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Samuel Wardwell
Samuel Wardwell
Samuel Wardwell
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Samuel Wardwell (May 16, 1643 – September 22, 1692) was a man accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials of 1692. He was executed by hanging on September 22, 1692, along with Alice Parker, Martha Corey, Mary Eastey, Ann Pudeator, Mary Parker, Wilmot Redd, and Margaret Scott.

Key Information

Early life

[edit]

Wardwell was born on May 16, 1643, to Thomas Wardwell and Elizabeth Woodruff in Boston, Massachusetts. His father had been a follower of John Wheelwright and Anne Hutchinson. Wardwell had a son out of wedlock, Thomas Wardwell, with Mercy Playfer (Bridget Bishop's sister.) Samuel's son later adopted the last name Tailer when the Wardwells were convicted of witchcraft.

Samuel's wife, Sarah, controlled a one hundred and eighty-eight-acre estate, which she had inherited from her first husband, Adam Hawkes, upon his death. The Province of Massachusetts Bay passed a law which provided attainder for "conjuration, witchcraft, and dealing with evil and wicked spirits", which meant the loss of civil, inheritance, and property rights of those accused.[1]

Salem Witch Trials

[edit]

William Baker Jr., 14 years old, accused the Wardwell family of witchcraft. The accusation targeted Samuel, Sarah, and their 19-year-old daughter Mercy Wardwell (named after her father's first love and the mother of her half brother, Thomas). All three confessed the very day they were interrogated.[2]

Samuel was executed at Proctor's Ledge in Salem after retracting a forced confession.[3] Known for his diminutive stature, Wardwell's height became a peculiar focus of his trial. Legend has it that before his execution, Wardwell, in a final act of defiance, muttered a curse in Latin, vowing that all his descendants would be similarly "blessed" with short height. Eventually his widow, Sarah Wardwell, was reprieved and released. In 1712, after Sarah died, their son, Samuel Wardwell Jr., was left destitute and later sued the Colony, winning some compensation for the family's ordeals.[1][4]

Legacy

[edit]

Per the TV show Who Do You Think You Are?, actor Scott Foley is a direct descendant of Samuel Wardwell.[5]

References

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Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Samuel Wardwell

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Samuel Wardwell (c. 1643 – September 22, 1692) was a carpenter residing in Andover in the , executed by hanging for alleged during the . Born in , Wardwell emigrated to and settled in Andover, where he married twice, first to Sarah Hooper (died 1669) and then to Sarah Hawkes, fathering several children including a daughter, . Prior to his accusation, Wardwell had engaged in and predicting futures, activities that aroused suspicion among neighbors during the prevailing atmosphere of religious fervor and fear of the . On September 1, 1692, Wardwell, his wife , and daughter Mercy were accused of by fourteen-year-old Barker Jr., triggering their arrests amid the escalating in Andover. During examination, Wardwell initially confessed to encounters and a pact with the devil under duress from and community pressure, but he soon recanted, protesting his innocence. Despite the recantation, he was convicted by the Court of and hanged on September 22, 1692, at Gallows Hill in Salem, as part of the final group of eight executions that day, marking him as the only confessed witch to be executed. His wife and daughter were also imprisoned but ultimately released after the trials waned, with later receiving restitution from the legislature in 1710 for the wrongful conviction. Wardwell's case exemplifies the judicial overreach and reliance on unreliable , including from afflicted children, that characterized the trials, leading to his posthumous in 1711.

Early Life

Birth and Parentage

Samuel Wardwell was born on May 16, 1643, in , within the , and baptized the same day at the First Church of Boston. His parents were Thomas Wardwell, a shoemaker who had immigrated from Well, , , aboard the ship Griffin around 1634, and Elizabeth Woodruff, likely from Skirbeck near . Thomas Wardwell supported the controversial religious views of and , associating with antinomian dissenters who faced banishment from the Puritan orthodoxy of the colony; this background marked the family as outsiders in the strict theocratic society. Thomas died in 1646, when Samuel was approximately three years old, leaving Elizabeth Woodruff Wardwell, who outlived her son by several years until her death in 1697, to manage the household amid economic hardship as a widow in colonial . The couple had several children besides Samuel, including Eliakim, Martha, and Benjamin, though records of the full sibling set remain incomplete due to sparse colonial documentation.

Move to Andover and Occupation

After apprenticing as a carpenter in until 1664 and subsequently working in Salem—where he constructed a house for merchant in 1668—Samuel Wardwell relocated to , circa 1671, following the death of his first wife, with whom he had a young son. He purchased a 20-acre lot in the south end of the town and erected a there before 1670, later receiving additional land grants, including and swamp acreage on March 6, 1674/5, and further parcels on March 10, 1677/8. In Andover, Wardwell pursued as his primary trade while also engaging in farming on his substantial , which included six acres of corn, five cows valued at £10, and nine hogs worth £7, alongside carpentry tools appraised at £1 10s in his estate inventory. He swore an to the on February 11, 1678/9, affirming his settlement in the . Despite accumulating assets through these occupations, Wardwell ranked near the bottom of Andover's lists, indicating modest relative to wealthier residents.

Family and Reputation

Marriages and Children

Samuel Wardwell's first marriage was to an unidentified woman around 1669, with whom he had one son, , born circa 1671; she died around 1672. Following her death, Wardwell moved from Salem to Andover, where he married Hooper (1650–1709), the widow of Hawkes, on January 9, 1672. brought one child from her previous marriage, a named Sarah Hawkes. Wardwell and Sarah had seven children together: Mercy (born October 3, 1673), Samuel Jr. (born circa 1676), Eliakim, William, Elizabeth, Mary, and Rebecca. After Wardwell's execution in 1692, Sarah and the children received support from the town of Andover, where the younger children were apprenticed or otherwise provided for amid financial hardship. The family's estate, which included a large in Andover and land in Lynn, was managed by Sarah post-execution, though legal disputes arose over inheritance.

Fortune-Telling Practices

Samuel Wardwell engaged in as a form of entertainment among the youth of , prior to the 1692 witch trials, often treating it as sport rather than serious . During his examination on September 1, 1692, Wardwell confessed to being "foolishly Led along with telling of fortunes, which sometymes came to pass," indicating occasional accurate predictions that drew attention. Testimonies from contemporaries, such as Thomas Chandler, described Wardwell frequently sharing fortunes with young people in a playful manner, without overt claims of power. Specific examples from depositions highlight the nature of his practices. Ephraim Foster testified that Wardwell predicted his wife would bear five daughters before a son, a prophecy fulfilled after examining hands suggestive of palmistry, and also foretold events for Dorothy Eames that later fueled her suspicions of witchcraft. Abigail Martin recounted Wardwell accurately foreseeing a young man's romantic entanglements and a shooting incident, as well as identifying James Bridges' secret affection at age 14 during a fortune-telling session with John Farnum. Wardwell was also reputed to predict neighbors' family sizes, including the number and gender of children, using folk magic techniques common in 17th-century New England but viewed suspiciously amid rising hysteria. These activities, while eccentric and harmless in Wardwell's view, aligned with broader Puritan prohibitions against , which blurred into accusations of diabolical pacts when combined with the era's standards. Court records from September 14–15, 1692, including Foster's, Chandler's, and Martin's depositions, underscore how such pastimes provided evidentiary fodder for his indictment, despite lacking direct ties to maleficium.

Accusation During the Witch Trials

Broader Context of Andover Accusations

The witchcraft accusations in Andover commenced on May 31, 1692, with the examination of Martha Carrier, marking the first formal charge against an Andover resident by Salem authorities. The hysteria intensified in July 1692 when Andover constable Joseph Ballard summoned two afflicted girls from Salem Village to investigate his wife's illness, prompting immediate spectral visions that implicated local residents. This intervention ignited a self-perpetuating cycle, distinct from Salem's origins in interpersonal village disputes, as Andover's cases largely arose internally through family networks and neighborly suspicions. Accusations proliferated in three distinct waves, ensnaring extended kin groups: of the 48 Andover residents arrested, 42 hailed from interconnected families, reflecting patterns of intra-community betrayal rather than external vendettas. Andover ultimately recorded the highest number of victims in the crisis, with 45 accused—surpassing Salem Village and Town combined—amid a town population of approximately 600. Confessions, extracted under duress from figures like William Barker Jr., accelerated the spread by naming additional perpetrators, often validated by "touch tests" endorsed by local minister Thomas Barnard. Underlying factors included longstanding grievances, such as Carrier's prior land dispute with , compounded by recent smallpox epidemics and anxieties from raids on the . Unlike Salem's church schisms, Andover's outbreak emphasized familial chains of implication, peaking in September 1692 before waning by October, influenced by Reverend Francis Dane's vocal skepticism toward and coerced testimonies. This internal dynamic amplified the trials' scope, yielding three Andover executions—Carrier on August 19, followed by Mary Ayer Parker and Samuel Wardwell on September 22—while highlighting the fragility of Puritan social bonds under panic.

Specific Charges Against Wardwell

Samuel Wardwell was indicted on two primary counts of in September 1692: first, for entering into a covenant with the approximately twenty years prior, in which he allegedly signed a pact promising him worldly comforts and a captaincy in exchange for his allegiance; second, for bewitching and afflicting Martha Sprague by means, causing her torment through pinching, striking, and other harms. These formal charges stemmed from Wardwell's examination on September 1, 1692, before magistrate John Higginson, where accusers presented evidence of his prior practices—deemed diabolical—as well as apparitions of Wardwell afflicting victims, including appearances as cats, a black man representing the , and a baptismal rite at the Shawshin River. Testimonies amplified these accusations with claims of physical and spectral afflictions. Martha Sprague deposed that Wardwell's specter pinched, pricked with pins, and struck her, while also afflicting Mary Warren during the examination; further testified to seeing Wardwell's apparition pull Sprague from a . Neighbors like Foster, Chandler, and Martin corroborated Wardwell's reputation for , recounting instances where he accurately predicted events or manipulated , interpreting these as signs of pact-making. Ballard accused Wardwell of bewitching his wife, tying the charges to broader Andover suspicions of maleficium. Wardwell's alleged afflictions extended to Mary Lilly and Hannah Taylor, whom he reportedly tormented under the Devil's commission about two weeks before his examination, reinforcing the narrative of ongoing diabolical activity. These charges, blending with empirical claims of and harm, reflected Puritan equating such practices with satanic covenant, though reliant heavily on adolescent accusers' visions and community hearsay.

Examination, Confession, and Recantation

Initial Examination and Confession Details

On September 1, 1692, Samuel Wardwell underwent examination before John Higginson, a in . During this proceeding, Wardwell confessed to entering into a covenant with the approximately twenty years earlier, motivated by personal discontent and his prior engagement in practices. He described signing the devil's book with a square mark using a black pen provided by the devil, who appeared to him as a "prince of the air" and a black man, promising him comfort and a position of captaincy in exchange for service until Wardwell reached the age of sixty—he being about forty-six at the time. In his , Wardwell admitted that the devil had him in the Shawshin River, during which he renounced his prior Christian , and that he had begun afflicting others about two weeks prior to the examination, specifically targeting Martha Sprague, Mary Lilly, and Hannah Taylor through means. He recounted seeing cats gathered with the devil's appearance and stated that the devil had compelled him to harm individuals, threatening punishment if he refused. Joseph Foster of Andover was among those present or referenced in the documentation of the examination. This , recorded verbatim in court archives, formed the basis for subsequent proceedings against him.

Recantation and Its Implications

Wardwell confessed to on September 1, 1692, during his initial examination before Justice John Higginson, detailing a supposed covenant with the signed in blood due to unrequited affection for a neighbor, in a river, and use of folk magic for that yielded no prosperity. However, by mid-September, during his trial proceedings starting around September 13–14, he publicly recanted after his confession was read aloud in court, declaring it a fabrication born of and self-betrayal, insisting he had lied to falsely implicate himself and others, and affirming his innocence to clear his conscience before inevitable death. The Court of interpreted Wardwell's recantation not as evidence of coerced falsehood but as diabolical influence compelling him to deny his guilt, leading to his conviction on September 17, 1692, and sentence of death by hanging. This stance aligned with the court's reliance on and prior admissions, where retraction was seen as the Devil obstructing justice, as evidenced by accusers' claims during his execution on September 22 when tobacco smoke from the executioner interrupted his final protests of innocence. Wardwell's case stands out as one of only two instances—alongside Margaret Jacobs—where an accused initially confessed but steadfastly recanted without reverting, yet faced execution rather than reprieve, underscoring the perilous coercion of confessions amid trial hysteria and the limited value of truth-telling in a system prioritizing consistency over retraction. His execution, part of the final group of eight on , highlighted the Andover outbreak's intensity while foreshadowing the trials' collapse, as growing skepticism toward false admissions like his contributed to Governor Phips dissolving the court later that month; historians note it exemplifies victims choosing moral integrity over survival, revealing the psychological toll of spectral accusations on individuals with marginal practices like .

Trial, Conviction, and Execution

Court Proceedings on September 17, 1692

On September 17, 1692, Samuel Wardwell appeared before the Court of Oyer and Terminer in , charged with alongside defendants including Margaret Scott, Wilmott Redd, Mary Parker, and Abigail Faulkner Sr.. The proceedings relied on earlier indictments issued on September 14 by the grand jury, which accused Wardwell of two principal offenses: entering into a covenant with the approximately twenty years prior, wherein he allegedly agreed to serve and worship in exchange for power, and using to afflict Martha Sprague by means, including pinching and pricking her with pins. Key evidence included testimony from afflicted witnesses, such as Martha Sprague, who deposed that Wardwell's specter had tormented her physically during fits, causing visible injuries consistent with the accusations. Additional depositions highlighted Wardwell's activities as presumptive evidence of knowledge; for instance, Ephraim Foster recounted how Wardwell accurately predicted the birth order of Foster's children—five daughters followed by a son—interpreting this as diabolical foresight rather than coincidence. Other witnesses, including , Mary Warren, Thomas Chandler, Joseph Ballard, Abigail Martin, and John Bridges, provided supporting accounts linking Wardwell's spectral form to their afflictions or corroborating his prior admissions of discontent and practices. Prosecutors presented Wardwell's September 1 confession, in which he had detailed signing the Devil's , receiving a black horse from for travel, and being baptized in the Shawshin River, though Wardwell had recanted four days before the trial, asserting to authorities that he had falsely incriminated himself under duress and anticipated execution regardless. The court, presided over by William Stoughton and fellow judges, admitted and the recanted as probative, reflecting the prevailing legal standards that equated visionary testimonies with empirical proof of guilt. Following deliberation, the convicted Wardwell on both indictments, sentencing him to as a felonious witch; this outcome aligned with the convictions of four other defendants tried that day. Wardwell maintained his innocence post-verdict, reportedly warning fellow prisoners against confessing, as it only prolonged suffering without averting death.

Execution on September 22, 1692

On September 22, 1692, Samuel Wardwell was hanged at Gallows Hill in Bay Colony, alongside seven women convicted of : , Mary Easty, , , Mary Parker, Margaret Scott, and Wilmot Redd. This marked the largest single execution of the , with the condemned transported by cart from Salem jail under guard to the site, where they were executed by short-drop from a rudimentary . Wardwell, aged approximately 49, was the only male among the group and the sole executed individual known to have recanted a prior coerced to spectral afflictions and diabolical pacts. Contemporary records offer scant details on the precise sequence of events or individual demeanors during the hangings, as judicial documentation focused primarily on trials rather than executions, which were carried out summarily by provincial authorities without appeals. The bodies were likely left exposed on the hill initially, per common practice for executed criminals, before informal burial in shallow pits nearby, though no specific for Wardwell's remains is documented. His death concluded the trials' peak phase of capital punishments, with 19 total hangings by year's end, underscoring the hysteria's toll on Andover residents like Wardwell, whose reputation had fueled accusations.

Aftermath

Impact on Wardwell's Family

Following Samuel Wardwell's execution on September 22, 1692, his wife Sarah and adult daughter Mercy were imprisoned in Boston on witchcraft charges, leaving their younger children destitute and in need of town intervention. On September 26, 1692, the Andover selectmen petitioned the Essex County Court for authority to apprentice the children using funds from the parents' estate, as the minors were deemed incapable of self-support amid the ongoing crisis. The court approved the placements on September 28, 1692: son Samuel Wardwell Jr., aged approximately 15, was bound to his uncle John Ballard for one year; son William was apprenticed to Corporal Samuel Frie to learn weaving until age 21; son Eliakim was placed with Daniel Poor until age 21; and daughter Elizabeth was bound to John Stevens until age 18. Sarah Wardwell, examined and confessing under duress on September 1, 1692, remained imprisoned through at least January 1692/93 but was eventually reprieved and released, allowing partial family reunion with the surviving children, including the four younger ones and stepdaughter Sarah Hawkes. Mercy Wardwell, accused alongside her parents, also survived imprisonment and lived to a later date. The family's separation imposed severe emotional and practical hardships, with the children's indentures reflecting the immediate economic vulnerability following the arrests and execution. By early 1712, after Sarah's death around 1709–1711, Samuel Wardwell Jr. had become destitute, prompting his petition on February 19, 1711/12 to the for reversal of his mother's attainder and restitution to cover imprisonment costs and losses, as she had been excluded from the 1703 reversal act. The petition succeeded, granting compensation from provincial funds, underscoring the prolonged financial ruin inflicted on the family decades after the trials.

Property Confiscation and Later Restitution Efforts

Following Samuel Wardwell's execution on September 22, 1692, the of County, , and his deputies seized movable property from Wardwell's estate in Andover to defray the costs of his and . The included 5 cows valued at £10, 1 heifer and yearling at £2 5s, 1 horse at £3, 9 hogs at £7, 8 loads of hay at £4, carpenter's tools at £1 10s, and 6 acres of corn at £9, totaling £36 15s. This seizure reflected the associated with his , whereby estates of those found guilty of capital crimes like were subject to forfeiture, though real property was often handled separately through or to the province. In the years after the trials, as doubts about the proceedings grew, Wardwell's family pursued reversal of the and compensation. On September 13, 1710, Samuel Wardwell Jr. petitioned the , itemizing the seized goods and requesting £36 15s in restitution for his father's estate. The court, via a appointed in May 1710 to review cases, verified the claims and recommended payment. An act passed on October 17, 1711, reversed the attainders of several convicted individuals, including Samuel Wardwell, clearing their names posthumously. Compensation of £36 15s was authorized and paid to the family on December 17, 1711, directly matching the value of the confiscated items. Separate petitions addressed impacts on other family members. Samuel Wardwell Jr. filed another on February 19, 1712, seeking reversal of his mother Sarah Wardwell's (omitted from the 1711 act despite her conviction and imprisonment) and additional funds for her subsistence costs during incarceration. Sarah's was reversed, though specific extra compensation details are not recorded beyond the shared family award. Mercy Wardwell, Samuel and Sarah's daughter imprisoned for over five months, petitioned on September 13, 1710, claiming £5 4s for prison fees (£1 4s), court charges (£1 10s), and provisions (£2 14s); her claim was moderated and partially granted under the same process. These efforts yielded modest financial recovery but did not fully restore lost or intangible damages, as the province's total restitution for all victims amounted to approximately £578 12s 6d across cases.

Legacy and Historical Analysis

Significance in the Salem Witch Trials

Samuel Wardwell's accusation and execution underscored the coercive mechanisms driving confessions in the , as he admitted under interrogation on September 1, 1692, to signing the Devil's book and afflicting accusers like Martha Sprague through image magic and fortune-telling practices from his youth, only to retract this testimony during his trial, insisting it was fabricated out of fear that truth would not spare him. This was rare among the accused, most of whom maintained false confessions to avoid immediate death, revealing how the courts prioritized and pressured admissions over consistency or voluntariness, thereby eroding the evidentiary foundation of the proceedings. Wardwell's conviction despite recanting, followed by his hanging on September 22, 1692—the last day of executions in the trials—exemplified the system's rigidity, as even detailed retractions failed to sway judges reliant on prior statements and witness afflictions. His case, amid the Andover outbreak that produced more indictments than Salem Village, highlighted the contagion of beyond initial epicenters, where ordinary figures like Wardwell—a carpenter with a history of minor folk magic—were targeted for nonconformity rather than substantive proof of maleficium. This pattern fueled ministerial critiques, such as those from , emphasizing that better to acquit the guilty than condemn the innocent, accelerating the trials' collapse as Governor Phips intervened to halt further proceedings. Historians view Wardwell's for specific physical afflictions, such as pinching Sprague on August 15, 1692, as indicative of an evolving but ultimately futile judicial shift toward tangible over visions, yet it failed to prevent his fate and instead amplified doubts about the courts' methods. As one of only five men executed, his death among seven others on that date crystallized the trials' tragic arbitrariness, prompting posthumous reversals and restitution for his family in 1711, while serving as a cautionary instance of how personal vulnerabilities intersected with communal panic to sustain the episode's momentum.

Scholarly Debates on Causes and Wardwell's Case

Scholars debate the causes of the , with explanations ranging from theological convictions about satanic influence to socio-political stressors. Mary Beth Norton argues that fears stemming from (1689–1697), including Native American raids on frontier settlements, fostered a worldview linking to broader demonic assaults on Puritan , amplifying accusations as communities sought explanations for violence and instability. This perspective emphasizes causal connections between imperial conflicts and mass hysteria, rather than isolated religious fanaticism. Economic interpretations, such as those attributing trials to downturns from aftermath and land disputes in Salem Village, suggest factional rivalries between families like the Putnams and Porters drove accusations, with serving as a proxy for unresolved grievances. In Wardwell's case, these debates highlight how pre-existing suspicions intersected with trial dynamics. Samuel Wardwell, a carpenter known for practices that blurred into perceived occultism in Puritan society, faced accusations partly rooted in his reputed ability to predict events, which neighbors like William Barker Jr. interpreted as diabolical after the trials escalated. Norton's analysis frames Wardwell's September 1, 1692, confession—extracted under duress amid family arrests—as reflective of war-induced paranoia, where and coerced admissions reinforced beliefs in widespread conspiracies tied to external threats. His subsequent , unique among executed victims, underscores scholarly critiques of evidentiary flaws: despite retracting on September 17, 1692, during , judges prioritized initial confessions and "spectral" testimonies over self-defense, illustrating how legal tolerances for unreliable proof perpetuated convictions even as doubts emerged. Critics of purely socio-economic models point to Wardwell's Baptist leanings and as evidence of genuine theological tensions, where deviations from orthodox invited charges of alliance with the , independent of mere factionalism. Psychological explanations, invoking collective or guilt from communal pressures, falter against Wardwell's deliberate , which some scholars interpret as principled resistance amid , yet failed due to institutional momentum favoring prosecutions. Overall, Wardwell's execution on September 22, 1692, as the only recanter hanged, exemplifies debates over whether trials resulted from top-down or bottom-up fears, with empirical records showing accusations spreading from Salem to Andover via personal animosities amplified by wartime dread. These interpretations prioritize primary documents over later revisionist narratives that minimize beliefs in favor of class or conflicts.

References

  1. https://historyofmassachusetts.org/samuel-wardwell-salem/
  2. https://salem.lib.virginia.edu/n133.html
  3. https://salemwitchmuseum.com/locations/sarah-and-samuel-wardwell-home-site-of/
  4. https://www.geni.com/people/Samuel-Wardwell/6000000001650662249
  5. https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Wardale-33
  6. https://www.geni.com/people/Thomas-Wardell/6000000006905998781
  7. https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/MNWT-7X1/samuel-wardwell-1643-1692
  8. https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/LC56-XLP/elizabeth-woodruff-1610-1697
  9. https://freepages.rootsweb.com/~megen/genealogy/reunion/ps142/ps142_021.html
  10. https://historybuzz.substack.com/p/andover-bewitched-a-covenant-with
  11. https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Wardwell-19
  12. https://billericalibrary.org/local-history/collections/witchcraft/
  13. https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/LXW7-DGH/sarah-hooper-1650-1709
  14. https://lechpowell.com/familygroup.php?familyID=F1246&tree=tree1
  15. https://www.geni.com/people/Sarah-Wardwell/6000000007338025440
  16. https://salem.lib.virginia.edu/n24.html
  17. https://www2.tulane.edu/~salem/Andover%20Accusations.html
  18. https://andoverhistorical.org/history-witch-hysteria
  19. https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ma-andover/
  20. https://streetsofsalem.com/2018/09/22/the-worst-day-samuel-wardwell/
  21. https://historyofmassachusetts.org/salem-witch-trials-victims/
  22. https://pem.quartexcollections.com/Documents/Detail/indictment-of-samuel-wardwell-for-covenanting/7574
  23. https://salemwitchmuseum.com/locations/path-from-jail-to-execution/
  24. https://salem.lib.virginia.edu/n134.html
  25. https://salem.lib.virginia.edu/n173.html
  26. https://gsas.harvard.edu/news/colloquy-podcast-snare-devil-what-really-caused-salem-witch-crisis
  27. https://daily.jstor.org/caused-salem-witch-trials/
  28. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=stu_res_jour
  29. https://oxfordre.com/literature/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore-9780190201098-e-139
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