Curse

A curse is a solemn utterance, ritual act, or written inscription intended to invoke supernatural powers—often deities, spirits, or magical forces—to inflict harm, misfortune, illness, or punishment on a person, group, animal, or object, typically in response to perceived injustice, rivalry, or for protective purposes.^[1][2] These practices span diverse cultural, religious, and historical contexts, functioning as tools for social control, revenge, and moral enforcement, with evidence dating back to at least the third millennium BCE in Mesopotamian and Egyptian texts.^[2] In the ancient Near East, curses commonly took the form of petitionary prayers to gods, categorized as conditional (to deter future behaviors, such as treaty violations) or unconditional (to address immediate grievances like theft or betrayal), and were inscribed on boundary stones (kudurru) or embedded in international agreements to ensure compliance through divine retribution.^[2] Similarly, in Greco-Roman antiquity, lead curse tablets known as defixiones—folded and buried to "bind" enemies—were widespread from the fifth century BCE onward, targeting litigants in court, athletes in competitions, or romantic rivals, reflecting their role in everyday disputes beyond elite religious spheres.^[3] Throughout religious traditions, curses often carry divine authority, as seen in the Hebrew Bible where they appear as pronouncements of supernatural harm, either human-initiated (e.g., personal imprecations against foes) or divinely ordained (e.g., collective punishments for covenant breaches), underscoring themes of justice and exclusion from communal blessings.^[1] In Egyptian magic, curses involved ritual transfer of malevolent intent to objects or agents, blending blessings and curses to assert ritual authority and protect sacred spaces, with examples from funerary inscriptions invoking harm on tomb violators.^[4] Folklore across cultures amplifies curses as oral or symbolic acts, such as the Slavic "folk magic of the word" where verbal formulas target individuals through everyday objects or natural elements, believed to manifest via sympathetic magic or ancestral spirits.^[5] Notable variants include generational curses, transmitted through family lines as moral or spiritual inheritances, and simile curses in ancient treaties, which vividly describe punishments (e.g., "may your city become like scattered chaff") to psychologically reinforce oaths.^[2] While belief in curses has waned in secular contexts, they persist in contemporary religious and indigenous practices, influencing explanations of misfortune and ethical behaviors in societies from Africa to the Americas.^[6]

Overview

Definition

A curse is a solemn utterance, ritual act, or written inscription intended to invoke supernatural powers to bring harm, misfortune, or punishment upon a person, group, animal, or object.^[7] This concept often involves a verbal formula or ritual performance expressing malevolent intent, believed to harness spiritual or divine forces for its effect.^[8] Curses differ from blessings, which are analogous speech acts invoking positive fortune or divine favor, as curses are inherently malevolent and aimed at inflicting suffering rather than prosperity.^[9] Unlike some general spells or magical acts that may seek various outcomes through rituals or objects, curses often involve solemn pronouncements, rituals, or inscriptions and are perceived as potent, sometimes irreversible without specific counter-rituals, such as exorcisms or protective invocations.^[10] From psychological and anthropological viewpoints, curses serve as mechanisms of social control, channeling expressions of fear, envy, or taboo enforcement to regulate behavior within communities. They reinforce moral norms by invoking supernatural retribution, deterring deviance through the threat of intangible harm, and have been documented as tools wielded by marginalized groups to assert power against oppressors.^[11] Belief in their efficacy endures in contemporary societies, with a 2025 Pew Research Center survey across 35 countries indicating that significant shares of adults in many nations believe spells, curses, or other magic can influence people's lives.^[12] Historically, curses originated in oral traditions, where spoken words were thought to possess inherent power to affect reality, with evidence dating back to at least the third millennium BCE in Mesopotamian texts, later evolving into written forms preserved in ancient inscriptions for greater permanence and authority.^[13] This transition reflects broader shifts in human communication, from ephemeral recitations in rituals to durable records that amplified their perceived potency across generations.^[14]

Etymology

The English word "curse" originates from late Old English curs, denoting a prayer or invocation that evil or harm befall someone, with its etymology remaining uncertain but likely derived from Latin cursus, meaning "course" or "running," in the sense of a ritual course of prayers or ecclesiastical proceedings.^[15] This Latin term stems from the Proto-Indo-European root kers-, which conveys the idea of "to run" or "to move swiftly," implying a rapid enactment of harm through spoken words or rites.^[15] The verb form, cursian, appeared in Old English as early as the pre-1150 period, used to describe the act of invoking divine wrath or affliction, without clear cognates in other Germanic languages.^[16] In Middle English, the term evolved from curs, emphasizing wrath or affliction under Christian theological influence, where curses were often tied to ecclesiastical curses or excommunications.^[15] A key example is its usage in the 1382 Wycliffe Bible, the first complete English translation of the scriptures, where "curse" translates Latin maledictio or Hebrew terms for divine maledictions, such as in passages invoking God's judgment on the disobedient.^[16] This period marked a consolidation of the word's association with solemn religious oaths, reflecting the integration of Latin liturgical practices into vernacular speech. Cross-linguistically, parallels exist in Semitic languages, such as Hebrew ʾārûr (אָרוּר), meaning "accursed" or "under a ban," derived from the verb ʾārar (אָרַר), which implies binding or restricting someone through a pronouncement of doom, often ratified by divine authority.^[17] Similarly, in Sanskrit, śāpa (शाप) refers to an imprecation or curse, originating from the root śap (शप्), meaning to swear an oath or revile, highlighting a global pattern where curses function as binding verbal acts across ancient Indo-European and Semitic traditions. Over time, the semantics of "curse" shifted from antiquity's religious oaths—focused on invoking supernatural harm—to profane swearing in modern English by the 16th century, with the sense of a "swear word" emerging around 1590.^[15] The Oxford English Dictionary records the noun's earliest attestation in 1225, underscoring its transition from sacred malediction to colloquial expression of anger or vulgarity.^[16]

Types and Classification

Supernatural Curses

Supernatural curses are believed to operate through mechanisms that invoke deities, spirits, or cosmic forces to inflict harm, such as illness, death, or personal ruin, often via ritualistic practices that channel otherworldly power.^[18] In many traditions, these curses rely on sympathetic magic, where an object representing the target—such as a voodoo doll—serves as a conduit for directing malevolent energy, with pins or bindings symbolizing the intended affliction.^[19] Similarly, hexes in European witchcraft traditions involve incantations or potions to summon spirits that bind the victim's fate to misfortune, drawing on folklore of pacts with supernatural entities.^[20] Cultural variations in supernatural curses reflect diverse spiritual frameworks. In African traditions, juju curses employ oaths sworn before priests to ancestral spirits, compelling obedience through threats of supernatural retribution like infertility or madness, as seen in Nigerian practices where such rituals enforce social control.^[21] Native American lore, particularly among the Navajo, features skin-walkers, shape-shifting witches who use spells and curses to inflict physical harm or spiritual torment on individuals, rooted in taboos against witchcraft.^[22] In Asian folklore, Chinese ghost curses involve hungry ghosts—restless spirits of the deceased—who, if offended, impose calamities like disease or family discord through hauntings or possessions, as documented in ancient texts.^[23] Within animism and polytheism, supernatural curses function by accessing spiritual realms where deities or animistic forces enforce moral or social order, often as retribution for violations of taboos.^[24] These belief systems posit that curses disrupt the harmony between human actions and the spirit world, leading to tangible misfortunes.^[25] Anthropological studies highlight the psychological impact on believers, including nocebo effects where expectation of harm manifests as real symptoms like anxiety or illness, as observed in voodoo curse cases.^[26] Counter-curses involve rituals aimed at severing supernatural bonds, such as smudging in Native American practices, where burning sage or cedar purifies spaces and individuals from lingering malevolent energies.^[27] Exorcisms, prevalent in polytheistic and Christian-influenced contexts, summon protective deities or divine authority to expel afflicting spirits, with historical accounts debating their efficacy based on faith and ritual precision.^[28] These countermeasures often succeed psychologically by restoring believers' sense of agency, though empirical validation remains contested in anthropological literature.^[29]

Verbal and Profane Curses

Verbal curses encompass a range of spoken or written expressions designed to demean, insult, or invoke harm upon others without reliance on supernatural elements. These include oaths, which are solemn but profane declarations often invoking taboo concepts; imprecations, such as wishes for misfortune like "May you rot in misery"; and expletives, abrupt outbursts like "Damn it all" intended to vent frustration or belittle.^[30] In everyday speech, such phrases function as linguistic tools for emotional release or social signaling, where the intent to harm or degrade is conveyed through connotation rather than literal action.^[31] The evolution of profanity traces from religious taboos rooted in blasphemy—such as invoking hell or divine punishment, which were seen as violations of sacred oaths in medieval Europe—to more secular forms emphasizing bodily functions or social insults in modern usage.^[32] By the 18th and 19th centuries, swearing shifted toward anatomical and sexual references, reflecting changing cultural sensitivities away from purely theological prohibitions toward broader moral and social norms.^[33] This transition is evident in how terms once tied to religious damnation, like "goddamn," became diluted into everyday expletives, adapting to secular contexts while retaining emotional intensity.^[34] In the 19th-century United States, obscenity laws explicitly penalized cursing and profane language as threats to public morality. The Comstock Act of 1873 criminalized the mailing of "obscene, lewd, or lascivious" materials, which included writings deemed vulgar or immoral, leading to widespread censorship of such content.^[35] Earlier state laws from the early 1800s similarly prohibited profane swearing in public, viewing it as disruptive to social order and punishable by fines or imprisonment.^[36] These regulations underscored profanity's role as a legal taboo, often conflating verbal curses with broader obscenity to suppress dissent or immorality. Rhetorically, verbal curses serve as devices for emphasis, insult, or dramatic tension in literature and politics, amplifying dialogue and character motivations. In Shakespeare's plays, such as Richard III, curses like "O, cursed be the hand that made these holes!" propel narrative conflict, portraying verbal maledictions as tools for revenge or moral judgment without supernatural implications.^[37] Similarly, in King Lear, Edgar's imprecations against Edmund heighten emotional stakes, using profanity to underscore betrayal and rage in political intrigue.^[38] Politically, curses have been deployed to assert dominance or rally support, as seen in historical orations where profane oaths demean opponents and galvanize audiences. From a sociolinguistic perspective, verbal curses fulfill social functions like catharsis, allowing speakers to alleviate stress through taboo word expression, with studies showing inverse correlations between profanity use and levels of anxiety or depression.^[39] They also assert dominance by establishing power hierarchies, as in confrontational settings where expletives signal authority or challenge subordinates.^[40] The emotional power of these taboo words stems from their violation of norms, enhancing expressivity and fostering group bonds or intimidation in interactions.^[30]

Historical and Cultural Contexts

Ancient Egyptian Curses

In ancient Egyptian culture, curses served primarily as protective measures to safeguard tombs and the deceased's eternal existence in the afterlife, inscribed on walls, doors, and sarcophagi to deter desecration by robbers or enemies. These inscriptions, dating back to the Old Kingdom around 2400 BCE, often invoked divine retribution through gods such as Anubis, Horus, and Osiris, warning that violators would suffer physical harm, sterility, or denial of proper burial. For instance, the Pyramid Texts, the earliest known religious compositions found in royal pyramids like that of Unas (c. 2350 BCE), included apotropaic spells designed to ward off threats to the king's body and tomb, emphasizing magical barriers against intruders rather than explicit maledictions.^[41][42][43] These curses were deeply intertwined with Egyptian beliefs in the afterlife, where the tomb represented a microcosm of the underworld, and disturbance could jeopardize the ka (life force) and ba (soul) of the deceased. Spells in the Book of the Dead, a New Kingdom collection of funerary texts (c. 1550–1070 BCE), extended this protection by detailing invocations against grave robbers, such as threats of decay, serpentine attacks, or exclusion from offerings. Such formulas aimed to ensure the deceased's undisturbed journey to the Duat, reflecting a broader reliance on heka (magic) to maintain cosmic order.^[44][45] A prominent modern association with ancient Egyptian curses arose from the 1922 discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by Howard Carter, which fueled the "mummy's curse" legend after the sudden death of sponsor Lord Carnarvon in 1923 from a mosquito-bite infection, followed by other excavators' illnesses. Sensationalized by newspapers, the myth posited supernatural vengeance for disturbing the pharaoh's rest, despite no such curse inscription existing in the tomb itself. This narrative persisted through 20th-century media, including films and books, amplifying folklore despite historical evidence of only generic protective warnings in Egyptian tombs.^[42] Scientific analyses have largely debunked the curse's supernatural elements, attributing deaths to natural causes like bacterial infections from tomb environments. Studies of sealed tombs reveal toxic molds, such as Aspergillus flavus, which produce aflatoxins capable of causing severe respiratory issues, particularly in those with pre-existing conditions like Carnarvon's chronic lung problems. A 2002 cohort study of 44 individuals who entered the Tutankhamun tomb found no statistically significant increase in mortality compared to unexposed controls, reinforcing that coincidences and environmental hazards, rather than magic, explain the tragedies. More recent research as of 2024 has proposed that high levels of radioactive materials in some ancient tombs could have contributed to cancers and other illnesses among excavators, offering another natural explanation for the perceived curse.^[46][47][48] Persistent folklore, however, continues to romanticize these events in popular culture.^[49]

Biblical Curses

In the Hebrew Bible, curses often function as divine pronouncements of judgment tied to covenantal obedience or disobedience, serving as theological mechanisms to enforce moral accountability and affirm God's sovereignty. These curses are typically conditional, outlining consequences for violating God's laws, and are rooted in ancient Near Eastern treaty language where blessings reward fidelity and curses punish infidelity. For instance, Deuteronomy 28 details a comprehensive list of curses, including famine, exile, and defeat, that would befall Israel if it failed to uphold the covenant, portraying them as natural extensions of divine justice rather than arbitrary punishments.^[1] A prominent example is the narrative of Balaam in Numbers 22–24, where the Moabite king Balak hires the prophet Balaam to curse the Israelites, but Balaam's attempts are divinely overridden, transforming potential curses into blessings that highlight God's protective power over His people.^[1] Familial or generational curses also appear, as seen in Genesis 4, where God curses Cain for murdering Abel, marking him with a sign of protection while dooming him to a life of wandering and hardship as retribution for his sin, emphasizing the moral consequences of personal actions within family lines. These Old Testament curses underscore a theology where divine retribution maintains cosmic order, often invoked through prophetic speech or ritual acts like the covenant-cutting ceremony in Genesis 15, symbolizing the self-imprecation of the parties involved.^[1][50] In the New Testament, curses evolve into pronouncements of spiritual condemnation, focusing on hypocrisy and false teaching as barriers to salvation. Jesus delivers a series of "woes" against the Pharisees and scribes in Matthew 23, denouncing their legalistic hypocrisy and self-righteousness as akin to Deuteronomic curses, portraying them as spiritually blind guides leading others to ruin and invoking divine judgment on their unrepentant hearts.^[51] Similarly, the Apostle Paul issues anathemas in Galatians 1:8–9, declaring that anyone—angel or apostle—who preaches a distorted gospel is accursed, using the term anathema to signify excommunication and divine separation from God's favor, thereby safeguarding the purity of the Christian message against Judaizing influences.^[52] These New Testament references frame curses as spiritual consequences rather than physical afflictions, aligning with a broader redemptive arc where Christ's crucifixion absorbs the ultimate curse of sin (Galatians 3:13).^[53] Theologically, biblical curses represent tools of divine justice, prophetic warnings that reveal sin's destructive power and God's commitment to righteousness, rather than vengeful acts. In the Old Testament, they function as denunciations of sin and calls to repentance, reinforcing covenant theology where curses highlight the gravity of rebellion against God.^[1][50] New Testament interpretations build on this by viewing curses through Christ's atonement, which breaks their hold on believers, influencing early Christian practices like exorcism where demonic oppression is sometimes linked to unrepented sin or generational patterns echoing biblical curses.^[53][54] Rabbinic literature in the Talmud expands these concepts, interpreting Deuteronomic curses as multifaceted warnings—such as the curse of cannibalism in Leviticus 26:29 and Deuteronomy 28:53–57—as symbolic of exile and communal suffering, while debating their application to avoid literal harm and emphasize ethical living.^[55][56] Historically, biblical curses have profoundly shaped Western theological understandings of sin and retribution, framing disobedience as incurring inevitable consequences that underscore human accountability to a holy God. This covenantal model influenced patristic and medieval Christian thought, portraying sin not merely as moral failure but as a breach inviting divine retribution, which in turn informed doctrines of original sin and eschatological judgment.^[57][58] Rabbinical expansions in the Talmud further embedded these ideas in Jewish ethics, promoting interpretations that mitigate curses through repentance and Torah observance, thereby contributing to enduring views of retribution as educative rather than purely punitive.^[55]

Specific Historical Examples

Medieval Curses

In medieval Europe, ecclesiastical curses served as powerful tools wielded by the clergy to maintain social and moral order, often through formal rituals of excommunication and anathema that invoked divine wrath against offenders. These pronouncements, rooted in liturgical traditions, condemned individuals or groups for crimes such as heresy, theft, or defiance of church authority, excluding them from the sacraments and community while promising eternal damnation. A seminal study of these practices highlights how Benedictine monks in Romanesque France developed elaborate cursing services, known as maledictiones, to curse enemies of the church, blending biblical language with vivid threats of physical and spiritual torment to deter wrongdoing in an era of fragmented secular governance.^[59] One of the most notorious examples of an ecclesiastical curse occurred in 1525, when Gavin Dunbar, Archbishop of Glasgow, issued a comprehensive monition against the Border Reivers—lawless clans plaguing the Anglo-Scottish border through raids and extortion. This 1,050-word proclamation, read from pulpits across the diocese, cursed the reivers' heads, eyes, families, livestock, and even their crops, invoking hellfire, famine, and perpetual damnation: "I curse their heid and all the haris of thair heid; I curse thair face, thair ene, thair mouth, thair neis, thair tongue, thair lippes, thair chaftis... may the malediction of God... ly upon thame." Dunbar's curse exemplified the church's role in supplementing weak feudal law enforcement by leveraging supernatural fear to suppress banditry.^[60] Beyond clerical authority, folk curses among peasants represented informal expressions of grievance, often perceived as having tangible supernatural effects through spoken imprecations or rituals. These were frequently intertwined with accusations of witchcraft, where maleficium—harmful magic including curses—was believed to cause illness, crop failure, or death among neighbors. Historical analyses of witch trial records from the late medieval period reveal how peasant communities used such curses in disputes over land or honor, viewing them as extensions of oral folklore traditions that bypassed formal justice. The Malleus Maleficarum (1486–1487), a influential treatise by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, detailed maleficium as demonic-assisted cursing, providing examples of witches uttering words to inflict misfortune, such as barrenness or sudden affliction, which fueled inquisitorial prosecutions across Europe. This text codified fears of folk cursing, portraying it as a pact with the devil that justified severe punishments, though its descriptions drew from earlier trial testimonies rather than fabricating new lore.^[61] In feudal societies lacking centralized police forces, curses played a crucial social role in law enforcement, acting as deterrents and mechanisms for communal justice from the Anglo-Saxon period onward. Anglo-Saxon legal codes, such as those in the laws of Æthelberht of Kent (c. 600 CE), incorporated curses to protect documents and enforce oaths, threatening violators with divine retribution to compensate for limited judicial infrastructure. By the high Middle Ages, these evolved into broader tools for resolving disputes, where imprecations reinforced tithings and hue-and-cry systems, compelling participation through fear of supernatural reprisal. The efficacy of curses waned during the Renaissance as rationalist thought and humanist scholarship challenged superstitious beliefs, promoting empirical inquiry over divine intervention in human affairs. Intellectual movements, exemplified by figures like Reginald Scot in his The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584), critiqued cursing as illusionary, contributing to a broader disenchantment that diminished their legal and social potency. Nonetheless, elements of medieval cursing persisted in rural folklore, influencing oral traditions and popular superstitions well into the early modern era.^[62]

Curses in Colonial and Modern History

During the colonial era, European powers often invoked religious and supernatural justifications to legitimize the enslavement and subjugation of indigenous and African peoples, including interpretations of biblical curses. The "Curse of Ham" from Genesis, misinterpreted to condemn descendants of Ham (associated with Africans) to perpetual servitude, was widely used by Portuguese and other European slavers to rationalize the transatlantic slave trade beginning in the 15th century.^[63][64] In the Americas, Spanish conquistadors encountered indigenous resistance framed in supernatural terms, such as Aztec legends of Emperor Montezuma II cursing the invaders for looting sacred gold, which fueled myths of doomed expeditions and "cursed" treasures persisting into colonial narratives.^[65] Enslaved Africans in the Caribbean countered colonial oppression through practices like obeah, a syncretic spiritual system involving curses and rituals aimed at harming plantation owners and overseers as acts of resistance during the 18th and 19th centuries.^[66][67] In the 19th century, curses emerged as tools of social protest amid colonial exploitation and famine. Irish cursing traditions, including the "priest's curse," were occasionally invoked in rural communities to condemn exploitative practices, drawing on Gaelic folklore to express grievances against social injustices.^[68] Similarly, in the American Southwest, Hopi prophecies warned of apocalyptic consequences for desecration of sacred lands, foretelling environmental ruin and societal collapse if traditional territories were violated, echoing curse-like admonitions against colonial theft.^[69][70] Entering the 20th and 21st centuries, curses have manifested in political and environmental activism, often blending traditional beliefs with modern grievances. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa against Salman Rushdie for The Satanic Verses was characterized as a "curse" in Shiite theological terms, invoking divine retribution and inspiring global death threats that underscored the decree's supernatural weight beyond legal punishment.^[71] In the Amazon, Yanomami shamans have invoked forest spirits to combat "xawara"—the curse-like epidemics and environmental destruction brought by loggers and miners since the mid-20th century—through rituals aimed at weakening invasive forces and protecting indigenous territories amid ongoing deforestation.^[72][73] Colonialism profoundly shaped the global dissemination and transformation of curse beliefs, often suppressing indigenous systems while imposing European supernatural rationales for domination. Anthropological studies, such as E.E. Evans-Pritchard's 1937 ethnography of the Azande in colonial Sudan, illustrated how witchcraft and curse practices persisted as explanatory frameworks for misfortune under imperial rule, with British authorities criminalizing them as "native superstition" to maintain control, yet inadvertently highlighting their role in resisting colonial authority.^[74][75] This interplay fostered hybrid curse traditions worldwide, from Caribbean obeah to Amazonian rituals, as colonized peoples adapted beliefs to confront ongoing exploitation.

Cursed Objects and Artifacts

Notable Cursed Items

The Hope Diamond, a 45.52-carat blue diamond discovered in the 17th century in India, is one of the most infamous gems associated with a curse. According to legend, the stone was originally the eye of a Hindu idol dedicated to the goddess of discord, stolen in the late 1600s by French merchant Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who was later reportedly killed by wild dogs. The diamond passed through European royalty, including King Louis XIV of France, who had it recut and set into jewelry, and Marie Antoinette, who owned it as part of a necklace; both met tragic ends during the French Revolution, fueling tales of misfortune. The curse narrative was embellished in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with owners likeEvalyn Walsh McLean experiencing family tragedies, though historians attribute the story's popularity to jeweler Pierre Cartier's 1911 marketing ploy when selling it to McLean. Today, the diamond is housed at the Smithsonian Institution, where its reputed malediction continues to draw millions of visitors annually.^[76][77] Another prominent example is the Busby's Stoop Chair, an oak armchair from 1702 linked to English murderer Thomas Busby. Busby, a local blacksmith and highwayman, killed his father-in-law Daniel Auty after a dispute over a land deed and coin-operated business at the couple's inn; convicted of murder, Busby was hanged, and his body displayed on a gibbet near the inn, which later adopted the name Busby Stoop. As he was led to execution, Busby allegedly cursed anyone who sat in his favorite chair at the inn, proclaiming they would die swiftly. The chair gained a deadly reputation, with inn patrons and, during World War II, Royal Air Force airmen reportedly perishing soon after sitting in it—legends claim up to 63 such deaths, though documented cases include fatal accidents in the 1970s. In 1978, the chair was donated to Thirsk Museum in North Yorkshire, where it is suspended from the ceiling to prevent sitting, preserving its folklore status.^[78] In modern times, the Dybbuk Box exemplifies a cursed item rooted in Jewish folklore, though later revealed as fabricated. In 2003, Kevin Mannis, a Portland-based writer, auctioned a wine cabinet on eBay, claiming he bought it in 2001 from a Holocaust survivor's granddaughter and that it housed a dybbuk—a malevolent spirit from Jewish mysticism—causing nightmares, health issues, and supernatural occurrences for owners. The listing detailed Hebrew inscriptions and accompanying items like wheat pennies, selling for an undisclosed sum and passing through subsequent owners, including museum curator Jason Haxton, who chronicled further alleged hauntings. Mannis admitted in 2021 that the entire backstory was a fictional "ghost story" he invented to create an interactive horror narrative, yet the tale inspired the 2012 film The Possession and episodes of shows like Ghost Adventures, cementing its place in contemporary cursed object lore.^[79] These examples illustrate broader cultural patterns where curses are invoked on stolen or desecrated relics, believed to bring misfortune until repatriated. In Māori tradition, taonga (treasures) removed from their cultural context without permission are thought to cause illness or calamity for possessors, prompting repatriation efforts, such as the 2019 agreement to return historic carvings from Clandon Park, an English estate, to New Zealand after over 130 years abroad, which was still in finalization as of 2025.^[80][81] Such beliefs underscore global motifs of artifact-based maledictions tied to theft or disrespect.^[80]

Mummy and Tomb Curses

The discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb in 1922 by archaeologist Howard Carter and financier Lord Carnarvon sparked widespread media sensationalism about a "Pharaoh's curse" after Carnarvon's death from an infected mosquito bite in 1923, fueling the enduring trope of vengeful mummy curses despite no such inscription existing in the tomb.^[82] Newspapers amplified pseudoscientific claims linking subsequent deaths of expedition members and visitors—such as radiologist Archibald Reid in 1924—to supernatural retribution, though a 2002 cohort study of 44 individuals exposed to the tomb found no elevated mortality rate compared to the general population.^[83] Carter himself publicly denied the curse's existence in 1923, attributing illnesses to natural causes, and lived until 1939 without incident.^[42] Similar beliefs in curses tied to disturbing mummified remains appear globally, as seen in South American Inca traditions where child sacrifice mummies from capacocha rituals were interred on mountaintops, and modern invocations of curses have warned against their desecration. In 1982, Ronald Andrade, executive director of the National Congress of American Indians, called upon the "curse" of valley fever—a fungal disease—against scientists planning to unwrap a 1,000-year-old Inca mummy, reflecting ongoing taboos against handling sacred remains.^[84] In ancient China, tomb guardians known as zhenmushou—fierce earthenware beasts placed at burial entrances during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)—were designed to ward off evil spirits and intruders, invoking spiritual protection to curse those who violated the sanctity of the dead.^[85] These figurines, often depicting mythical creatures, symbolized the belief that desecration would unleash malevolent forces on the living.^[86] Scientific investigations have demystified many curse legends by identifying environmental hazards in sealed tombs, particularly the mold Aspergillus flavus, which thrives in arid conditions and produces aflatoxins that can cause severe respiratory infections like aspergillosis in those with compromised immunity. Analysis of air samples from Egyptian tombs, including Tutankhamun's, revealed high concentrations of A. flavus spores, potentially explaining illnesses among early 20th-century excavators who lacked protective gear.^[47] Studies in the 2010s further highlighted tomb air toxicity; for instance, a 2011 examination of ancient Egyptian mummies detected fine particulate matter in their lungs, suggesting chronic exposure to airborne pollutants that could persist in unventilated burial sites and pose risks to modern archaeologists.^[87] In South American contexts, toxic cinnabar pigments used in Inca mummy wrappings have been found to release mercury vapors, offering a chemical basis for "curse"-like health effects upon disturbance.^[88] These myths have influenced contemporary archaeology ethics, particularly in repatriation efforts where beliefs in curses underscore the spiritual harm of disturbing ancestral remains. In the United States, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 mandates the return of indigenous human remains and sacred items from museums, driven by tribal views that grave desecration causes spirits to wander restlessly, akin to a curse, and violates cultural protocols.^[89] This has led to the repatriation of approximately 135,000 human remains and thousands of associated cultural items since 1990, as of early 2025; recent 2023 regulatory updates have further expedited the process, with over 10,300 human remains repatriated in 2024.^[90][91][92]

Curses in Modern Contexts

As a Plot Device in Media

Curses have served as pivotal plot devices in literature since ancient times, often embodying inexorable fate and familial doom. In Sophocles' Oedipus Rex (c. 429 BCE), the protagonist inherits a generational curse stemming from his father Laius's violation of a divine oracle, propelling the narrative toward tragedy as Oedipus unwittingly fulfills the prophecy of patricide and incest despite his efforts to evade it.^[93] This curse underscores the tension between predestination and human agency, driving the plot through revelations that culminate in self-blinding and exile.^[94] In Gothic literature, curses manifest as supernatural pacts or ancestral maledictions that ensnare characters in moral decay and retribution. Matthew Gregory Lewis's The Monk (1796) exemplifies this through Ambrosio, a pious friar who succumbs to temptation via a demonic bargain, leading to his torment by infernal forces as punishment for his sins.^[95] The novel's plot hinges on this curse-like downfall, blending horror with critiques of religious hypocrisy and forbidden desire. In film and television, curses often propel horror narratives by awakening ancient evils or transforming victims. Universal's The Mummy (1932), directed by Karl Freund, centers on Imhotep's resurrection via a cursed scroll, which unleashes vengeance on archaeologists who disturbed his tomb, establishing the mummy curse as a staple trope in monster cinema.^[96] Similarly, Hammer Films' The Curse of the Werewolf (1961), directed by Terence Fisher, follows a foundling in 18th-century Spain cursed by rape and abandonment to become a lycanthrope, with the plot building to nocturnal killings and a desperate quest for redemption through love and faith.^[97] Modern television series like Supernatural (2005–2020) frequently employ curses as episodic and overarching arcs, where protagonists Sam and Dean Winchester confront hexes from witches, spirits, or artifacts that alter reality or compel monstrous behavior, often resolved through ritualistic breaking to advance character growth and mythology.^[98] In video games and comics, curses function as central quests or backstories that challenge protagonists' resolve. The Legend of Zelda series, beginning with The Legend of Zelda (1986), incorporates Demise's eternal curse from Skyward Sword (2011), which reincarnates hatred between the hero Link, Princess Zelda, and Ganon across timelines, framing gameplay as a cycle of breaking predestined conflict.^[99] In the Hellboy universe, curses appear in tales like Panya: The Mummy's Curse (2023), where an ancient Egyptian girl's malediction grants visions and longevity, resurrecting mummies and plagues, serving as catalysts for global supernatural threats that test heroism against folklore-rooted dooms.^[100] Thematically, curses in media explore the dichotomy of fate versus free will, heightening tension by questioning whether characters can defy supernatural inevitability.^[94] In literature and film, they symbolize inescapable consequences of hubris or ancestral sins, as seen in Oedipus's futile resistance, evolving into psychological horror that probes moral agency. By the 2020s, this motif has matured into satirical subgenres; Nathan Fielder and Benny Safdie's The Curse (2023) uses a vaguely supernatural hex on a couple's eco-friendly TV project to dissect gentrification, performative ethics, and relational unraveling, blending cringe comedy with existential dread.^[101]

Sports Curses and Superstitions

In sports, curses and superstitions often emerge as explanations for prolonged failures or as rituals to ward off perceived bad luck, deeply embedded in team lore and individual routines. These beliefs can influence player psychology, fan engagement, and even media narratives, blending folklore with the high-stakes unpredictability of competition.^[102] One of the most iconic American sports curses is the Billy Goat Curse afflicting the Chicago Cubs baseball team. Originating during Game 4 of the 1945 World Series against the Detroit Tigers, tavern owner Billy Sianis was ejected from Wrigley Field after attempting to bring his pet goat into the stadium, prompting him to declare, "Them Cubs, they ain't gonna win no more." The Cubs lost that series in seven games and did not return to the World Series for 71 years, enduring a string of near-misses and collapses attributed to the hex. The curse was widely considered broken in 2016 when the Cubs defeated the Cleveland Indians in a dramatic seven-game series, securing their first championship since 1908.^[103] Similarly, the Boston Red Sox endured the Curse of the Bambino from 1919 to 2004, stemming from the sale of star pitcher Babe Ruth to the New York Yankees for $100,000, which fueled the rivals' dynasty while dooming Boston to 86 years without a World Series title. Despite reaching the Fall Classic four times (1946, 1967, 1975, 1986) and losing each in Game 7, the Red Sox shattered the jinx in 2004 by staging an unprecedented comeback from a 3-0 deficit against the Yankees in the AL Championship Series, followed by a four-game sweep of the St. Louis Cardinals.^[104] Globally, football provides notable examples, such as the Curse of the Seven Cats in Argentine soccer history. After Racing Club de Avellaneda won the 1966 national title and the 1967 Copa Libertadores, rival Independiente fans broke into the stadium and buried seven dead black cats under an entrance, cursing the team and leading to a supposed hex that prevented the club from winning another domestic league title for 35 years until 2001. In intercontinental play, South American clubs have faced a perceived jinx against European teams in the FIFA Club World Cup, where despite competitive showings—such as holding opponents scoreless in early 2025 matches—European sides have dominated finals, winning 16 of the last 17 as of mid-2025, though recent upsets like non-European eliminations of powerhouses signal shifting dynamics.^[102][105] In cricket, superstitions often manifest as rituals to counter ill fortune rather than explicit curses, exemplified by the "Nelson" belief, where scores of 111 or multiples (e.g., 222) are deemed unlucky, prompting umpires like David Shepherd to hop on one leg to appease the "ghost" of Admiral Horatio Nelson. Australian captain Steve Waugh famously carried a red handkerchief in his pocket during matches, striding to the crease with it as a talisman for luck, a practice tied to broader avoidance of omens like black cats crossing the pitch.^[106][107] Individual athletes frequently adopt personal superstitions to mitigate perceived curses or anxiety, as seen with NBA legend Michael Jordan, who wore his faded University of North Carolina shorts under his Chicago Bulls uniform for every game, believing they brought good fortune from his college championship win in 1982—a ritual he maintained throughout his six NBA titles. Such behaviors extend to pre-game routines, like Jordan's precise sock adjustments to ensure uniformity, aimed at maintaining control amid uncertainty.^[108] Psychological research underscores how these superstitions and curse beliefs function as coping mechanisms, reducing performance anxiety by enhancing feelings of control. Studies show that pre-performance rituals can decrease neural responses to failure in the brain's anterior cingulate cortex, helping athletes regulate emotions and sustain focus during high-pressure events. For instance, superstitious actions like tapping equipment or wearing lucky items have been linked to lower anxiety levels and improved self-confidence in collegiate athletes, serving as psychological placebos.^[109][110] Skepticism toward sports curses often attributes their persistence to confirmation bias, where fans and players selectively remember failures aligning with the hex while ignoring contradicting successes. Analyses in the 2020s highlight this in sports psychology, noting that superstitions thrive in uncertain environments like competitions, reinforcing illusory control but potentially exacerbating anxiety if rituals fail; resolutions, such as championship wins or player trades, typically dispel beliefs by providing narrative closure, as seen in the Cubs' and Red Sox's triumphs.^[111][112]