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Reconstruction of a Xiongnu chief warrior, 2nd century BC – 1st century AD, by archaeologist A.N. Podushkin. Central State Museum of Kazakhstan.[1][2]

Chanyu (simplified Chinese: 单于; traditional Chinese: 單于; pinyin: Chányú) or Shanyu (Chinese: 善于), short for Chengli Gutu Chanyu (Chinese: 撐犁孤塗單于; pinyin: Chēnglí Gūtu Chányú), was the title used by the supreme rulers of Inner Asian nomads for eight centuries until superseded by the title "Khagan" in 402 AD.[3] The title was most famously used by the ruling Luandi clan of the Xiongnu during the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). It was later also used infrequently by the Chinese as a reference to Tujue leaders.

Etymology

[edit]
"Chanyu from Heaven" Tiles, Inner Mongolia Museum

According to the Book of Han, "the Xiongnu called the Heaven (天) 'Chēnglí' (撐犁) and they called a child (子) gūtú (孤塗). As for Chányú (單于), it is a "vast [and] great appearance" (廣大之貌).".[4]

L. Rogers and Edwin G. Pulleyblank argue that the title chanyu may be equivalent to the later attested title tarkhan, suggesting that the Chinese pronunciation was originally dān-ĥwāĥ, an approximation for *darxan.[5] Linguist Alexander Vovin tentatively proposes a Yeniseian etymology for 撐犁孤塗單于, in Old Chinese pronunciation *treng-ri kwa-la dar-ɢwā, from four roots: **tɨŋgɨr- "heaven",[6][7] *kwala- "son, child", *dar "lower reaches of the Yenisei" or "north", and *qʌ̄j ~ *χʌ̄j "prince"; as a whole "Son of Heaven, Ruler of the North".[8][9]

Bailey derives from Proto-Iranian *tark- "to speak, command", from Proto-Indo-European *telkʷ-. He also compares a Saka title with the same semantic shift. Compare also Khotanese ttarkana and Ossetian tærxon. [10]

Dybo derives from a Turkic root meaning "vast as the sky", and compares Old Uyghur *tarḳan-⁠ and tarḳar-.[11] The Old Uyghur tarḳan- listed in her work is not found in Wilkens (2021),[12] and Caferoğlu (1968)[13] glosses tarḳan- as "to feel embarrassed, to get tired of, to worry". tarḳar-, meanwhile, is glossed by both as "to expel, to distance oneself from something; to destroy, to expunge".

List of Xiongnu chanyus

[edit]
Title Reconstructed Han period's late Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese pronunciations[14] Personal Name Reign
Touman (頭曼單于/头曼单于) *do-mɑnᴬ 220–209 BC
Modu Chanyu (冒頓單于/冒顿单于) *mouᴴ-tuən/mək-tuən < *mûh-tûn/mə̂k-tûn[a] 209–174 BC
Laoshang Chanyu (老上單于/老上单于) *louB-dźaŋC Jiyu (稽鬻) 174–161 BC
Junchen Chanyu (軍臣單于/军臣单于) *kun-gin 161–126 BC
Yizhixie Chanyu (伊稚斜單于/伊稚斜单于) *ʔi-ḍiᴴ-ja 126–114 BC
Wuwei Chanyu (烏維/乌维) *ʔɑ-wi 114–105 BC
Er Chanyu (兒[b]單于/儿单于) *ńe Wushilu (烏師廬/乌师庐) 105–102/101 BC
Xulihu Chanyu (呴犛湖/呴犁湖) / Goulihu (句犁湖) *hɨo-li-gɑ / *ko-li-ga 102/101–101/100 BC
Qiedihou (且鞮侯)[c] *tsiɑ-te-go 101/100–96 BC
Hulugu Chanyu (狐鹿姑單于/狐鹿姑单于) *ɣuɑ-lok-kɑ 96–85 BC
Huyandi Chanyu (壺衍鞮單于/壺衍鞮单于) *ɣɑ-janB/H-te 85–68 BC
Xulüquanqu Chanyu (虛閭權渠單于/虚闾权渠单于) *hɨɑ-liɑ-gyan-gɨɑ 68–60 BC
Woyanqudi Chanyu (握衍朐鞮單于/握衍朐鞮单于) *ʔɔk-janB/H-hɨo-te Tuqitang (屠耆堂/ 屠耆堂) 60–58 BC
Huhanye Chanyu (呼韓邪單于/呼韩邪单于) *hɑ-gɑn-ja Jihoushan[16]: 59 
( 稽侯狦) 		58 – 31 BC
Tuqi 屠耆單于, 58–56 BC
Hujie 呼揭單于, 57 BC
Juli 車犂單于, 57–56 BC
Wuji 烏籍單于, 57 BC
Runzhen 閏振單于, 56–54 BC
Zhizhi Chanyu 郅支單于, 55 – 36 BC
Yilimu 伊利目單于, 49 BC
Fuzhulei Ruodi Chanyu[16]: 86 
(復株纍若鞮[d]單于/复株累若鞮单于) 		*ńak-te Diaotaomogao (彫陶莫皋/雕陶莫皋)[16]: 86  31–20 BC
Souxie Chanyu[16]: 86 
(搜諧若鞮單于/搜谐若鞮单于) 		*so-gɛi / *ṣu-gɛi Jumixu[16]: 86 
(且麋胥) 		20–12 BC
Juya Chanyu[16]: 87 
(車牙若鞮單于/车牙若鞮单于) 		*kɨɑ-ŋa Jumoju[16]: 87 
(且莫車/攣鞮且莫車) 		12–8 BC
Wuzhuliu Chanyu[16]: p. 87  (烏珠留若鞮單于/乌珠留若鞮单于) *ʔɑ-tśo-liu Nangzhiyasi/Zhi [18][page needed]
(囊知牙斯) 		8 BC – 13 AD
Wulei Chanyu[16]: 105–107  (烏累若鞮單于/乌累若鞮单于) *ʔɑ-lui Xian (鹹/挛鞮咸) 13–18 AD
Huduershidaogao Chanyu[16]: 108–109  (呼都而屍道皋若鞮單于/呼都而尸道皋若鞮单于) *hɑ-tɑ-ńɨ-śi-douH-kou Yu (輿/挛鞮舆) 18–46 AD
Wudadihou (烏達鞮侯/乌达鞮侯)[18]: 878  *ʔɑ-dɑt-te-ɡo 46 AD

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a.k.a. Batur < Baγatur [15]
  2. ^ "underage"[16]
  3. ^ a.k.a. Chedihou
  4. ^ 若鞮 (pinyin ruòdī), glossed as "respectful to parents;[16]: 107  filial piety"[17] in Hànshū; Pulleyblank reconstructs 若鞮's Early Middle Chinese pronunciation as *njak-tei & instead compares this to Tocharian A ñäkci or Toch. B ñäkc(i)ye "godly, heavenly"

Northern Xiongnu

[edit]
Chinese name Reign
Punu Chanyu (蒲奴) 46–? AD
Youliu[18][page needed] (優留) ?–87 AD
Northern Chanyu (北單于) 88–? AD
Yuchujian[18][page needed] (於除鞬單于) 91–93 AD
Feng-hou (逢侯) 94–118 AD

Southern Xiongnu

[edit]
Name Notes Reign
Sutuhu/Bi (蘇屠胡/比)
Huhanxie the Second (呼韓邪第二)
Xiluo Shizhu Ti (醯落尸逐鞮) 		Brought the southern Xiongnu into tributary relations with Han China in AD 50 48–56/55 AD
Qiufu Youti/Mo
(丘浮尤提) 		55/56–56/57 AD
Yifa Yulüti/Han
(伊伐於慮提) 		56/57–59 AD
Xitong Shizhu Houti/Shi
(醯僮尸逐侯提) 		59–63 AD
Qiuchu Julinti/Su
丘除車林提 		63 AD
Huxie Shizhu Houti/Chang
(湖邪尸逐侯提) 		63–85 AD
Yitu Yulüti/Xuan
(伊屠於閭提/宣) 		85–88 AD
Tuntuhe[18][page needed] Shulan[16]: 130–134 
Xiulan Shizhu Houti (休蘭尸逐侯提) 		88–93 AD
Anguo[18][page needed] (安國) Started a large scale rebellion against the Han 93–94 AD
Shizi[18][page needed] (師子)
Tingdu Shizhu Houti (亭獨尸逐侯提) 		94–98 AD
Wanshishizhudi/Tan (萬氏尸逐侯提/檀) Opposed by Feng Shanyu 98-124AD
98–118 AD
Wujihoushizhudi/Ba
(烏稽尸逐侯提/拔) 		124–127/128 AD
Xiuli (休利)
Qute Ruoshi Zhujiu (去特若尸逐就)[18][page needed] 		Committed suicide under Chinese pressure 127/128–140/142?
Cheniu[18][page needed] Popularly elected 140–143 AD
Toulouchu (兜樓儲)[16]: 144 
Hulan Ruoshi Zhujiu(呼蘭若尸逐就) 		Appointed puppet at the Chinese court 143–147 AD
Jucheer (居車兒)[18][page needed]
Yiling Ruoshi Zhujiu (伊陵若尸逐就) 		Puppet Chinese appointee that escaped Chinese control; incarcerated by Chinese in 158 AD 147–158 AD (d. 172 AD)
Tute Ruoshi Zhujiu (屠特若尸逐就)[16]: 145  (True name unknown; the Chinese moniker has negative connotation; confirmed by Chinese Court as Chanyu in 172 AD) 158–178 AD
Huzheng[16]: 145  (呼徵) 178–179 AD
Qiangqu
(羌渠) 		Jiangqu;[18][page needed] killed in Xiuchuge Xiongnu rebellion 179–188 AD
Yufuluo
(於扶羅)

Chizhi Shizhuhou (特至尸逐侯)[citation needed]

Exiled puppet chanyu, overthrown in the Ordos by the Southern Xiongnu rebels led by the Xiuchuge and Xiluo clans. Led dozens of refugee Xiongnu tribes to Pingyang in Shanxi. 188–195 AD
Marquis of Xubu (須卜骨都侯) (True name unknown) Installed by the Xiuchuge and rebel faction after they ousted Yufuluo. After his death, his followers abolished the chanyu title and replaced him with a nominal king, but Yufuluo continued to claim the chanyu title in exile. 188–189 AD
Huchuquan (呼廚泉) Yufuluo's brother,[18][page needed] he ruled over the Pingyang Xiongnu. After Yufuluo died, After he was detained at Ye. In 216, the Chinese court formally abolished the chanyu office. 195–216 AD

Da Chanyu

[edit]
Chinese name Data Personal Name Reign
Liu Yuan (劉淵) Founder of the Han-Zhao state, a.k.a. Emperor Guangwen (光文)[19] Yuanhai (元海) 304–?
Liu Cong (劉聰) Han-Zhao state, a.k.a. Emperor Zhaowu (昭武) Xuanming (玄明) 310–?
Liu Can (劉粲) Han-Zhao state, a.k.a. Emperor Yin (隱) Shiguang (士光) ?–?
Liu Yin (劉胤) Han-Zhao state imperial prince Yisun (義孫) 325–?
Helian Bobo

(赫連勃勃)

Founder of the Helian Xia state, a.k.a. Emperor Wulie (武烈) Qujie (屈孑) 407–?

Chanyu family trees

[edit]
Chanyu Xiongnu rulers family trees
Southern Xiongnu 南匈奴
Northern Xiongnu 北匈奴
Touman
头曼单于
r.220–209BC
Modu Chanyu
冒顿单于
r.209–174BC
Laoshang
老上单于
r.174–161BC
Junchen
军臣单于
r.161-126BC		daughter
Wife of
Zhao Xin
赵信		Yizhixie
伊稚斜单于
r.126-114BC
涉安侯
於單		Wuwei Chanyu
烏維单于
r.114-105BC		Xulihu
呴犁湖单于
r.102/101–
101/100 BC		Qiedihou
且鞮侯
r.101-96/99?BC
Er
儿单于
r.104-102/101BC		Hulugu
狐鹿姑单于
r.96-85BC		daughter
Wife of
Li Ling 李陵
d.74 BC		左大将左大都尉右谷蠡王
Huyandi
壺衍鞮单于
r.85-68BC		左谷蠡王Xulüquanqu
虚闾权渠单于
r.68-60BC		daughter
Wife of
Li Guangli 李廣利
d.88BC		daughter
Wife of
乌禅幕		Cheli
車犂單于
r.57-56BC		先贤掸
Zhizhi
郅支单于
r.56-36BC		Huhanye
呼韩邪单于
r.58-31BC		右谷蠡王
驹于利受Fuzhulei Ruoti
搜谐若鞮单于
r.31–20BC		Souxie
搜谐若鞮单于
r.20-12BC		Juya
车牙若鞮单于
r.12-8BC		右贤王
卢浑		Wuzhuliu
乌珠留若鞮单于
r.8-13AD		右贤王
铢娄渠堂		右谷蠡王
伊屠智牙师		Wulei
乌累若鞮单于
r.13-18AD		左贤王
乐		Huduershidaogao
呼都而尸道皋若鞮單于
r.18-46AD
醯諧屠奴侯须卜居次
云		须卜单于
当
r.18-21AD		当于居次左祝都韩王
朐留斯侯		右於塗仇撣王
乌夷当		左日逐王
都		右大且
方		左於駼仇掸王
稽留昆		斩将王Shun
顺单于 登
r.11–12		Shun
顺单于 助
r.11		角Wudadihou
乌达鞮侯
r.46		Punu Chanyu
蒲奴
r.46-?
Sutuhu/Huhanxie
呼韓邪
r.48-56/55		右股奴王
乌鞮牙斯		Qiufu Youti
丘浮尤提
r.55/56-56/57		Yifa Yulüti 伊伐於慮提
r.56/57-59
Xitong Shizhu Houti
醢僮尸逐侯提
r.59–63		Huxie Shizhu Houti
湖邪尸逐侯提
r.63–85		Tuntuhe/ Siuan
休兰尸逐侯鞮单于
r.88–93		Qiuchu Julinti
丘除车林鞮单于
r.63		Yitu Yulüti
伊屠於閭鞮單于
r.85–88		Anguo
安国
r.93–94
Shizi
尸逐
r.94–98'		Wanshishizhudi
萬氏尸逐侯提
r.98–124		Wujihoushizhudi
烏稽尸逐侯提
r.124–128		Xiuli
去特若尸逐就
r.127/128–
140/142?		左贤王Feng-hou
逢侯
r.94–118


□
□□□
Tuqi Chanyu
屠耆單于
r.58–56BC		Yilimu Chanyu
伊利目單于
r.49BC		Runzhen Chanyu
閏振單于
r.56-54BC		Huyan Qudi
握衍朐鞮單于
r.60-58BC		Shengzhi
胜之		You Xian wáng
右贤王
都涂吾西姑瞀楼头Aojian wang
奥鞬王


□
Northern Chanyu
北單于
r.89–91AD?		Youliu 優留
r.?–87 AD		Yuchujian 於除鞬單于
r.91–93AD


Jucheer
伊陵尸逐就單于
r.147-158/172; d.172
Tute Ruoshi Zhujiu
屠特若尸逐就單于
r.158/172–178AD
Huzheng
呼徵
r.178–179


Qiangqu
羌渠
r.179–188CE		Qubei
去卑		Panliuxi
潘六奚
Liu Meng
劉猛		Liu Gaoshengyuan
劉誥升爰
Chizhi Shizhu Hou
持至尸逐侯单于
b.150–d.196; r.188–195		Huchuquan
呼厨泉
r.195–216		Tiefu/Xia
state
Liu Bao
劉豹		Liu Hu
劉虎
Han-Zhao
state		Tiefu/Xia state
rulers family tree
Liu Yuan 劉淵 d.310
Guangwen of Han (Zhao)
漢(趙)光文帝 r.304–310
Han-Zhao rulers
family tree

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Chanyu

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Chanyu was the title of the supreme ruler of the , a nomadic pastoralist confederation that formed the first major empire across the Inner Asian steppes, dominating regions from western to the between approximately 209 BCE and the late CE. The term, a Chinese transcription of the Xiongnu word for their leader, signified a universal sovereign akin to the "". The Empire under successive Chanyus represented a multiethnic alliance of pastoral nomads, integrating diverse tribes through military prowess and diplomatic maneuvering, which challenged the early Han Dynasty's northern borders. The title's origins trace to the late BCE, first associated with , the leader who preceded the empire's formal unification, but it gained prominence under his son (r. 209–174 BCE), who assassinated his father, eliminated rivals, and expanded control over . Modu's reign marked the empire's peak, with the subjugating neighboring groups like the and , and forcing the Han Gaozu into the peace treaty of 198 BCE, which involved tribute payments and marriage alliances to avert invasion. Subsequent Chanyus, such as (r. 174–161 BCE) and Jiyu (r. 161–126 BCE), maintained this balance of power through intermittent warfare and diplomacy, including the receipt of Han princesses to solidify alliances, though tensions escalated with Han expansion under Emperor Wu, culminating in decisive battles like those of 133 BCE and 119 BCE that severely weakened the and contributed to their eventual fragmentation into southern and northern branches around 48–51 CE. The Chanyu's authority, while centralized at the top, operated within a loose confederacy where subordinate "Wise Kings" governed left and right wings, reflecting the Xiongnu's hierarchical yet flexible political structure adapted to nomadic life. By the CE, internal divisions and Han pressures led to the title's decline in the north, though southern Chanyus submitted as vassals, influencing later steppe powers like the and .

Etymology and Terminology

Linguistic Origins

The term "Chanyu," denoting the supreme ruler of the confederation, is a transcription in Chinese sources of a non-Sinitic title from the nomadic peoples. Phonetic reconstructions of its form vary among scholars, with a common rendering as dar-ɦwa, derived from dzyen.hju and reflecting Western Han pronunciation patterns that suggest an original bilabial or velar onset combined with a rounded . Alternative reconstructions, such as dan wa, emphasize an initial and nasal coda, aligning with broader patterns in early transcriptions of Central Asian loanwords. These forms indicate the title was not native to Chinese but borrowed from the language, likely during the late third century BCE amid interactions with the . The language itself is unattested, and its affiliation—potentially Turkic, Mongolic, Yeniseian, or an isolate—remains debated, contributing to the speculative nature of etymological proposals. Linguists have proposed derivations of "Chanyu" from Proto-Turkic or Mongolic roots within the Altaic language family, interpreting it as signifying "ruler" or "sovereign." One influential hypothesis links it to Proto-Turkic *tär(k)an or Mongolic *darughači, terms for high-ranking officials or governors, with the reconstructed form darġa or danġa evoking authority over vast territories. This connects to Altaic words denoting "vastness" or expanse, such as elements in Proto-Mongolic descriptors of dominion, paralleling the title's connotation of overarching leadership in nomadic hierarchies. Comparisons to similar titles in other steppe cultures, including Scythian Iranian designations for chieftains like xšāyaθiya (king), highlight a shared tradition of exalted, heaven-mandated rulership among Eurasian nomads, though direct cognates remain debated. Further evidence from non-Chinese sources suggests parallels in of the region, such as Tocharian and Sogdian terms for . In Tocharian-influenced kingdoms like , forms like caṃkura appear in administrative contexts, potentially echoing the authoritative tone of "Chanyu" through shared phonetic and semantic fields for . Sogdian, an Eastern Iranian language, features titles like xwatāy (lord or ruler) that may align with steppe-wide motifs of celestial or expansive rule, as seen in bilingual inscriptions from . Additionally, some analyses trace a link to concepts of "" via Yeniseian tɨŋgᴠr ("high"), which influenced Proto-Turkic teŋri (sky god) and Mongolic , implying the title invoked divine akin to tengriism in Altaic traditions. These cross-linguistic connections underscore the title's roots in a multilingual environment, blending Turkic-Mongolic and neighboring Indo-European elements.

Interpretations in Ancient Sources

In the Book of Han (Hanshu), the title "Chanyu" is interpreted through a breakdown of its components, reflecting the Han understanding of Xiongnu terminology. The text explains that the Xiongnu referred to heaven as "Chēnglí" (撐犁) and a child or son as "gūtú" (孤塗), leading to the rendering of "Chanyu" as denoting a "vast, firm, adult, wise appearance," which carries connotations of heavenly authority similar to the Chinese concept of the emperor as the "." This explanation appears in chapter 94A, where the full form is presented as "Chengli Gutu Chanyu" (撐犁孤塗單于), emphasizing a divine lineage and supreme status. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), completed around 94 BCE, transcribes the title as "Shanyu" (單于) and links it to the ruler's perceived divine mandate. In chapter 110, the Shiji portrays the Chanyu as the paramount leader whose authority derives from heaven, paralleling the Han emperor's tianming (heavenly mandate); for instance, Modu Chanyu's correspondence with Emperor Wen asserts mutual subjection to heaven, positioning both rulers as its earthly representatives. This interpretation underscores the title's role in diplomatic rhetoric, where the Shanyu is elevated to an imperial equivalent without explicit etymological dissection. Ancient sources exhibit variations in rendering the title, such as "Shanyu" in the Shiji versus the more elaborate "Chengli Gutu Chanyu" in the Hanshu, fueling debates on its origins. Some analyses suggest the full form and accompanying gloss may represent a Chinese scribal imposition to align the foreign title with Han imperial ideology, rather than a direct self-chosen appellation, as phonetic reconstructions indicate the core term "shanyu" likely stemmed from a non-Sinitic language without the prefixed elements. These differences highlight evolving Han understandings, from in earlier works like the Shiji to interpretive expansion in later compilations like the Hanshu.

Historical Role

Establishment and Powers

The chanyu title originated with the confederation in 209 BC, when Modu (also known as Maodun), the son of the previous leader , overthrew his father and established himself as the supreme ruler, thereby unifying disparate nomadic tribes into a cohesive imperial structure spanning the eastern Eurasian steppes. This event marked the formal creation of the Empire, transforming a loose alliance of tribes into a centralized authority under a single leader who commanded military, diplomatic, and ritual functions. The title "chanyu," etymologically interpreted as "Heavenly Son" or "vast as the sky," reflected the ruler's elevated status akin to a divine mandate. As the , the chanyu wielded extensive powers, exercising command over an estimated 24 major tribes organized into left and right wings, each subdivided into smaller units that mobilized for campaigns and raids. This structure enabled the chanyu to field large forces reliant on pastoralism, which formed the backbone of the economy through breeding, herding, and organized raids on sedentary neighbors. Diplomatically, the chanyu negotiated treaties and demanded tribute from the , as seen in Modu's successful impositions following victories over Han forces in the early 2nd century BC, which secured annual , , and other goods to sustain the confederation's nomadic lifestyle. Religiously, the chanyu served as an intermediary with , the sky god central to Xiongnu shamanistic beliefs, performing rituals to invoke heavenly favor for the empire's prosperity and success. The chanyu's court was a mobile assembly that reinforced hierarchical control, featuring key advisors such as the Wise King of the Left (typically overseeing eastern territories) and the Wise King of the Right (managing western domains), who acted as viceroys and deputies while maintaining semi-autonomous tribal loyalties. This advisory system, combined with the chanyu's oversight of economic resources like vast horse herds, ensured the ruler's dominance over the confederation's decentralized yet interconnected nomadic networks.

Succession and Governance

The succession to the title of chanyu was patrilineal, tracing descent through the male line within the ruling Luanti or Xulianti dynasty, with preference often given to the eldest son or the most capable claimant among eligible royals. This system, akin to , allowed multiple members of the imperial house to vie for power, frequently resulting in fraternal rivalries and assassinations as means to consolidate authority during transitions. Such patterns of contention contributed to political , particularly as the faced external pressures, though they were mitigated by strategic marriages that reinforced ties to noble families. Governance under the chanyu relied on a administrative and structure, organizing the nomadic population into hierarchical units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 households or horsemen, each commanded by chiefs of tens, hundreds, thousands, and myriarchs respectively. This system, blending civil and martial functions, enabled efficient mobilization across the vast territories and was likely instituted by to unify diverse tribes. Decision-making occurred through seasonal assemblies that aligned with pastoral cycles, allowing the chanyu and elites to coordinate , preparations, and policy amid migrations. The chanyu exercised authority over subordinate kings, including the "wise kings of the left and right" who governed the eastern and western wings in a tripartite territorial division, ensuring loyalty through a combination of hereditary appointments and oversight. Royal consorts, termed yanzhi, held significant influence by facilitating marriage alliances with aristocratic families like the Huyan, Lan, and Xubu, which secured political support and integrated conquered elites. Tribute in the form of , , and labor flowed upward from these subordinate groups to the central court, sustaining the ruler's patronage network, while justice was maintained via customary blood feuds that resolved disputes among tribes without centralized courts.

List of Rulers

Chronological Overview of Xiongnu Chanyus

The chronology of the Xiongnu chanyus is derived primarily from the Shiji (chapter 110) and Hanshu (chapter 94), the key primary sources for their history, though exact reign dates are approximate due to the lack of written records in Xiongnu society and frequent internal conflicts that caused overlapping claims to the title. The unified empire under a single chanyu lasted from approximately 220 BCE until its division into northern and southern branches in 48 CE, during a period of and revolt; approximately 20 rulers held the title during this span (noting some concurrent or brief rival claims, such as Zhizhi Chanyu from 56–36 BCE). The following table lists all known chanyus in sequence for the unified period, with personal names (where recorded), approximate reign periods, and brief notes on major events, particularly interactions with Han forces; transliterations vary across sources, and some reigns are particularly uncertain due to civil wars.
No.Chanyu NameReignMajor Events
1c. 220–209 BCEFounded the early tribal confederation; allied with Qin against other nomads; assassinated by son Modu in a coup.
2Modu209–174 BCEOverthrew father; unified tribes, defeated Donghu and ; besieged Han at Baideng (200 BCE), leading to Han tribute payments and peace treaty.
3174–161 BCESon of Modu; resumed raids on Han borders; expanded control over , including defeat of (c. 162 BCE).
4Junchen161–126 BCESon of ; Han- wars intensified, including failed Han ambush at Mayi (133 BCE); forces retreated after Han counteroffensives.
5Yizhixie126–114 BCEBrother of Junchen; suffered major defeats by Han generals (127 BCE) and (119 BCE), forcing withdrawal north of Gobi; civil strife between left and right wings.
6Wuwei114–105 BCESon of Yizhixie; continued sporadic raids on Han; internal power struggles.
7Er (Wushilu)105–102 BCESon of Wuwei; short reign marked by Han pressure and succession disputes.
8Houlihu102–101 BCEBrother of Er; assassinated amid internal conflict.
9Qiedihou101–96 BCEBrother of Houlihu; renewed border incursions against Han.
10Hulugu96–85 BCESon of Qiedihou; faced Han expeditions.
11Huyandi85–68 BCESon of Hulugu; period of relative stability but ongoing Han pressures.
12Xulüquanqu68–60 BCEBrother of Huyandi; civil war after death led to split between sons and Zhizhi.
13Woyanqudi (Tuxitang)60–58 BCEBrief reign amid succession strife.
1458–31 BCESubmitted to Han emperor in 51 BCE for protection; married Han princess; co-ruled with rival Zhizhi until latter's defeat (36 BCE).
15Fuzhuleiruodi (Diaotaomogao)31–20 BCESon of ; maintained Han alliance.
16Souxieruodi (Qiemixu)20–12 BCEBrother of Fuzhuleiruodi; focused on internal consolidation.
17Cheyaruodi (Qiemoche)12–8 BCEBrother of Souxieruodi; continued tributary relations with Han.
18Wuzhuliu (Nangzhiyasi)8 BCE–13 CEBrother of Cheyaruodi; raided Han territories amid weakening empire; ancestor of Southern line.
19Wulei (Xian)13–18 CEBrother of Wuzhuliu; faced emerging threats from .
20Huduershidao (Yu)18–46 CEBrother of Wulei; internal revolts and famine led to secession of southern tribes in 48 CE, establishing northern and southern branches; defeated by Han-allied southern forces.

Division into Northern and Southern Branches

The division of the Xiongnu into Northern and Southern branches in 48 CE stemmed from a combination of internal succession disputes and severe natural disasters. Following the death of Chanyu Huduershidaogaoruodi, who had murdered his brother Yituzhiyashi to secure the throne for his son Wudadihou, widespread discontent arose among the nobility and tribes. This was compounded by devastating droughts and locust plagues between 46 and 48 CE, which caused approximately 40% of the population to perish and 70% of livestock to be lost, fueling tribal conflicts and fracturing the confederacy. The southern factions, influenced by the earlier pro-Han policies initiated by Huhanye Chanyu through his alliance and submission to the Han court in 51 BCE, opted for accommodation with the Eastern Han dynasty under Emperor Guangwu, while the northern groups resisted Han encroachment. The Southern Xiongnu, led initially by the grandson of Huhanye Chanyu—who was formally appointed as the first Southern Chanyu by Emperor Guangwu—submitted with around 40,000 households and settled in the Hetao region north of the , establishing their residence at Nan ting near a river bend before relocating to Meiji County in Xihe Commandery in 50 CE. This branch maintained a line of 12 chanyus over nearly two centuries, from 48 to 216 CE, functioning as Han tributaries while preserving some autonomy in internal affairs. A notable example is Yufuluo (r. 188–195 CE), who served as a puppet chanyu amid late Han turmoil; he allied with Han loyalists against but faced internal challenges, including conflicts with his uncle Huchuquan, leading to his eventual flight and replacement. By the early 3rd century, under pressure from the rising state, the Southern Chanyus were reorganized into five separate tribes by , facilitating their gradual integration into Chinese society and diminishing their distinct political identity. In contrast, the Northern under Punu Chanyu (r. ca. 46–after 48 CE) rejected Han overtures and retreated northward beyond the , basing their court at Bei ting or Shuo ting along the valley. This branch endured a shorter existence, lasting until 91 CE, marked by ongoing raids and Han economic blockades that weakened their position. Key defeats came during campaigns led by Dou Xian: in 89 CE at Yanran Mountain, where 13,000 Northern were killed and 81 tribes totaling 200,000 people surrendered to the Han; and in 91 CE at Jinwei Mountain (Altai region), where further losses forced the remnants, including the chanyu (possibly Amgu or a successor), to migrate westward toward . These events effectively dismantled the Northern line, with survivors dispersing and contributing to later nomadic groups.

Lineage and Family

Chanyu Family Trees

The genealogical structure of the Xiongnu chanyu dynasty is primarily reconstructed from Chinese historical records, revealing a patrilineal succession centered on the Luandi (or Xulianti) imperial clan, with father-to-son inheritance as the norm, supplemented by collateral lines among brothers and uncles. The core lineage traces from the founding chanyu Touman through his son Modu, who solidified the dynasty, to subsequent generations including Modu's son Laoshang and grandson Junchen, forming the direct patriline that defined early imperial authority. Collateral branches emerged prominently after Junchen, such as the line leading to Huhanye, who descended from Modu's lineage via lateral kin like Yizhixie (Junchen's brother) and later figures including Xulüquanqu, illustrating the dynasty's reliance on extended familial networks to maintain cohesion across tribal elites. To represent this structure textually, the following table outlines key father-son links and collateral connections in the primary lineage, based on accounts in the Hanshu:
ChanyuRelationship to PredecessorKey Descendants/Branches
FounderSon: Modu
ModuSon of Sons: (direct line); others forming collaterals
Son of ModuSon: Junchen (direct line)
JunchenSon of Brother: Yizhixie (collateral leading to line)
YizhixieBrother of Junchen (lateral)Son: Wuwei (continuing collateral)
... (intermediaries)Various sons/brothers in Luandi Leading to Xulüquanqu
XulüquanquDescendant in 's collateral branchSon:
Son of XulüquanquSons: Wuzhuliu, , Le (forming further branches)
This diagram highlights the Luandi clan's dominance, with branches like Junchen's direct line and Huhanye's collateral integrating other elites such as the Huyan and Xubu clans through shared ancestry. Intermarriages reinforced these ties, particularly with Han princesses to cement alliances; for instance, Modu wed a Han noblewoman in 198 BCE, Laoshang followed suit, and Huhanye married the Han consort Wang Zhaojun around 33 BCE, whose union produced heirs that blended imperial lines with Han influence. Such marriages extended to tribal elites, as seen in Huhanye's Huyan clan consorts, ensuring loyalty among subordinate groups like the Luli and Gudu marquises. Reconstructions of these family trees draw from the Hanshu (e.g., chapters 94A–94B), which detail Luandi descent and kin relations, corroborated by archaeological evidence from Ordos region sites like Xigoupan and Aluchaideng. These burials yield elite artifacts, including plaques and metal idols symbolizing royal status, consistent with Luandi chanyu described in historical texts.

Key Succession Disputes

The succession of in 209 BCE marked a violent precedent for leadership transitions, as he assassinated his father, Touman Chanyu, to seize the throne. Touman had initially favored Modu's younger half-brother, born to a favored consort, and attempted to sideline Modu by sending him as a to the ; Modu escaped and returned to lead a personal guard, using it to eliminate rivals, including his and half-brother, before orchestrating Touman's death during a hunt with a decisive arrow shot. This unified the fractious tribes under Modu's rule, establishing a centralized authority that expanded the confederation into a formidable , though it normalized intra-family as a means of ascension. A notable fratricidal conflict arose in 126 BCE after the death of Junchen Chanyu, when his brother Yizhixie, leveraging his position as a powerful tribal leader, killed Junchen's young son Yudan and claimed the chanyu title, sparking a brief civil war that divided loyalties. The exploited this instability by launching military interventions, including raids in 129–127 BCE that weakened Yizhixie's position and forced temporary concessions, though he ultimately consolidated power until his death in 114 BCE. This dispute highlighted the fragility of fraternal successions and invited external meddling, temporarily disrupting cohesion. In the late Xiongnu period, a in 48 CE among the descendants of Chanyu precipitated the permanent division into Northern and Southern branches, ending the unified confederation. (r. 58–31 BCE), who had sought Han alliance for stability, left multiple sons whose later rivalries intensified after the death of his descendant Huduershi Chanyu in 46 CE; Punu, a grandson of via his son Yu, ascended but faced rebellion from Bi, another grandson via his son Wuzhuliu, who commanded southern tribes and amassed 40,000 warriors to challenge northern dominance. The conflict culminated in Bi's forces declaring independence, with Han support tipping the balance toward the southern faction's recognition as allies, while the northern remnants retreated westward; this schism, formalized by 49 CE, fragmented power and accelerated their decline against Han pressures.

Later Usage

The Da Chanyu Title

The title "Da Chanyu," meaning "Great Chanyu," first emerged around 304 AD as Liu Yuan, a chieftain of descent, proclaimed the founding of the state amid the political fragmentation of northern . This adoption served as a prestige title that deliberately evoked the imperial glory of the ancient confederation, enabling leaders of steppe origin to assert their cultural and political heritage in successor regimes. By linking directly to the legacy of figures like , the founder of the Xiongnu Empire in the , it reinforced claims of continuity and legitimacy among nomadic elites navigating a landscape of upheaval. Linguistically, "Da" derives from the term for "great" or "grand," prefixed to "Chanyu"—the longstanding Chinese phonetic rendering of the supreme ruler's title—to denote an elevated form of authority. This combination reflected the hybrid nature of emerging regimes, where indigenous terminology was augmented with Sinic elements to project unparalleled sovereignty over tribal and settled populations. Within the broader period (304–439 AD), the Da Chanyu title embodied resistance to the weakening Jin dynasty, which had long suppressed northern nomadic groups, while facilitating ethnic integration amid widespread migration and cultural fusion. It underscored a deliberate revival of traditions in governance structures, such as the Chanyu Platform, which managed tribal affairs alongside Han-style bureaucracy, thereby legitimizing rule in multinational states characterized by Hu-Han duality. This usage highlighted the title's role in bridging nomadic heritage with adaptive authority during an era of profound ethnic mixing and dynastic competition.

Rulers in Post-Xiongnu States

In the early , during the turbulent period following the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty, Liu Yuan, a chieftain of the Luandi clan, revived the title of Da Chanyu—meaning "Great Chanyu"—to assert his authority over northern nomadic tribes amid the power vacuum. Appointed Commander of the Northern Tribes by the Jin court, Liu Yuan was granted the title around 300 AD as a means to stabilize frontier regions, but he leveraged it to establish the state in 304 AD, proclaiming himself King of Han before ascending as Emperor Guangwen in 308 AD. This adoption blended steppe traditions with imperial symbolism, positioning Liu Yuan as a successor to both the ancient chanyus and the , thereby legitimizing his rule over a multi-ethnic domain in northern . Following Liu Yuan's death in 310 AD, his successors in continued to invoke the Da Chanyu title during transitional phases to maintain cohesion among elites and tribal forces. Liu He, Liu Yuan's eldest son, briefly succeeded as emperor in 310 AD but held power for only days before being overthrown; during this short interregnum, the title was invoked to underscore continuity in leadership amid internal rivalries. Similarly, Liu Cong, Liu Yuan's fourth son, seized control in 310 AD, assuming the role of Grand Chanyu alongside his imperial title of Zhaowu, which allowed him to command the Chanyu Platform—a administrative body—while expanding 's territory through conquests, including the sack of the Jin capital in 311 AD. These uses of the title highlighted the dual governance structure in , where military traditions coexisted uneasily with Han bureaucratic norms, contributing to ethnic tensions that weakened the state by the 320s AD. The last significant revival of the Da Chanyu title occurred in the early 5th century under Helian Bobo, founder of the Helian Xia state, a Xiongnu-led regime in the northwest. In 407 AD, after assassinating the Chanyu Moyiyu of the Hu tribe, Helian Bobo proclaimed himself of Great Xia and Da Chanyu, claiming descent from both the legendary and forebears to rally support among nomadic groups and challenge the rising dynasty. His rule (407–425 AD) was marked by aggressive expansion and fortifications, such as the construction of Tongwancheng as capital, but constant warfare with eroded Helian Xia's power; following Bobo's death in 425 AD, the state fragmented and collapsed by 431 AD under conquest, effectively ending the title's usage in post-Xiongnu polities.

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