Hubbry Logo
Scorpaena scrofaScorpaena scrofaMain
Open search
Scorpaena scrofa
Community hub
Scorpaena scrofa
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Scorpaena scrofa
Scorpaena scrofa
Scorpaena scrofa
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Scorpaena scrofa
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Perciformes
Family: Scorpaenidae
Genus: Scorpaena
Species:
S. scrofa
Binomial name
Scorpaena scrofa
Synonyms[3]
  • Scorpaena lutea Risso, 1810
  • Scorpaena natalensis Regan, 1906
  • Scorpaenopsis natalensis (Regan, 1906)

Scorpaena scrofa, the red scorpionfish, bigscale scorpionfish, large-scaled scorpion fish,[4] or rascasse is a venomous marine species of ray-finned fish in the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes.[2] It is found in the Mediterranean Sea, in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and the western Indian Ocean.

Taxonomy

[edit]

Scorpaena scrofa was first formally described in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in which he gave the type localities as the Mediterranean Sea at Rome and Marseille.[5] The specific name scrofa means "a breeding sow" in Latin, presumed to derive from scrofano and scrofanello, which are Italian names for the black scorpionfish (S. porcus) and this species, similar to the Old English "hogfish", possible an allusion to Renaissance mistranslations of Athenaeus' observation that scorpionfishes fed on algae or weed, that led to the belief that these fishes live and feed on mud.[6]

Description

[edit]

Scorpaena scrofa is the largest eastern Atlantic scorpion fish.[7] Its colouration ranges from brick red to a light pink, and it has dark-coloured blotches on its body. It has venomous spines, and can achieve a maximum weight around 3 kg (6.6 lb).[3] It can grow to a maximum length of 50 cm (20 in), but is commonly around 30 cm (12 in).[3]

It has 12 dorsal spines, 9 dorsal soft rays, three anal spines, and five soft rays. It often has a dark spot on its spinous dorsal spines between the 6th and 11th.[3][8] It has long supraorbital tentacles.

Distribution

[edit]

Scorpaena scrofa is found in the Mediterranean Sea. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean around the British Isles, where it is rare, south to Senegal, the Canary Islands, and Cape Verde.It is also found in the Azores Island of São Miguel;[3] It is also found from Namibia south and east along the coast of South Africa into the western Indian Ocean, its otherwise circum-African distribution is interrupted between Guinea and Namibia where it is apparently replaced by the spotted-fin scorpionfish (S. stephanica). In the Indian Ocean the northern most record is from the Gulf of Aqaba and, given its occurrence elsewhere in the western Indian Ocean, it is thought that this record is unlikely to be the result of anti-Lessepsian migration from the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal.[9]

Habitat

[edit]

Scorpaena scrofa is demersal and lives in marine and brackish environments with rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms at depths of 20–500 m (66–1,640 ft).[3] By day, it lives in burrows and caves. At night it comes out to hunt.[7]

Behaviour

[edit]

Scorpaena scrofa is a sedentary, solitary, and nonmigratory fish. It is predatory, feeding on other fish, as well as crustaceans and molluscs.[3] This is one of the fish used by the marine leech Pontobdella muricata as a host.[10]

As food

[edit]

Scorpaena scrofa is a traditional ingredient in Marseille bouillabaisse and in Tuscan cacciucco. It is also widely used in Japanese cuisine.[citation needed]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Scorpaena scrofa

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Scorpaena scrofa, commonly known as the red scorpionfish or large-scaled scorpionfish, is a venomous marine ray-finned belonging to the . This species is characterized by a body reaching a maximum total length of 50 cm and weight of 3 kg, with 12 dorsal spines, 9 dorsal soft rays, 3 anal spines, and 5 anal soft rays; its coloration ranges from brick red to light pink, often featuring darker marbling and a dark spot on the spinous . It inhabits demersal zones over rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms in temperate to tropical waters, typically at depths of 20 to 500 m (usually up to 150 m), and is non-migratory. Native to the Eastern Atlantic from the (rarely) to , including , the , and , S. scrofa is also widespread throughout the but absent from the . As a solitary and sedentary , it feeds on fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks, occupying a of approximately 4.3. The species' venomous spines pose a threat to humans, potentially causing painful stings. It is exploited in regional fisheries and maintained in public aquariums, with a of Least Concern according to the (assessed in ; no update as of 2025). Biologically, S. scrofa exhibits , with females reaching larger sizes than males despite slower growth after the first four years of rapid development; up to 15 age classes have been recorded, with the oldest individual being a 25-year-old female. occurs at a length of 24.9 cm for males and 29.0 cm for females, with all specimens over 32 cm being mature; spawning peaks in summer, aligning with higher catch rates during that period. In the , long-term trends indicate declines in average size and weight (19% and 43%, respectively, from 1960 to 2010), potentially linked to artisanal fishing pressures on this slow-growing, long-lived species.

Taxonomy and classification

Taxonomic history

Scorpaena scrofa was first formally described by the Swedish naturalist in the 10th edition of his published in 1758, where it was classified under the genus Scorpaena in the order Jugulares. Linnaeus provided a brief based on morphological characteristics such as the number of fin rays and spines, drawing from earlier descriptions by authors like Artedi and Rondelet. The type locality specified by Linnaeus is the near (Roman) and (Massil.), reflecting specimens or observations from those coastal regions. The specific epithet "scrofa" derives from the Latin word for "breeding sow" or "female pig," though the exact rationale remains unclear; it may stem from Italian regional names for the or a perceived resemblance in its robust head, large mouth, or vocalizations when handled, potentially involving mistranslations in Linnaeus's sources. The genus name Scorpaena itself originates from skorpaina, referring to a scorpion-like , alluding to the venomous dorsal spines. No emendations to the original binomial spelling have been necessary, as it has been consistently accepted in subsequent . Post-Linnaeus, the classification of S. scrofa within the family Scorpaenidae underwent refinements through systematic reviews of scorpionfishes. Early 19th-century works, such as those by Cuvier and Valenciennes in Histoire Naturelle des Poissons (1829–1849), confirmed its placement in Scorpaena and expanded distributional records across the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean. A significant modern revision came from William N. Eschmeyer's 1969 monograph A Systematic Review of the Scorpionfishes of the Atlantic Ocean, which examined type specimens and meristics, solidifying S. scrofa as a valid species distinct from congeners like S. porcus and reporting variations in scale counts and fin elements from Mediterranean and Atlantic populations. This work, along with Eschmeyer's ongoing catalog of fishes, has anchored its taxonomic stability within Scorpaenidae, with no major reclassifications since.

Synonyms and nomenclature

The valid scientific name for the species is Scorpaena scrofa Linnaeus, 1758, originally described in Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae (10th edition), volume 1, page 266. This binomial nomenclature remains the accepted name under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, with Linnaeus as the authority. Several junior synonyms have been proposed for S. scrofa, primarily due to historical misidentifications of morphological variants or regional populations as distinct species. These include Scorpaena lutea Risso, 1810, which was based on specimens from the Mediterranean that later proved conspecific with S. scrofa; Scorpaena natalensis Regan, 1906, described from South African waters and synonymized after examination revealed overlap in diagnostic traits; and Sebastapistes scorfa (Linnaeus, 1758), a generic reclassification that was rejected in favor of the original placement in Scorpaena. The current taxonomic status as a valid species within the genus Scorpaena was reaffirmed by the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) and FishBase as of 2025, with no pending revisions. Common names for S. scrofa vary widely across languages and regions, reflecting its prominence in Mediterranean fisheries and cuisine. In English, it is known as red scorpionfish, bigscale scorpionfish, or large-scaled scorpionfish. French speakers call it rascasse rouge or chapon, while in Spanish it is cabracho or escorpena roja; Italian names include scorfano and capone. Other examples include iskorpit (Turkish), havssugga (Swedish), and shkerpi i kuq (Albanian), with regional variations such as rocaz in (common in the ) and gallineta in Galician Spanish. These names often emphasize its reddish coloration or venomous spines.

Physical description

Morphology and anatomy

Scorpaena scrofa exhibits a robust body structure typical of scorpionfishes, characterized by a large head, broad mouth, and overall shape adapted for a demersal . The maximum total reaches 50 cm, with common lengths around 30 cm, and the maximum recorded weight is 3 kg. The body is covered in large scales, with 43–47 scales along the and 24 vertebrae. Key external features include prominent spines on the head and fins. The dorsal fin comprises 12 spines and 9 soft rays, the anal fin has 3 spines and 5 soft rays, the pelvic fins each have 1 spine and 5 soft rays, and the pectoral fins possess 18–19 rays. The head bears supraorbital tentacles shorter than the eye diameter, and cirri are present along the upper jaw. Venom glands are located at the base of the spines in the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins, delivering a protein-based toxin upon penetration. Internally, S. scrofa possesses a , though reduced in some scorpaenids for benthic habitation, and the apparatus features 15–17 rakers on the lower limb, suited to its demersal feeding habits. is evident, with females attaining larger sizes than males. No significant differences in ray counts are reported between sexes.

Coloration and adaptations

Scorpaena scrofa exhibits a primary coloration ranging from reddish-brown to light pink, featuring darker marbling, blotches, and bars that provide a mottled appearance, with the ventral side fading to white or silvery. This cryptic patterning, often including a dark spot on the spinous dorsal fin, enhances its ability to blend seamlessly with rocky substrates and algae-covered environments. Skin flaps and filaments on the head, lower jaw, and along the lateral line further contribute to texture mimicry, resembling encrusting organisms and aiding in ambush predation and predator avoidance. In deeper waters or at night, the red hues diminish due to the absorption of longer wavelengths, resulting in a darker or more silhouetted appearance that maintains camouflage efficacy. The species possesses large eyes adapted for enhanced vision in low-light conditions typical of its crepuscular and nocturnal habits. The system, consisting of sensory neuromasts, detects subtle water vibrations and movements, crucial for locating prey in dim environments where visual cues are limited. Chemosensory capabilities are supported by fleshy appendages under the lower jaw and on the head, which likely detect chemical signals from potential prey or environmental changes. Coloration in S. scrofa shows ontogenetic variation, with early juveniles displaying translucent or less pronounced patterns that develop into the adult's reddish-pink dorsal and silvery ventral scheme as they grow. Geographic differences also occur, with individuals in certain regions exhibiting more yellowish tones compared to the typical pinkish-red in others, reflecting adaptations to local substrates. These variations allow the to adjust its appearance to diverse habitats across its range.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

Scorpaena scrofa is native to the eastern , ranging from the southward to , including offshore islands such as the , , , and . The species occupies the entire , excluding the , where it is absent due to environmental barriers. Isolated records exist in the western off the African coast (including , , and ) and a single specimen from the in the (collected in 1993), with no further records reported as of 2025, suggesting a possible disjunct circum-African distribution with a major gap in the eastern Atlantic between and . Abundance varies across its range, with the species being common throughout the but rare in the northern extent near the . A notable distributional gap exists in the eastern Atlantic between and , where records are scarce, potentially due to unsuitable ecological conditions or undersampling. Historically, S. scrofa was first scientifically described by in 1758 based on specimens from the Mediterranean, with early records confirming its presence in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean basins since at least the . Documented range shifts include potential anti-Lessepsian migration into the via the , as evidenced by the first confirmed record in the off in 2020, at a depth of 400 m; this sighting links to prior western records and indicates possible eastward expansion from the Mediterranean. Climate-driven northward extensions have also been noted, with occasional vagrants reported beyond typical ranges. In 2025, recent surveys document continued presence in core areas, alongside potential range extensions; for instance, a specimen was captured in March 2025 in the off southwestern , representing one of the northernmost records in the northeast Atlantic and possibly reflecting warming ocean temperatures. platforms like have contributed to mapping ongoing observations, primarily confirming established distributions in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic without major new expansions reported in 2024–2025.

Habitat preferences

Scorpaena scrofa inhabits demersal zones in temperate to subtropical marine and brackish waters, primarily over rocky reefs, sandy or muddy bottoms, and beds such as those formed by . It shows a preference for complex microhabitats including crevices, caves, and under stones or for shelter. The species occupies a broad depth range of 20–500 m, though it is more commonly encountered up to 150 m; juveniles tend to occupy shallower coastal areas from 10–50 m, while adults shift to deeper waters. Water temperatures in its preferred habitats typically span 10–25°C, with recorded ranges from approximately 9.9–30.3°C across its distribution, and salinity levels between 30–38 ppt in marine environments, extending into brackish conditions. As a sedentary and solitary species, S. scrofa exhibits diurnal hiding behavior, remaining camouflaged in burrows, crevices, or algal cover during the day and becoming more active at night. It is generally non-migratory, but some populations display seasonal depth shifts related to temperature variations or spawning.

Biology and ecology

Behavior and locomotion

Scorpaena scrofa is a sedentary and solitary species that exhibits minimal migratory behavior, typically remaining within localized areas over rocky, sandy, or muddy substrates. As an ambush predator, it relies on cryptic positioning rather than active pursuit, with locomotion primarily achieved through slow "walking" movements using its enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins to navigate the seafloor. This bottom-dwelling strategy limits overall mobility, allowing the fish to conserve energy while blending into its surroundings via effective camouflage. Socially, S. scrofa is territorial and predominantly solitary, defending small personal spaces against intruders through agonistic displays such as erecting its dorsal fins and flaring venomous spines to deter potential threats. These displays serve as a primary defense mechanism, emphasizing the species' low tolerance for close conspecific interactions outside of rare small aggregations. The species follows a characterized by diurnal concealment in crevices, burrows, or among and , emerging primarily at night for activities. It responds to environmental stimuli such as changes in light levels or water currents by adjusting its posture or retreating further into cover, enhancing its efficiency during low-light conditions. S. scrofa serves as a host to the marine leech Pontobdella muricata, an ectoparasite that attaches to its skin and feeds on its blood, with infections documented in Mediterranean populations. While no established cleaning symbioses with other fish species have been widely reported, occasional interactions with cleaner wrasses may occur in reef environments, though these are not obligatory.

Diet and predation

Scorpaena scrofa is a carnivorous species occupying a mid-level position in the benthic food web, with a trophic level estimated at 4.3 based on dietary analyses. As an opportunistic generalist predator, its diet consists primarily of teleost fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks, reflecting prey availability in its demersal habitat. Stomach content studies from the central Adriatic Sea reveal that teleosts dominate the diet, contributing approximately 80.4% to the Index of Relative Importance (IRI), with common prey including damselfish (Chromis chromis) and picarels (Spicara smaris). Crustaceans such as decapods (including shrimp and crabs) and peracarids (amphipods and isopods) are also significant, particularly for smaller individuals under 15 cm total length, while cephalopods like octopuses form a lesser but notable component, especially in larger specimens during summer months. The feeding strategy of S. scrofa relies on predation, facilitated by its exceptional against rocky or algal substrates, allowing it to remain motionless and undetected until prey approaches within . It employs powerful jaws for rapid strikes, capturing prey in a swift motion, often during crepuscular or nocturnal periods when activity peaks and visibility is low. Dietary composition shows minimal seasonal variation, though feeding intensity decreases in winter due to lower temperatures and in summer linked to spawning, with empty stomachs most frequent in those seasons. Ontogenetic shifts occur, with juveniles targeting smaller crustaceans like mysids and amphipods, transitioning to larger teleosts and decapods as body size increases beyond 20 cm total length. As prey, S. scrofa faces predation from larger benthic predators, particularly juveniles. Its primary anti-predator defense involves 12 venomous dorsal spines and additional fin rays equipped with glandular , which deter attacks through painful stings, though some predators may avoid injury via their soft bodies. This combination of and venomous armament enhances survival in competitive coastal ecosystems.

Reproduction and development

Scorpaena scrofa reaches at lengths of 24.9 cm for males and 29.0 cm for females (), with regional variations such as 22.5 cm for males and 28.0 cm for females reported in the Gulf of Gabes, typically at 3 years for females and 4 years for males. In the Mediterranean, spawning occurs during the summer months from May to , characterized by multiple batch spawning events that allow females to release eggs in several clutches over the season. involves , where males release over egg masses extruded by females. The eggs are pelagic and ellipsoidal, measuring about 0.89 in diameter on average, with a homogeneous surrounded by a transparent gelatinous layer but lacking an oil globule. Embryonic development is rapid, lasting approximately 31 hours at 25.6°C, progressing through stages such as first cleavage at 1 hour post-fertilization, at 11 hours, and beginning at 30 hours. Upon , larvae measure 2.1 on average and remain pelagic, initially relying on reserves that are absorbed by day 4 post-, after which they begin exogenous feeding; the mouth opens around 46 hours post-, and early larvae exhibit sporadic movements near the water surface. Larvae disperse via ocean currents before settling to the at sizes of 1–2 cm. Throughout its life cycle, S. scrofa exhibits relatively high growth rates in the first four years, reaching initial rapid increases in length before slowing considerably, with females attaining slightly larger sizes than males. extends up to 25 years, enabling multiple reproductive cycles, and is estimated in the thousands of eggs per female, supporting population persistence in coastal habitats.

Conservation status

Scorpaena scrofa is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the , with the most recent assessment dated 15 July 2014 and no subsequent updates as of 2025. Despite this global status, populations exhibit local declines in overfished regions, particularly within the . Abundance estimates indicate relative stability across much of the Mediterranean basin, where the species remains prevalent in coastal fisheries, though targeted surveys reveal decreases in specific areas like the . In the eastern Atlantic, data are limited, with potential declines inferred in intensively fished zones from the southward based on general commercial trends, though not specifically quantified. Trawl surveys in the Mediterranean have documented consistent but low catch per unit effort (CPUE) in benthic habitats. Historical trends show post-industrial increases in reported catches during the mid-20th century due to expanded fisheries, followed by declines in average body size and biomass in the Mediterranean since the . For instance, in the , mean length decreased by approximately 19-20% and total weight by 40-43% between 1960 and 2010, signaling potential . Population monitoring relies on standardized methods such as catch per unit effort (CPUE) metrics from artisanal and trawl fisheries, which track relative abundance over time. Underwater visual surveys and baited remote underwater video systems are also employed in rocky habitats to assess density without disturbance, providing complementary data on juvenile recruitment and . The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) recommends minimum conservation reference sizes (MCRS) for priority , though S. scrofa relies primarily on national regulations; recent studies (as of 2023) emphasize needs for improved monitoring.

Threats and protection

Scorpaena scrofa faces several anthropogenic threats, primarily from , as it is a targeted in commercial, artisanal, and recreational fisheries throughout its range in the and eastern Atlantic. Intensive exploitation using gill nets, trammel nets, and trawls has led to population declines, with studies in the middle Adriatic reporting a 19% decrease in average length and 43% reduction in total weight over multi-year periods. of undersized individuals contributes to , exacerbating due to the ' slow growth and sedentary nature. in non-selective gears also results in high incidental mortality, though data gaps persist on exact rates and post-release survival across gear types. Habitat degradation from coastal development and poses additional risks, as S. scrofa relies on and substrates in shallow coastal waters for shelter and . Urban expansion and associated in the Mediterranean have reduced suitable s, indirectly affecting prey availability and recruitment success. further compounds these pressures by altering sea temperatures and ocean chemistry, potentially shifting prey distributions and reducing habitat suitability in the Adriatic region, where models predict up to 86.9% declines in landings for similar demersal . Conservation efforts include minimum landing size regulations that vary by EU member state, such as 25 cm total length in to protect juveniles nearing (24.9 cm for males, 29.0 cm for females), though no specific EU-wide MCRS or total allowable catches (TACs) are applied. The species benefits from protection within Mediterranean marine protected areas (MPAs), such as the Cap de Creus MPA in and others under the EU's network, where spillover effects have been observed to enhance adjacent fisheries. Despite its global IUCN Least Concern status, regional assessments highlight the need for improved monitoring of and fishing impacts to address knowledge gaps in .

Human interactions

Culinary uses

Scorpaena scrofa, known as the red scorpionfish or rascasse, plays a prominent role in , particularly in stews where its robust flavor and gelatinous texture enhance broths. It is highly valued for its meat quality and palatability, making it a sought-after in traditional dishes across the region. In , S. scrofa is a key component of , the classic from , where it contributes depth to the saffron-infused broth. Italian cooks feature it prominently in , a Tuscan from , often as the star fish alongside other Mediterranean species for its tender cheeks and flavorful bones. Similarly, in Spanish Catalan tradition, it appears in suquet de peix, a hearty simmered with potatoes and tomatoes, highlighting its suitability for slow-cooked preparations. Preparation emphasizes careful handling due to the fish's venomous spines, which must be removed during cleaning to avoid injury; however, the venom is heat-labile and denatures during cooking, rendering the flesh safe. The head and spines are ideal for stocks, providing a rich, gelatinous base for soups owing to their content, while the firm white flesh is suited for , , or with herbs and . Common methods include filleting after scaling and gutting, followed by seasoning with , , or lemon to complement its mild, slightly sweet taste. Nutritionally, S. scrofa is a lean offering approximately 91 calories per 100 grams, with 0% of calories from carbohydrates, approximately 83% from protein (about 19 grams), and 17% from , making it an excellent source of high-quality protein. It contains significant omega-3 fatty acids, including DHA (0.22 g/100 g) and EPA (0.027 g/100 g), which support cardiovascular health by reducing levels. Economically, S. scrofa holds high commercial value in Mediterranean fisheries, where it is targeted by artisanal and trawl operations, contributing to local markets in regions like and the western Mediterranean coasts. Culturally, its use underscores sustainable practices in contemporary recipes, with chefs advocating for responsibly sourced specimens to preserve stocks amid growing interest.

Aquarium trade and venom risks

Scorpaena scrofa is rarely available in the aquarium trade due to its challenging care requirements and inherent dangers, making it suitable primarily for experienced aquarists or displays rather than home setups. The species demands a large -only of at least 150 gallons (approximately 568 liters) to accommodate its maximum of 50 cm, with ample rockwork and caves for hiding to mimic its natural benthic habitat. Low water currents are essential, as stronger flows can stress the , and its carnivorous diet consists of high-protein foods such as marine flesh, crustaceans, and clams fed 3–4 times weekly, with occasional live feeders like to stimulate natural hunting behavior. Due to its semi-aggressive nature, it should be housed singly to avoid predation on smaller tankmates, and its venomous dorsal spines pose significant handling risks, limiting its appeal in commercial markets. Commercial trade in S. scrofa remains limited, constrained by its specialized needs and potential as an if released, with imports into the requiring prior notification to authorities and compliance with health certificates for ornamental aquatic animals. In regions like the EU, where the species is native to Mediterranean and Atlantic waters, sourcing often occurs locally to bypass stringent international import regulations for marine ornamentals, though overall volumes are low compared to more docile species. This scarcity is exacerbated by the fish's vulnerability during capture and transport, further discouraging widespread commercialization. The venom of S. scrofa is produced in glands associated with its 12 dorsal, three anal, and two pelvic spines, comprising a complex mixture of protein-based neurotoxins, enzymes such as proteases, and other bioactive compounds that disrupt nerve function and cause tissue damage. typically results in immediate intense pain radiating from the puncture site, followed by swelling, , and potential in severe cases, with systemic effects like or possible but rare. No specific exists for scorpionfish stings, but initial treatment involves immersing the affected area in hot water (42–45°C) for 30–90 minutes to denature venom components, alongside wound cleaning to remove any embedded spines and administration of analgesics or antibiotics if develops. Incidents of by S. scrofa are most common among fishermen during handling of catches, with reports documenting lesions, persistent , and occasional complications like secondary infections in affected individuals. For instance, in a series of eight cases involving Caucasian adults, five were fishermen who sustained stings while processing the fish, presenting with localized inflammatory responses that resolved with conservative management. Such events are infrequent among aquarists given the species' rarity in private collections, but protocols emphasize immediate hot water immersion and medical evaluation to prevent escalation, particularly in non-endemic areas where awareness may be low.

References

  1. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Scorpaena-scrofa.html
  2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272771414003473
  3. https://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=127248
  4. https://etyfish.org/perciformes9/
  5. https://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/fishcatget.asp?spid=42270
  6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344114791_New_record_of_the_Red_scorpionfish_Scorpaena_scrofa_Actinopterygii_Scorpaeniformes_Scorpaenidae_from_deep_waters_off_Israel_Gulf_of_Aqaba_Red_Sea
  7. https://www.fishbase.se/ComNames/CommonNamesList.php?ID=1759&GenusName=Scorpaena&SpeciesName=scrofa&StockCode=1955
  8. http://isez.pan.krakow.pl/journals/folia/pdf/57(3-4)/57(3-4)_17.pdf
  9. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4061139
  10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780080249520500168
  11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379727917_Aquatic_Antagonists_Scorpionfish_Envenomation
  12. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=264
  13. https://www.fishi-pedia.com/fishes/scorpaena-scrofa
  14. https://allfishes.org/fishes/marine/red-scorpionfish
  15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/scorpaenidae
  16. https://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/346363.pdf
  17. http://www.faomedsudmed.org/pdf/publications/TD18.pdf
  18. https://www.monaconatureencyclopedia.com/scorpaena-scrofa/?lang=en
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Scorpaena-scrofa-eastern-Atlantic-Indian-Ocean-and-Red-Sea-map-with-the-distribution_fig1_344114791
  20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389673311_Red_Scorpionfish_Scorpaena_scrofa_captured_in_the_Celtic_Sea_off_SW_Ireland_Marine_Times_March_2025
  21. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/84861-Scorpaena-scrofa
  22. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1095-8649.1989.tb03352.x
  23. https://www.rac-spa.org/sites/default/files/doc_mkh/biogenic_formations_v2.pdf
  24. https://reeflifesurvey.com/species/scorpaena-scrofa/
  25. https://www.croatia-yachting-charter.com/en/blog/most-dangerous-animals-in-adriatic-and-along-croatian-coast
  26. https://www.alr-journal.org/articles/alr/pdf/2007/02/alr022-07.pdf
  27. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=1759
  28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279701420_Feeding_habits_of_the_red_scorpionfish_Scorpaena_scrofa_Osteichthyes_Scorpaenidae_from_the_eastern_central_Adriatic_Sea
  29. https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/hcmr-med-mar-sc/article/view/38039
  30. https://cimi.org/blog/ouch-the-california-scorpionfish/
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284260523_Reproduction_de_Scorpaena_porcus_Linne_1758_et_de_Scorpaena_scrofa_Linne_1758_du_Golfe_de_Gabes
  32. https://www.walshmedicalmedia.com/open-access/scorpaena-scrofa-a-promising-aquaculture-candidate-for-sicilianaquaculture-2155-9546-1000375.pdf
  33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293384822_Embryonic_and_larval_development_of_largescaled_scorpionfish_Scorpaena_scrofa_Scorpaenidae
  34. https://www.fishbase.net.br/summary/Scorpaena-scrofa.html
  35. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mean-values-SE-of-CPUE-total-catch-kg-km-1-of-net-day-1-assessed-using_fig4_223828071
  36. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6015482/
  37. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/mul217217.pdf
  38. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165783620301338
  39. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1470160X11003694
  40. https://www.mdpi.com/2410-3888/8/1/9
  41. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165783612002494
  42. https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m366p159.pdf
  43. https://www.gastronomiavasca.net/en/gastro/glossary/cabracho
  44. https://app.ckbk.com/reference/food77337c19s001e115/scorpion-fish
  45. https://www.lacucinaitaliana.com/recipe/main-course/caciucco-fish-stew
  46. https://www.spain.info/en/recipe/baked-scorpion-fish/
  47. https://www.lacucinaitaliana.com/recipe/main-course/red-scorpionfish-with-jerusalem-artichokes-and-almond-milk
  48. https://polentaebaccala.com/2019/04/07/risotto-with-red-scorpionfish/
  49. https://www.centaurus.hr/en/red-scorpionfish/
  50. https://www.humanitas.net/wiki/red-scorpionfish/
  51. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283651263_Scorpaena_scrofa_A_Promising_Aquaculture_Candidate_for_Sicilian_Aquaculture
  52. http://www.saltcorner.com/AquariumLibrary/browsespecies.php?CritterID=1523&filter=0
  53. https://www.fishhealth.ie/fhu/moving-fish-shellfish/importing-ornamental-fish
  54. https://food.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2018-06/ia_trade_import-cond-fish_en.pdf
  55. https://scientiamarina.revistas.csic.es/index.php/scientiamarina/article/download/90/87/87
  56. https://www.tfhdigital.com/tfh/may_2015?folio=2
  57. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33740861/
  58. https://blogs.the-hospitalist.org/content/aquatic-antagonists-scorpionfish-envenomation
  59. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002849.htm
  60. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41144228/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
Contribute something
User Avatar
No comments yet.