew, an attached infantry section of nine is carried in the fighting compartment of the vehicle.[8] There are three firing ports with vision blocks on either side of the fighting compartment.[8] Passenger capacity may be reduced to six or seven if additional ammunition racks or radio equipment is carried.[4][3] The infantry section debarks from three large, pneumatically sealed doors on either side of the hull and at the rear; it is also provided with five forward access hatches on the hull roof.[8]

The driver is seated at the front centre of the Ratel and provided with three bulletproof windscreens for use in a combat environment.[63] This design feature was adopted directly from the Berliet VXB-170 and favoured for its enhanced situational awareness.[2] The windscreens are fitted with armoured shutters which could be closed down as needed.[63] Three vision periscopes are provided for the driver.[63] The Ratel's steering system is mechanical, with hydraulic assistance.[63]

One of the unique features of the Ratel's design was the pintle-mounted machine gun at the hull rear, which was used for anti-aircraft purposes by the vehicle crew.[8]

Ratel turrets are located towards the front of the vehicle, directly behind the driving compartment, and house two crew members: the section commander to the left and the turret gunner to the right.[4][63] Both crew members are provided with roof hatches; the commander is also afforded a domed cupola with vision blocks.[63] The commander and gunner have nine day periscopes for all-round observation.[63] The Ratel's standard armament is a 20 mm F2 M693 automatic cannon[3] manufactured under licence as the Denel GI-2.[1] The autocannon may be elevated to a maximum of +38° for use against low-flying, fixed wing aircraft and helicopters.[8] It has a selector switch used to alternate between three rates of fire—semi-automatic, limited burst, or fully automatic—and is belt fed from two ammunition chutes in the turret.[66] The dual-feed system allows the gunner to swap between different projectile types fed from either chute as needed.[1][8] Two types of ammunition can be selected: a high-explosive (HE) round with a range of 2,000 metres, or an armour-piercing tungsten carbide (APTC) round with a range of 1,000 metres.[3][1] The HE rounds have a muzzle velocity of 1,050 m/s, while the armour-piercing round has an initial muzzle velocity of 1,300 m/s and penetration of 20mm of rolled homogeneous armour at an incidence of 60°.[66]

The GI-2 can achieve a cyclic rate of fire of 700 to 750 rounds per minute and 1,200 rounds of 20 mm ammunition are carried on board.[8] It provides the Ratel with a close support and anti-armour capability which proved sufficient to engage Angolan BTR-60 APCs and light armoured cars such as the BRDM-2 at long range.[1] While the autocannon is generally impotent against heavier armour, well-directed fire or exceptional shots are capable of damaging a tank's external features, especially its sights.[23] During Operation Moduler, one Ratel commander directed a stream of 20 mm APTC rounds at an Angolan T-55 at close range, which apparently penetrated a vulnerable margin in its armour and caused a catastrophic kill after igniting the on-board ammunition.[23]

A co-axial 7.62 mm Browning M1919 machine gun is mounted to the left of the main armament on nearly all variants of the Ratel.[63] Aside from the co-axial machine gun, a second 7.62 mm Browning M1919 is carried at the rear of the vehicle's hull for anti-aircraft purposes.[63] Both the Ratel-60 and Ratel-90 are also armed with a third 7.62 mm M1919 on their turret roofs.[8] A maximum of 6,000 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition are carried within the vehicle.[8]

The Ratel is powered by a six-cylinder, liquid-cooled, turbocharged D 3256 BTXF diesel engine.[63] This is housed in an engine compartment at the rear left of the hull and coupled to a fully automatic RENK HSU 106 automatic gearbox with six forward and two reverse gear ratios.[63] The gearbox can be operated manually and has a mechanical emergency gearshift.[3] Drive is transmitted to the Ratel's three axles in two stages, with final reduction being achieved by epicyclic gearing in the wheel hubs.[3] The three axles have their own locking differentials and longitudinal differential locks.[3] There are hydropneumatic shock dampers at each wheel station.[63]

Variants

[edit]
Variant Description Comment Image
Ratel 20 Original version French-designed turret
20 mm Denel Land Systems GI-2		 Ratel 20 IFV
Ratel 60 Crew of 3 + 7 infantry Turret is identical to that of the Eland 60 with a 60 mm (2.4 in) breech-loading mortar Ratel 60 Mortar Platform
Ratel 81 No turret An 81 mm (3.2 in) mortar is installed in the crew compartment for use as a fire support platform Ratel 81 mortar carrier
Ratel 90 crew of 3 plus 6 infantry Turret armed with a 90mm Denel GT-2 cannon, identical to that of the Eland 90.

Primary role: fire support for the Mechanized Battalions

Ratel 90 mm
Ratel 120 120 mm (4.7 in) mortar carrier Prototype only
Ratel Command Crew of 9 men Two-seater turret with a 12.7 mm .50 BMG. Ratel Command
Ratel EAOS Enhanced Artillery Observation System Artillery Support Ratel Enhanced Artillery Observation System
Ratel Maintenance Mobile workshop
Ratel ZT3 Anti-tank guided missile turret A launcher containing 3 x ZT3 Ingwe laser guided missiles and additional missiles stored within the hull Ratel IFC ZT3
Ratel Logistic 8x8 logistic vehicle Only 2 prototypes were built Ratel Log prototype
Ratel AA Anti-aircraft platform Jordanian variant only, modified by KADDB before entering service with the JAF. New turret armed with a twin 23mm cannon removed from Ukrainian supplied BTR-94 Ratel anti aircraft Jordan

Derivatives

[edit]

Ratel Iklwa

Operators

[edit]
Map of Ratel operators in blue

See also

[edit]

Vehicles of comparable role, performance, and era

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ratel IFV

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The Ratel is a South African infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) developed in the mid-1970s as the primary mechanized transport for the South African Defence Force's infantry battalions, marking the world's first wheeled IFV to enter operational service. Designed on a modified MAN truck chassis with a 6x6 wheel configuration, it prioritizes high mobility, rapid deployment, and adaptability to the rugged southern African bush terrain, achieving road speeds up to 105 km/h and a combat weight of approximately 18.5 tons. The base Ratel 20 variant mounts a 20 mm GIAT autocannon in a two-man turret, supplemented by machine guns and capacity for up to nine infantrymen plus a crew of three, enabling direct fire support during assaults. Production by Sandock-Austral began in 1976, with over 1,200 units built by 1987, incorporating lessons from South African combat experience to emphasize mine resistance, amphibious capability, and logistical simplicity. Introduced amid the South African Border War, the Ratel proved effective in cross-border operations against Angolan and Cuban forces, debuting in combat during Operation Reindeer in 1978 and demonstrating superior speed and maneuverability over tracked Soviet counterparts in Angola's theater. Its wheeled design facilitated quick advances along highways and rough tracks, supporting infantry in "ultra-mobile" bush warfare tactics that outpaced enemy responses. A family of variants emerged, including the Ratel 60 and 81 mortar carriers, Ratel 90 fire support vehicle, command post models, and the Ratel ZT-3 with Ingwe anti-tank missiles, enhancing battalion-level firepower and versatility. Exported to nations such as Jordan, Morocco, and several African states, the Ratel influenced regional mechanized doctrine, though its service in South Africa has extended into the post-apartheid era amid modernization challenges. Despite vulnerabilities to heavier anti-tank threats later in conflicts, its empirical success in operational tempo and infantry protection underscored innovations in wheeled IFV engineering tailored to low-intensity, high-mobility warfare.

Development and Design

Origins and Operational Requirements

In the early 1970s, the South African Defence Force (SADF) formulated requirements for a new infantry combat vehicle amid escalating threats from the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) and Cuban-backed forces in Angola, necessitating a platform optimized for rapid, long-distance operations across expansive and rugged terrains. The SADF's mobile warfare doctrine emphasized strike forces capable of deploying from bases in South Africa or South West Africa (modern-day Namibia) to counter insurgent incursions and conventional threats, drawing lessons from patrols and skirmishes that highlighted the limitations of existing tracked armored personnel carriers like the Buffel and Eland in terms of speed and logistical demands. The 1977 United Nations Security Council Resolution 418 imposed a mandatory arms embargo on South Africa, restricting access to foreign military hardware and compelling domestic innovation to sustain operational capabilities without reliance on imported systems. This isolation accelerated the SADF's push for an indigenous vehicle that could operate with minimal external support, prioritizing endurance over 1,000 kilometers on internal fuel and compatibility with austere supply lines typical of the Namibian bush and Angolan operational theaters. The embargo's effects, combined with the need to integrate infantry firepower directly with mechanized units, underscored the requirement for a versatile platform that could transition seamlessly from road marches to off-road pursuits while evading the maintenance burdens of heavier tracked alternatives. A pivotal doctrinal shift favored wheeled over tracked designs for enhanced strategic mobility, as wheels offered superior road speeds exceeding 100 km/h, reduced vulnerability to track damage in sandy or rocky environments, and simpler field repairs using commercial components, aligning with the SADF's emphasis on high-tempo maneuvers against elusive guerrilla forces. This choice reflected operational analyses from the Border War, where tracked vehicles struggled with long hauls and river crossings without amphibious aids, whereas wheeled configurations promised "amphibious-like" cross-country performance suited to Africa's varied landscapes without the logistical footprint of tank transporters. The resulting specifications demanded a 6x6 chassis balancing protection, armament integration, and troop capacity for 9-10 soldiers, marking a departure from global norms toward a vehicle tailored for Africa's unique demands of distance, durability, and deployability.

Key Engineering Innovations

The Ratel IFV's adoption of a 6x6 wheeled configuration with coil spring suspension on wishbone assemblies and longitudinal arms marked a departure from traditional tracked infantry fighting vehicles, prioritizing mobility in varied African terrains over the cross-country traction of tracks. This design enabled road speeds up to 110 km/h and off-road speeds of 65 km/h, while providing ground clearance of 350 mm for bush-breaking and obstacle negotiation comparable to heavier tracked systems, without the logistical burdens of track wear or transporters required for long-distance redeployments. The wheeled layout's inherent simplicity reduced maintenance demands, allowing sustained operations in remote areas where spare parts and recovery assets were limited. A core innovation was the vehicle's modular chassis, derived from modified commercial truck components and adapted with locally sourced materials to circumvent international arms embargoes, facilitating rapid prototyping of variants without reliance on foreign supply chains. This approach emphasized interchangeable hull sections and bolt-on modules for turrets, weapon systems, and specialized fittings, enabling field-level adaptations and repairs using basic tools, which enhanced operational reliability in austere environments. The Ratel integrated true infantry fighting capabilities ahead of contemporary Western designs, featuring four firing ports per side in the troop compartment to allow dismounted soldiers to engage enemies from cover without exposing themselves, combined with a turret-mounted autocannon for direct fire support. This configuration transformed the vehicle from a mere transport into a combat platform where infantry could contribute actively during movement, predating similar ported designs in vehicles like the M2 Bradley by several years.

Production and Initial Deployment

The Ratel infantry fighting vehicle was developed by Sandock Austral, a South African engineering firm later restructured as part of Denel Land Systems, to meet the South African Defence Force's (SADF) requirements for a mobile, domestically produced armored platform amid international arms embargoes imposed since 1977. The first prototype was completed in 1974, followed by pre-production vehicles in 1976, with initial production of Mark 1 variants commencing that year at the company's Boksburg facility. By 1979, the improved Mark 2 entered production and service, incorporating refinements from early testing. Approximately 1,300 Ratel vehicles across variants were manufactured between 1976 and 1987, when production ended, providing the SADF with a fleet sufficient for multiple mechanized units without reliance on imports. This scale underscored South Africa's push for defense self-sufficiency, as the wheeled design reduced unit costs—estimated at a fraction of tracked equivalents—and minimized logistical demands like specialized tracks and heavier fuel consumption, sustaining operations in embargo-constrained environments. Initial deployment focused on outfitting SADF mechanized infantry battalions, such as those in rapid reaction forces, with the Ratel-20 serving as the core infantry carrier to enhance tactical mobility over vast southern African terrains. Vehicles underwent rigorous field exercises simulating border and Angolan theater conditions prior to full integration, validating their 6x6 configuration for high-speed advances and infantry dismount support. This phased rollout from 1979 enabled the SADF to form cohesive battalions by the early 1980s, prioritizing wheeled versatility over heavier armored imports unavailable due to sanctions.

Operational History

South African Border War Engagements

The Ratel made its combat debut during Operation Reindeer on 4 May 1978, supporting airborne assaults on SWAPO targets including Cassinga in southern Angola, where Ratel-equipped infantry from 1 South African Infantry Battalion provided rapid fire support and troop transport amid dense bush terrain. In subsequent Border War operations through the 1980s, Ratel variants enabled South African mechanized battalions to execute hit-and-run tactics against FAPLA and Cuban forces, leveraging superior mobility over Soviet-supplied tracked vehicles like BMP-1s and T-55s in Angola's sandy and vegetated landscapes. During the 1987-1988 campaign around Cuito Cuanavale, including battles on the Lomba River, Ratel-90 and Ratel ZT3 variants played key roles in countering FAPLA's 21st and 59th Brigades, which were equipped with T-55 tanks and BM-21 rocket artillery; for instance, on 3 October 1987, Ratel fire support halted a FAPLA brigade advance, contributing to its defeat despite South African numerical disadvantages. Ratel ZT3s, armed with Ingwe or TOW ATGMs, neutralized multiple T-55s at standoff ranges, while Ratel-90s engaged in close-quarters anti-tank actions, such as a 14 February 1988 incident during Operation Hooper where a Ratel-90 destroyed a T-54/55 tank with three HEAT rounds at approximately 50 meters, demonstrating the vehicle's agility in evading counterfire. Empirical records from the Border War indicate high Ratel operational uptime in harsh Angolan conditions, with wheeled 6x6 configuration allowing sustained speeds over 100 km/h on roads and effective cross-country maneuverability that outpaced heavier tracked opponents in pursuit and withdrawal phases. Vehicle losses totaled at least 36 documented cases from 1976 to 1989, with anti-tank mines causing 11 incidents but only one crew fatality, underscoring the Ratel's mine-resistant V-hull design that often limited damage to axles and tires rather than penetrating the crew compartment; in contrast, direct fire from RPGs, tank rounds, and AA guns accounted for the majority of the 54 crew KIA, though rapid mobility mitigated some exposures. This pattern highlighted the tactical trade-off of lighter wheeled protection enabling dynamic engagements over static tracked heavies, which suffered higher logistical attrition in the theater.

Foreign Deployments and Exports

The Ratel IFV achieved modest export success despite international arms embargoes imposed on South Africa during the apartheid era, which restricted sales to sympathetic or neutral nations in Africa and the Middle East. Primary recipients included Morocco, which procured approximately 60 units comprising Ratel-20 and Ratel-90 variants, primarily in the 1980s to bolster forces amid the Western Sahara conflict against Polisario Front guerrillas. These vehicles were valued for their wheeled mobility across desert terrains, enabling rapid maneuvers in low-intensity operations characterized by vast open spaces and irregular threats. Jordan emerged as the largest foreign operator, acquiring 341 Ratel IFVs and variants through a deal finalized in the early 2000s, with deliveries occurring between 2003 and 2004. The Royal Jordanian Army integrated these into mechanized brigades, including specialized configurations such as anti-aircraft models equipped with twin 23mm cannons, adapting the platform for regional defense needs in arid environments. Smaller batches of modified Ratels were subsequently transferred from Jordanian stocks to Yemen between 2008 and 2011, though in limited quantities. Exports to other nations, such as Ghana (40 units) and Djibouti (15 units), further demonstrated the Ratel's appeal for cost-effective mechanized infantry capabilities, unhindered by heavier tracked alternatives. Apartheid-era stigma and UN-mandated sanctions posed significant barriers to wider proliferation, confining sales to a handful of buyers willing to overlook political associations; nonetheless, the vehicle's proven reliability in harsh conditions spurred interest in localized adaptations among African and Middle Eastern operators, extending its influence beyond initial production.

Post-Cold War Service

Following the transition to democracy in 1994, the Ratel IFV remained a core component of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) mechanized infantry battalions, with over 1,200 units produced earlier continuing in active inventory through the 2000s despite procurement halts. The vehicle's wheeled design and logistical simplicity supported its retention for internal security roles and African Union-led peacekeeping deployments, where rapid mobility across varied terrain proved advantageous without the sustainment burdens of tracked alternatives. In September 1998, Ratel-equipped SANDF forces participated in Operation Boleas, the SADC intervention in Lesotho to restore order amid political unrest and military mutiny, demonstrating the vehicle's effectiveness in urban and mountainous operations with minimal adaptations. Subsequent missions, such as Operation Fibre in Burundi from October 2001 to April 2003, further utilized Ratel variants for troop protection and fire support in stabilization efforts against Hutu militias, leveraging the IFV's amphibious capabilities and 20mm autocannon for close-quarters engagements. These deployments highlighted the Ratel's baseline utility in low-intensity conflicts, though no large-scale conventional battles occurred post-Border War. Post-apartheid defense policy shifts prioritized budget reallocations toward social spending, resulting in chronic underfunding for equipment maintenance; by the 2010s, Ratel fleet serviceability declined due to obsolete components and spare parts scarcity after production ceased in the 1980s. Despite this degradation, parts commonality with legacy SADF logistics and local engineering adaptations sustained operational readiness for training exercises and contingency responses, affirming its role against asymmetric threats in simulations. Recent evaluations, including 2025 life-extension studies, underscore persistent value amid delays in successor programs like Hoefyster, where fiscal constraints have preserved the Ratel's frontline presence.

Technical Specifications

Armament and Protection

The Ratel IFV's standard armament features a 20 mm GI-2 autocannon, a locally produced variant of the French F2 M693, mounted in a two-man turret for engaging light armored targets and infantry. This dual-fed cannon has an effective range of 1,500 meters against armored vehicles and fires armor-piercing rounds capable of penetrating thin-skinned threats. Complementing the autocannon is a coaxial 7.62 mm Browning machine gun for close-range suppression, with additional pintle-mounted 7.62 mm machine guns available for anti-aircraft and rear defense roles. Weapon integration prioritizes sustained fire support during mobile operations, with the turret's manual traverse and elevation allowing crew-served employment while emphasizing accuracy on the move through optical sights, though lacking full stabilization in baseline configurations. Some configurations incorporate anti-tank guided missile launchers, such as early MILAN systems or later ZT-3 Ingwe, enabling beyond-line-of-sight engagement of heavier threats from protected positions. Defensively, the Ratel's all-welded steel hull offers ballistic protection against 7.62 mm armor-piercing rounds from all angles and shell splinters, achieved through armor thicknesses reaching up to 20 mm on frontal surfaces. The V-shaped underbelly design provides partial resistance to mine blasts by deflecting explosive forces, a feature tailored to operational environments with improvised threats. Lacking reactive armor or heavy applique kits, the vehicle's protection philosophy trades thickness for weight savings, favoring evasion, speed, and dispersion over static resilience to maintain operational tempo in high-mobility warfare.

Mobility and Logistics

The Ratel infantry fighting vehicle employs a Büssing D 3256 BTXF six-cylinder turbocharged diesel engine rated at 282 horsepower, driving a 6x6 wheeled configuration that attains a maximum road speed of 105 km/h and an operational range of 1,000 km on internal fuel reserves. This powertrain supports sustained high-tempo maneuvers in the vast, arid terrains of southern Africa, where rapid deployment over long distances is prioritized to outpace adversaries with limited resupply infrastructure. The wheeled chassis, featuring independent suspension across all axles and run-flat tires, yields lower ground pressure than comparable tracked vehicles, facilitating traversal of sand and mud without excessive bogging, while enabling ground clearances of approximately 340 mm for obstacle clearance. This design inherently reduces mechanical breakdown rates versus tracks, as wheels demand less intensive maintenance and permit quicker roadside repairs using standard tools, thereby streamlining logistics in austere environments with sparse rear-echelon support. Field refueling is straightforward via accessible tanks, and the vehicle's simplicity minimizes dependency on specialized supply trains, allowing mechanized units to maintain operational tempo with reduced vulnerability to interdiction during extended patrols or border operations. Although lacking full amphibious capability, the Ratel's 6x6 independent drive system enhances obstacle negotiation, such as steep inclines or ditches up to 1.15 m wide, compensating for non-floating limitations through superior land-based agility.

Crew and Capacity

The Ratel IFV operates with a standard crew of three personnel: a commander who also serves as the section leader, a gunner operating the turret armament, and a driver responsible for mobility. This configuration allows for efficient command and control while accommodating 7 to 9 dismounted infantrymen in the rear troop compartment, depending on equipment load and mission requirements. The troop compartment layout prioritizes rapid infantry integration and combat efficiency, featuring hydraulically operated side doors for infantry dismount on the left and right sides that enable quick egress under fire, typically within seconds of halting. A small rear exit is also present but not used for infantry dismount and is not hydraulic. Dismounts are positioned on central bench seats facing outward toward the vehicle's sides and rear, with each provided individual bulletproof vision blocks and integrated firing ports for personal weapons, permitting suppressive fire from protected positions without full exposure. Four roof hatches above the benches further support overhead escape or observation, enhancing the squad's ability to transition seamlessly from mounted to dismounted operations. Ergonomic features address demands of extended missions in harsh southern African terrains, including a dedicated 100-liter water storage system for crew hydration and basic NBC filtration to mitigate chemical, biological, or radiological threats during contaminated environments. Ventilation is achieved through integrated roof vents and the troop compartment's design, which facilitates airflow in high-temperature conditions common to operational theaters. Crew and dismount training in the South African Defence Force emphasized cohesive unit performance, with drills focusing on synchronized actions where infantrymen utilize the Ratel's hull for ballistic cover during direct assaults, ensuring the vehicle's firepower supports dismount maneuvers without disrupting squad cohesion.

Variants and Derivatives

Primary Combat Variants

The Ratel 20 constitutes the baseline infantry fighting vehicle variant, optimized for transporting and supporting a nine-man infantry section with direct fire capability. It mounts a Denel GI-2 20 mm autocannon in a manually traversed two-man turret, supplemented by a coaxial 7.62 mm machine gun, an anti-aircraft machine gun on the turret roof, and a pintle-mounted machine gun at the commander's station. This armament enables suppression of enemy infantry and light vehicles during assaults, with the vehicle's three-person crew (commander/gunner/driver) coordinating dismounted troops in mobile warfare scenarios typical of southern African terrain. The Ratel 90 functions as a fire support platform, employing a 90 mm GT-2 low-pressure rifled gun in a turret derived from the Eland reconnaissance vehicle for anti-tank and high-explosive bombardment roles. It carries 72 rounds of ammunition, including high-explosive anti-tank projectiles, with gun elevation ranging from -8° to +15° and traverse of 360°. A four-person crew operates the system, which can accommodate up to six passengers or extra munitions, prioritizing firepower over full infantry transport to bolster mechanized battalions against armored threats. Introduced in the mid-1980s, the Ratel ZT3 serves as a dedicated anti-tank guided missile carrier, equipped with four Ingwe laser beam-riding missiles in ready-to-fire launchers for beyond-line-of-sight engagements up to 5 km. Developed under Project Raleigh to counter Soviet T-55 and T-62 tanks, it achieved first combat use on September 10, 1987, at the Lomba River, destroying multiple enemy tanks. The variant's three-person crew employs the system's tandem-warhead missiles, capable of penetrating over 1,000 mm of rolled homogeneous armor, to provide standoff anti-armor capability and reconnaissance support within infantry fighting units.

Support and Specialized Variants

The Ratel Command variant functioned as a mobile headquarters for mechanized battalions, featuring additional radio sets for inter-unit communications, map tables for tactical planning, an intercom system, and an air-conditioned cab to support extended operations. It accommodated a crew of three plus six command staff and mounted a 12.7 mm Browning machine gun with a coaxial 7.62 mm machine gun for defense, along with a third 7.62 mm machine gun on the turret. Introduced in 1979 or 1980, this variant enhanced coordination in dispersed formations typical of South African mobile warfare doctrine. Mortar variants extended the Ratel's utility for indirect fire support. The Ratel 60, entering service around 1980-1981, carried a 60 mm M2 breech-loading mortar in a turret adapted from the Eland reconnaissance vehicle, operated by a crew of three plus a mortar team, with effectiveness in direct fire to 300 meters and indirect fire to 1,700 meters. The later Ratel 81, produced from 1986-1987, featured an 81 mm mortar on a 360-degree turntable with fire-control computing, a crew of three plus a three-man mortar team, and capacity for 148 to 150 rounds, facilitating rapid shoot-and-scoot maneuvers in forward areas. Approximately 160 Ratel 81s were built. Logistical variants included the Ratel Ambulance, configured for casualty evacuation with an internal layout for stretchers and medical equipment; during operations like Ops Askari in 1983-1984, its interior was painted white for identification. The Ratel Recovery vehicle supported maintenance in combat zones, fitted with a lifting jib, tow bar, spare parts storage, and an air compressor derived from the Ratel 20 chassis, though produced in limited numbers. These adaptations underscored the Ratel's role in sustaining mechanized units beyond frontline combat.

Proposed Derivatives and Successors

The Badger IFV was proposed as the direct successor to the Ratel under Project Hoefyster, launched in 2007 by the South African National Defence Force to acquire 264 new 8x8 wheeled infantry combat vehicles for enhanced mechanized infantry capabilities. Denel Vehicle Systems, leveraging local design expertise, developed the Badger to maintain the Ratel's emphasis on high mobility across varied African terrains, incorporating advanced protection, modular turrets, and networked electronics while retaining the wheeled configuration for logistical efficiency over tracked alternatives. This approach reflected continuity in South African armored doctrine, prioritizing rapid strategic deployment and sustainment in expeditionary operations over heavy armor suited to European-style warfare. Project Hoefyster encountered severe setbacks, with development costs reaching R7.7 billion by October 2025 without delivering any operational vehicles after 18 years of delays attributed to budgetary constraints, shifting priorities, and industrial challenges. The program's indefinite postponement or outright cancellation prompted exploration of Ratel life-extension options, including prototypes for electronic upgrades and integration of modern sensors, as interim measures to bridge capability gaps. These efforts highlighted the Ratel's foundational adaptability, with earlier prototyped enhancements—such as the Mk3 upgrade initiated in 1985 incorporating over 135 modifications like improved cooling systems and fire control electronics—serving as models for evolutionary rather than revolutionary changes. The Badger's design influenced subsequent conceptual derivatives in South African defense planning, reinforcing the wheeled IFV paradigm amid fiscal realism, though no production successors materialized by 2025.

Combat Performance and Evaluation

Achievements in Mobile Warfare

The Ratel IFV's wheeled design provided superior cross-country mobility, enabling South African Defence Force (SADF) mechanized infantry to outmaneuver Soviet T-54/55 tanks in the Border War through rapid flanking and coordinated tactics. In Operation Hooper on 14 February 1988, a Ratel-90 under Lieutenant David Duncan destroyed a T-54/55 at 50 meters by firing three 90 mm HEAT rounds into vulnerable points amid dense bush, demonstrating the vehicle's agility in close-quarters engagements despite lighter armor. During Operation Moduler in 1987, Ratel ZT-3 variants achieved multiple tank kills, including three T-55s in under 10 minutes at 2000 meters using wire-guided missiles, leveraging speed to maintain standoff distances against heavier tracked opponents. These successes highlighted the Ratel's role in asymmetric warfare, where infantry dismounts supported by vehicle fire suppressed and destroyed superior enemy armor. Logistical resilience underpinned the Ratel's effectiveness in long-range operations amid sanctions-induced supply constraints. In Operation Protea on 23-27 August 1981, Ratel-equipped battlegroups advanced over 200 km into Angola to seize Ongiva, capturing vast enemy stockpiles of ammunition and fuel that sustained further SADF raids without extensive rearward dependence. The vehicle's 1000 km road and 600 km cross-country range, combined with onboard water and ammunition capacity exceeding 6000 rounds, allowed battalions to operate autonomously across rugged terrain, disrupting FAPLA logistics while minimizing vulnerability to interdiction. As the first wheeled IFV deployed in combat starting in 1977, the Ratel innovated under adversity, validating high-mobility doctrines for resource-limited forces and influencing subsequent wheeled vehicle developments worldwide. Its empirical validation of wheeled platforms for infantry fighting—prioritizing endurance and tactical flexibility—shaped SADF mobile warfare tactics, diverging from tracked-centric models to emphasize rapid, raid-based offensives in southern African theaters.

Limitations and Criticisms

The Ratel's armor, constructed from welded steel, offers protection against 7.62 mm small arms fire and artillery shell splinters across its hull, but proves inadequate against heavier threats including 14.5 mm heavy machine guns, automatic cannons, rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs), and anti-tank mines, especially during ambushes or when vehicles are halted in static defensive positions. This vulnerability stems from the design's emphasis on mobility and cost over heavy protection, rendering the vehicle susceptible to penetration by anti-tank weapons and explosive devices that exploit its relatively thin plating. While the hull's contoured underbelly aims to deflect mine blasts, operational losses occurred in such scenarios during South African engagements, highlighting inherent trade-offs in wheeled IFV design prioritizing speed over all-around armor equivalence to tracked contemporaries. Post-1994, following the end of apartheid and sharp reductions in South Africa's defense budget, the Ratel fleet encountered significant maintenance challenges, including parts scarcity due to halted production lines and the obsolescence of specialized components. These issues, exacerbated by decades of service in harsh environments, led to corrosion in aging hulls and mechanical breakdowns rather than flaws in the original engineering, as fiscal constraints curtailed sustainment rather than vehicle quality. Critics have pointed to these logistical strains as evidence of over-reliance on a dated platform, though they reflect systemic underinvestment in military readiness rather than design defects. Export restrictions imposed during the apartheid-era arms embargoes and subsequent post-1994 controls limited international operational data and feedback on the Ratel, constraining broader evaluations of its performance in diverse theaters beyond South African use. This scarcity of comparative export insights has fueled some skepticism regarding its adaptability, yet combat records from the Border War demonstrate reliability advantages over more expensive alternatives, underscoring that data gaps do not negate empirical effectiveness in mobile operations.

Comparative Analysis with Contemporaries

The Ratel IFV's 6x6 wheeled design conferred operational advantages in mobility and logistics over tracked peers like the Soviet BMP-1, especially across Africa's arid expanses and bushveld where tracks incur elevated maintenance costs from abrasive soils and sparse repair facilities. The Ratel's run-flat tires and high ground clearance enabled sustained road speeds up to 110 km/h and cross-country performance suited to rolling terrain, reducing downtime compared to the BMP-1's tracks, which demanded frequent replacements in similar environments. Firepower was analogous, with the Ratel 20's 20 mm autocannon and optional MILAN ATGMs providing infantry support and anti-armor capability akin to the BMP-1's 73 mm low-velocity gun and AT-3 Sagger missiles, though the Ratel's road range of over 1,000 km outpaced the BMP-1's 600 km, facilitating deeper independent maneuvers without refueling constraints. Compared to the U.S. M113 APC, the Ratel advanced beyond mere troop carriage by integrating a turreted medium-caliber cannon for direct fire engagement, transforming it into a combat enabler rather than a protected taxi that dismounts infantry before withdrawing under its sole .50 caliber machine gun armament. This IFV doctrine allowed Ratel-equipped units to suppress or destroy threats during assaults, elevating mechanized infantry's offensive potential over the M113's defensive transport role in Vietnam-era operations, where tracks provided amphibious versatility but limited firepower integration. Against Western counterparts like the British Warrior IFV, the Ratel prioritized low-infrastructure endurance with its air-transportable 18.5-tonne curb weight and diesel engine yielding 11.36 kW/tonne power-to-weight, enabling operations in regions lacking heavy-lift rail or depot networks that tracked vehicles like the 25-tonne Warrior required. However, the Ratel's aluminum armor, proofed against small arms and artillery fragments up to 14.5 mm at close range, yielded to advanced threats like 105 mm APFSDS rounds, inferior to the Warrior's steel-composite protection capable of withstanding similar kinetic impacts. This trade-off reflected causal priorities: wheels for strategic radius in vast theaters versus tracks for tactical cross-country aggression in denser European settings.

Upgrades and Legacy

Modernization Programs

Following the cancellation of Project Hoefyster, which aimed to replace the Ratel with the Badger IFV but stalled due to budgetary constraints and delays since its inception around 2007, the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) has pursued service life extension programs (SLEPs) to maintain fleet viability. These initiatives emphasize cost-effective overhauls to address mechanical wear, obsolescence, and low availability rates, which have dropped below operational thresholds amid resource shortages. In 2001, the SANDF implemented approximately 70 modifications to the existing Mk 3 Ratel fleet, building on the original 1985 Mk 3 upgrade that incorporated over 135 changes for enhanced reliability, including improved suspension, pneumatic systems, central tire inflation, and fire suppression. These updates focused on retrofitting earlier variants during overhauls to standardize performance in southern African terrains, though they did not fully resolve long-term propulsion and electronics aging. More recently, private firm Jorsin, with decades of Ratel maintenance experience, proposed a comprehensive SLEP in 2025, targeting Phase 1 mobility enhancements by replacing the original Bussing D 3256 engine, gearbox, transfer case, and suspension components with modern equivalents to boost power output, reduce weight, and improve serviceability. Jorsin's prototypes demonstrate potential for modular integrations, such as updated sensors and anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) compatibility, while preserving the wheeled design's logistical advantages over tracked alternatives. Concurrently, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) issued Request for Information (RFI) No. 7042/04/08/2025 on July 18, 2025, soliciting industry input on Ratel life extension feasibility, with emphasis on mitigating obsolescence in electronics, powertrains, and subsystems to extend operational life by 10-15 years without full fleet replacement. This RFI prioritizes upgrades enhancing availability from current low levels (often under 50% fleet readiness) through targeted interventions like digital fire controls and enhanced armor kits, informed by operational feedback from ongoing deployments.

Current Status and Future Prospects

As of 2025, the South African National Defence Force operates over 500 Ratel variants, including Ratel-20, Ratel-60, and Ratel-90 models, in active service, supplemented by approximately 600 units in reserve storage. This inventory sustains the vehicle's primary role in mechanized infantry operations, particularly for rapid response to border insecurities and internal stability missions, despite aging components limiting full readiness. Replacement efforts under Project Hoefyster have stalled, yielding zero Badger IFVs after 18 years and R7.7 billion allocated, redirecting focus to Ratel upgrades amid debates on extending service life to counter low-intensity threats like insurgencies in neighboring regions. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research initiated a request for industry proposals in August 2025 to assess life-extension viability, targeting obsolete electronics, mobility enhancements, and maintainability improvements. Private firms such as Jorsin have advanced service life extension plans, emphasizing cost-effective retrofits to restore combat effectiveness without new procurement. Prospects hinge on SANDF budget limitations, including a R41.2 billion shortfall in 2025 that curtails modernization ambitions and prioritizes fiscal restraint. Hybrid upgrade paths, merging Ratel hulls with modular additions like sensor suites or unmanned aerial vehicle interfaces, offer a pragmatic alternative to full replacement, potentially leveraging local industry for affordability. Export potential persists in African markets, where the Ratel's field-tested mobility in arid and bushveld environments provides an edge over costlier, unproven imports, though renewed sales depend on successful domestic revitalization.

Strategic Impact on South African Defense

The Ratel IFV fundamentally shaped the South African Defence Force's (SADF) mobile warfare doctrine during the Border War (1966–1989), facilitating rapid "lightning strikes" and decentralized maneuvers executed by junior commanders that deviated from conventional textbooks to exploit the vehicle's speed and cross-country agility in African bush terrain. This tactical evolution allowed outnumbered SADF battlegroups to conduct deep offensive raids into Angola, neutralizing threats from Soviet-supplied T-55 tanks and BMP-1 IFVs operated by Cuban and Angolan forces, thereby deterring large-scale invasions across the border. Over 1,200 Ratels produced between 1974 and 1987 provided the mechanized infantry backbone for these operations, enabling sustained combat effectiveness against materially superior adversaries in proxy conflicts aligned with Cold War dynamics. The vehicle's indigenous development, initiated in the early 1970s under Armscor amid escalating UN arms embargoes—including the comprehensive 1977 Security Council Resolution 418—underscored South Africa's strategic pivot to self-reliance, circumventing import restrictions that had previously constrained armored vehicle acquisitions. By prioritizing wheeled designs optimized for long-range mobility over tracked alternatives, the Ratel not only met immediate operational needs but also catalyzed the growth of domestic manufacturing expertise, transitioning production responsibilities to state entities and fostering innovations in variants like the Ratel-90 fire support vehicle. This industrial maturation reduced vulnerability to sanctions, with Armscor's oversight yielding a versatile platform that integrated local weapon systems, thereby enhancing overall defense autonomy without reliance on embargo-prone foreign suppliers. Counterfactually, the Ratel's absence would have amplified SADF logistical and mobility deficits in the Border War, potentially escalating casualty rates and resource expenditures in engagements like Operation Modular (1987), where its agility proved decisive against heavier Soviet equipment. Its success validated the wheeled IFV paradigm for expeditionary forces in asymmetric theaters, influencing post-apartheid South African National Defence Force (SANDF) planning and underscoring causal links between indigenous innovation and sustained deterrence amid isolation.

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  19. https://www.military.africa/2025/08/jorsin-looks-to-upgrade-sandf-ratels/
  20. http://samilitaryhistory.org/jnl2/vol185cr.html
  21. https://www.businesslive.co.za/fm/features/cover-story/2025-08-21-military-muscle-melts-away/
  22. https://www.military.africa/2025/08/csir-explore-ratel-life-extension-options-as-project-hoefyster-falters/
  23. https://defenceweb.co.za/editors-pick/ratel-revival-csir-invites-bids-to-modernise-sa-armys-iconic-infantry-fighting-vehicles/
  24. https://weaponsystems.net/system/602-Ratel%2B20
  25. https://warwheels.net/Ratel20index.html
  26. https://www.army-technology.com/features/tracks-or-wheels/
  27. https://cove.army.gov.au/article/vanguard-lessons-learnt-combat-team-commander-during-mechanisation
  28. https://weaponsystems.net/system/149-Ratel%2B90
  29. https://warwheels.net/Ratel90index.html
  30. https://defenceweb.co.za/resources/fact-files/fact-file-denel-zt3-ingwe-precision-guided-missile/
  31. https://weaponsystems.net/system/80-Ratel%2BZT-3
  32. https://www.61mech.org.za/index.php/equipment/ratel-zt-3
  33. https://warwheels.net/Ratel81mortarCarrierINDEX.html
  34. https://www.army-technology.com/projects/badger-infantry-combat-vehicle/
  35. https://defenceweb.co.za/land/r7-7-billion-and-18-years-later-badger-project-has-delivered-zero-vehicles/
  36. https://scientiamilitaria.journals.ac.za/pub/article/view/1129
  37. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14751798.2021.1961070
  38. https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/files/misc/SIPRIBP1101.pdf
  39. https://www.military.africa/2024/09/cost-effective-life-extension-and-improvement-of-ratel-ifv/
  40. https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-differences-between-an-infantry-fighting-vehicle-and-an-armored-personnel-carrier-APC-Which-one-is-considered-better
  41. https://tank-afv.com/coldwar/UK/FV510-Warrior.php
  42. https://defenceweb.co.za/featured/jorsin-ready-to-assist-sandf-with-ratel-upgrades/
  43. https://defenceweb.co.za/sa-defence-sa-defence/sandf-has-combat-vehicles-but-numbers-and-modernisation-an-issue-motshekga/
  44. https://www.csir.co.za/sites/default/files/Documents/RFI%25207042-04-08-2025.pdf
  45. https://adf-magazine.com/2025/07/budget-constraints-limit-sandfs-operational-capacity/
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