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Sholas in southern Western Ghats.
Shola forest and grassland

A shola is the local name for a patch of stunted tropical montane forest found in valleys amid rolling grassland in the higher montane regions of South India, largely in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamilnadu. These patches of shola forest are found mainly in the valleys and are usually separated from one another by undulating montane grassland. The shola and grassland together form the shola-grassland complex or mosaic. Not all such high-elevation grasslands have sholas in their valleys, especially if they are isolated from other such meadows, such as the meadows found in the Idamalayar Reserve Forest in Ernakulam district of Kerala. The word 'Shola' is probably derived from the Tamil language word cōlai (சோலை) meaning grove.[1]

The shola-forest and grassland complex has been described as a climatic climax vegetation with forest regeneration and expansion restricted by climatic conditions such as frost or soil characteristics while others have suggested that it may have anthropogenic origins in the burning and removal of forests by early herders and shifting agriculturists.[2]

Distribution and origin

[edit]
Shola forest interspersed in valleys among high elevation grasslands on the Brahmagiri Hills

Shola forests are found in the higher elevation hill regions of the Nilgiris, Anaimalai, around Anamudi, Palni hills, Meghamalai, Agasthyamalai to the south and the Malnad and associated ranges in parts of Wayanad, Coorg, Baba Budangiri, Kudremukh up the north, to Goa, Satara district and Sindhudurg district in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Although generally said to occur above 2000 meters above sea level, shola forests can be found at 1600 meters elevation in many hill ranges (e.g. Biligiriranga Hills).

The origin of the shola forest and grassland complex has been the subject of scientific debate. Some early researchers suggested that the floristic composition represents a stable final state or climax vegetation. This stability is maintained by climatic conditions such as frost which allow the grass to grow but kill off any forest seedlings.[3] Others have suggested that the grassland may have been created and maintained by early pastoralists and point out that fire has a major role in the maintenance of the grassland.[4] There is evidence for both and several features of the forest trees and the grasslands that have been considered and debated. Pollen analysis from bogs in the Nilgiris suggest that the complex of grassland and forest existed 35,000 years ago, long before human impact began.[5] Long-term studies on the dynamic processes of vegetation change continue.[6][7][8]

Fauna

[edit]

Due to their isolation, elevation, and evergreen character, shola forests are home to many threatened and endemic species.[citation needed] Some of the species found here have close relatives only in the distant evergreen forests of Northeast India, the Himalayas and Southeast Asia. Some others are found nowhere else in the world.

The Western Ghats are one of the globally recognized biodiversity hotspots. Colias nilagiriensis is a species of butterfly endemic to shola grasslands above 2000m, sometimes being considered a subspecies of Colias erate. Like most other species in the genus Colias, it is found at high elevations and subtropical climate. However, this is the only one found in South India. Among the many larger animals inhabiting a shola-grassland mosaic are tigers, leopards, elephants and gaur. The endangered Nilgiri tahr (of the family Bovidae, which includes gazelles, antelopes, and wild buffaloes) is endemic to the shola-grassland, and its range is now restricted to a 400-km stretch of shola-grassland mosaic, from the Nilgiri Hills to the Agasthyamalai Hills. Laughingthrushes, Nilgiri woodpigeons, shortwings, and some of the endemic flycatchers (black-and-orange flycatcher and Nilgiri flycatcher) are some of the 300+ species of birds that inhabit this area. The area shows high endemicity and is rivaled only by the forests in northeast India; 35 percent of the plants, 42 percent of the fish, 48 percent of the reptiles, and 75 percent of the amphibians, and about 13 percent of the insects, about 25 percent not being found east of Bangalore, that live in these forests are endemic species.[citation needed]

Flora

[edit]
A hillside with mass Kurinji flowering in 2018
Exacum tetragonum, a shola grassland plant

At least 25 types of trees are present in the major sholas of the Nilgiri Hills.[9] The dominant trees in this type of forest are Magnolia nilagirica, Bischofia javanica (bishop wood), Calophyllum tomentosum, Toona ciliata (Indian mahogany), Eugenia (myrtle) spp., Ficus glomerata (atti or cluster fig tree or gular fig tree) and Mallotus spp. Shola forests have an upper storey of small trees, generally Prunus ceylanica, Heptapleurum racemosum, Chionanthus ramiflorus, Syzygium spp., Rhododendron arboreum subsp. nilagiricum, Berberis napaulensis, Elaeocarpus recurvatus, Ilex denticulata, Magnolia nilagirica, Actinodaphne bourdillonii, and Litsea wightiana. Below the upper story is a low under story and a dense shrub layer. Strobilanthes kunthiana, known as Kurinji or Neelakurinji in Tamil, is a well known shrub endemic to Western Ghats that blossoms only once in 12 years.[10] There is a thick concentration of mosses growing on the under story and many ferns in the sunlit narrow transition to grassland. Shola forests are interspersed with montane grasslands, characterized by frost- and fire-resistant grass species like Chrysopogon nodulibarbis, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Arundinella ciliata, Arundinella mesophylla, Arundinella tuberculata, Themeda tremula, and Sehima nervosa.

Threats

[edit]

Invasive introduced species are a serious threat to this high elevation ecosystem. Some, like Acacia mearnsii and Eucalyptus globulus are the consequence of commercial plantation and afforestation drives, especially in the Nilgiri Mountains. Other threatening invasive species include Lantana camara and Ageratina adenophora.[11]

Conservation

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Periodic fires have been considered to help maintain the grassland, however, excessive burning has led to a shrinkage of forest patches and the growth of invasive species.[12]

The shola biome has a high water retention capacity and exists as the primary source of the water for the high elevation organisms is the origin of many streams and rivers in the Western Ghats.[9]

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See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Shola

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from Grokipedia
Shola refers to patches of stunted tropical montane evergreen forests found in the higher montane regions of southern , particularly in the valleys amid rolling grasslands of the . These forests, derived from the Tamil word sholai meaning "thicket" or "cold place," are characterized by dense, low-canopy vegetation adapted to cool, humid conditions with persistent cloud cover and high rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm annually. Ecologically, shola forests form a mosaic with adjacent montane grasslands, creating a dynamic habitat complex that dates back approximately 20,000 years and plays a crucial role in regional hydrology by capturing mist and fog to recharge groundwater and serve as the origin for major rivers like the Cauvery and Periyar. This ecosystem supports exceptional biodiversity, including over 4,000 species of flowering plants, many endemic such as the rhododendrons and evergreen trees like Actinodaphne bourdillonii, alongside fauna like the endangered Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) and numerous bird species. Shola habitats face significant threats from invasive exotic species such as acacias, pines, and , which disrupt the native forest-grassland balance, as well as due to human activities like and tourism development. Conservation efforts, including those within World Heritage sites, emphasize restoring these "sky islands" to preserve their role in moderating the Indian monsoon and supporting endemic species amid pressures.

Overview

Definition and Etymology

Shola refers to a distinctive characterized by stunted tropical montane forests that occur in isolated patches within the valleys of higher-elevation , interspersed with surrounding grasslands to form a unique shola-grassland mosaic in southern . These forests are adapted to the misty, humid conditions of montane regions, featuring dense, low-canopy vegetation that contrasts with the open grasslands, creating a heterogeneous that supports specialized ecological processes. The term "shola" originates from the Tamil word cōlai (சோலை), which translates to "grove" or "," historically used in local languages to describe forested areas in hilly terrains. This linguistic root reflects the cultural recognition of these compact, wooded patches amid otherwise open environments, with the word evolving through regional dialects to denote the specific montane forest type. In contemporary ecological usage, "shola" is primarily applied to the components of this within the southern , distinguishing them from broader tropical montane forests elsewhere, though analogous terms exist for similar grove-like habitats in other South Indian contexts.

Physical and Climatic Characteristics

Shola forests are characterized by their patchy and stunted structure, consisting of small trees rarely exceeding 15 meters in height, with profusely branched canopies that lack distinct vertical stratification. These forests feature a dense of shrubs, abundant epiphytes, mosses, and lichens, forming compact patches primarily in sheltered valleys and depressions. This contrasts sharply with the surrounding open, undulating grasslands, creating a distinctive where shola patches are often confined to moist, low-lying areas above 1,600 meters , typically between 1,700 and 2,500 meters. The climatic conditions supporting shola forests include a high-altitude subtropical regime with persistent heavy and , which contributes significantly to moisture through fog drip. Annual rainfall ranges from 2,000 to 6,000 millimeters, predominantly from the southwest , while temperatures remain cool, averaging 13-25°C annually, with extremes from 5°C to 25°C and occasional ground during the winter months (November-February), particularly above 2,000 meters; these frosts play a key role in stunting growth and maintaining the open expanses. Soils in shola forests are humus-rich and acidic, with pH values typically between 4.5 and 5.6, derived from lateritic or granitic-gneiss parent materials that vary from deep and fertile in valleys to shallow and stony on slopes. These soils exhibit high moisture retention—often twice that of adjacent grasslands during the dry season—due to accumulation and the misty environment, supporting the dense vegetation while facilitating nutrient cycling with elevated levels of , , and compared to surrounding areas. The shola-grassland mosaic represents a dynamic equilibrium where open grasslands serve as natural firebreaks, limiting the spread of frequent surface fires into the moist shola patches and preventing widespread forest expansion, while also fostering through alternating stable states influenced by , , and disturbances like . This interplay ensures heterogeneity, with shola forests acting as refugia in valleys and grasslands dominating exposed ridges.

Distribution and History

Geographical Range

Shola ecosystems are primarily confined to the southern portion of the mountain range in , spanning the states of , , and , with minor extensions northward into the montane zones of and . This distribution aligns with the higher elevation zones of the -Sri Lanka , where the terrain supports the characteristic forest-grassland mosaic. The ecosystems occur as isolated patches amid broader montane landscapes, influenced by orographic rainfall patterns that favor their persistence in humid, mist-laden environments. Key regions hosting shola forests include the Nilgiri Hills, , , High Wavy Mountains, and Agasthyamalai Hills, where they form in sheltered valleys between undulating grasslands. These areas represent the core of shola , with the forests typically occurring at elevations between 1,600 and 2,500 meters above , above the cloud base where frequent fog and high humidity prevail. The elevation gradient contributes to the sharp transition from lower forests to the stunted shola formations, creating a distinct . Estimates of the total extent of shola forest patches vary due to mapping challenges and historical degradation. These patches are highly fragmented by the rugged , resulting in small, isolated stands often less than 1 in size, interspersed with expansive grasslands and separated by steep ridges. This fragmentation enhances but also underscores the ecosystems' adaptation to insular, sky-island conditions. Variations in shola density are notable across regions; for instance, hosts denser, more contiguous forest patches due to higher and less historical conversion to grasslands, whereas Tamil Nadu's landscapes, particularly in the Nilgiris and , feature a higher proportion of grassland-dominated mosaics with sparser cover. Such regional differences reflect subtle climatic gradients within the overall distribution.

Origin and Evolution

The origins of shola ecosystems remain debated, with suggesting they represent either a natural climatic shaped by environmental factors or a formed partly through anthropogenic influences, such as prehistoric pastoralist burning to expand for . Paleontological records, including analyses from cores in the , indicate ancient alternations between forest and vegetation dating back approximately 35,000 years ago during the , when cooler and drier conditions favored expansion. These records further show savanna-like dominating during the around 24,000 to 12,000 years ago, with montane forest elements persisting as refugia. Shola ecosystems evolved through adaptations to Pleistocene climate fluctuations, with frost and fire playing key roles in shaping the stunted tree form of sholas, with limiting seedling establishment in open grasslands during colder phases and charcoal layers in sediments indicating recurrent fires from at least 15,000 years BP that prevented encroachment. The tectonic uplift of the , initiated around 80–90 million years ago during the breakup of and intensified by the India-Eurasia collision, created the elevated, humid habitats essential for shola development by isolating montane refugia and promoting . Human activities have significantly altered shola evolution, beginning with pre-colonial pastoralism where indigenous communities used controlled burns and to maintain grasslands, potentially amplifying the mosaic pattern. Colonial-era interventions from the mid-19th century, including large-scale plantations of exotic timber in the Palni Hills, further disrupted natural dynamics by converting grasslands and fragmenting shola patches, leading to establishment and reduced native regeneration.

Biodiversity

Flora

Shola forests are characterized by a diverse array of evergreen tree species that form the canopy, with dominant trees including Magnolia nilagirica, Syzygium cumini, Litsea deccanensis, and Rhododendron arboreum. These species thrive in the misty, high-altitude conditions, contributing to the dense, multi-layered structure typical of montane ecosystems. The understory is rich in ferns, orchids, and mosses, which carpet the forest floor and epiphytically adorn branches, enhancing the humid microclimate. Characteristic flowering plants in shola forests include , commonly known as Kurinji, a that produces mass blooms of blue flowers every 12 years, transforming the landscape in a spectacular display. Other notable species are frost-resistant herbs adapted to the cool, wet environments of margins and open areas within the shola . These plants not only add to the floral diversity but also play roles in pollination dynamics and . Endemism is particularly high in shola , with over 50% of vascular plants in the being , and sholas serving as critical refugia for rare epiphytes and shrubs suited to low-light, misty conditions. For instance, approximately 56% of in these forests are to the region, underscoring the unique evolutionary pressures of isolation and elevation. This high rate of highlights the shola's role in preserving hotspots. Plants in shola forests exhibit structural adaptations such as and crooked branches, resulting from exposure to strong winds, , and nutrient-poor soils, which limit vertical expansion and promote compact forms. In the surrounding grassland mosaic, grasses like Chrysopogon nodulibarbis demonstrate resilience through deep root systems and tolerance, maintaining the open patches that intersperse with forest stands. These adaptations ensure survival in the harsh montane climate while fostering the mosaic habitat structure.

Fauna

Shola ecosystems, characterized by their humid, montane forest patches interspersed with grasslands, support a rich mammalian fauna, including several endemic and charismatic species that play key ecological roles such as herbivory and predation. The Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius), an endemic ungulate restricted to the southern Western Ghats above 1,500 meters, inhabits rocky outcrops adjacent to shola forests, where it grazes on grasses and forbs while serving as prey for large carnivores. Larger mammals like the Indian gaur (Bos gaurus), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), and Indian leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) utilize shola-grassland mosaics for foraging and movement corridors, contributing to nutrient cycling through their dung and trampling activities. Smaller primates, such as the endemic Nilgiri langur (Semnopithecus johnii), forage in the shola canopy on leaves and fruits, aiding in forest regeneration. The avifauna of shola forests is diverse, featuring numerous endemic species adapted to the dense and canopy, with birds playing a vital role in for the forest's plant communities. Endemic species include the Nilgiri woodpigeon (Columba elphinstonii), which inhabits high-altitude shola patches and feeds on fruits, facilitating across fragmented landscapes. The black-and-orange flycatcher (Ficedula nigrorufa) and white-bellied shortwing (Sholicola albiventris), both restricted to shola in the southern , insectivorously control pest populations while depending on the humid . Frugivorous birds in these forests, such as those observed in Nilgiri shola sites, disperse seeds of endemic trees like Actinodaphne bourdillonii, enhancing plant recruitment in the ecosystem. Reptiles and amphibians exhibit exceptionally high endemism in shola habitats, reflecting the region's isolation and stable, moist conditions that support specialized, humidity-dependent . Approximately 60% of the over 220 reptile in the are endemic (as of 2024), with many, such as shieldtail snakes (Uropeltidae family), adapted to the lifestyle in shola's leaf-littered, humid valleys where they prey on earthworms and small . Amphibians show even higher endemism at over 70% of the more than 250 (as of 2025), including Beddome's toad (Duttaphrynus beddomii), which breeds in temporary pools within southern shola forests and relies on the dense vegetation for shelter; over 50 new amphibian have been described since 2010, many from montane shola areas. These herpetofauna contribute to controlling populations and nutrient recycling through their detritivorous and predatory behaviors. Invertebrates, particularly in the shola understory, form the base of complex food webs, with high diversity among and that are often endemic and specialized to the cool, misty environment. The butterfly Colias nilagiriensis, endemic to shola grasslands above 2,000 meters, exemplifies adaptation to these high-altitude patches, where it nectars on endemic flowering plants and serves as prey for birds and reptiles. Overall, montane forests, including sholas, host around 332 butterfly , many of which thrive in the shaded, humid and support and processes essential to .

Ecological Importance

Hydrological Role

Shola forests play a pivotal role in water retention through their dense canopies and extensive root systems, which effectively capture mist, fog, and rainfall, thereby minimizing and facilitating recharge. These montane ecosystems function as natural "sponges," absorbing and slowly releasing water to sustain hydrological stability in the high-elevation regions of the . Studies indicate that shola soils maintain significantly higher moisture levels compared to adjacent grasslands, with dry-season retention reaching up to twice that of surrounding areas, enhancing overall watershed resilience. In terms of regional , sholas serve as the primary origin points for numerous streams that feed major South Indian rivers, including the Cauvery and , supporting base flows critical during dry seasons. Over 60 rivers originate in the , with many emerging from shola-grassland mosaics that regulate seasonal water availability for downstream ecosystems. This consistent base flow, bolstered by the forests' ability to increase dry-season discharge, ensures reliable water supply across rain-shadow regions. The cover provided by shola forests also improves by filtering sediments and pollutants through layered and organic-rich soils, resulting in clearer that benefit downstream and urban supplies in . These mechanisms reduce and leaching, delivering potable water to millions via rivers like the Cauvery, which irrigates vast farmlands in the delta region.

Biodiversity Hotspot Status

Shola forests are integral to the Western Ghats, recognized as one of 36 global biodiversity hotspots by Conservation International due to their exceptional levels of species richness and endemism while facing significant habitat loss. Covering a mere fraction of India's land area—less than 5% of the Western Ghats' extent—these montane ecosystems harbor a disproportionate share of the country's endemic biodiversity, supporting unique assemblages adapted to high-altitude conditions. This hotspot status underscores sholas' global significance, as they contribute to conserving over 4,000 plant species, many of which are found nowhere else. Endemism in shola habitats is strikingly high, with approximately 75% of species and half of species restricted to these high-elevation montane forests. For , around 38% of species in the broader context exhibit , with sholas hosting many woody evergreens unique to the region, such as 63% of India's endemic taxa in this group. The identifies over 300 globally threatened species within the , many dependent on shola environments for survival, highlighting the urgent conservation value of these patches. The shola-grassland mosaic landscape enhances ecological connectivity, enabling species migration across fragmented habitats and preserving among endemic taxa. These mosaics support dynamic interactions between forest and open grassland elements, crucial for pollinators, birds, and small mammals navigating elevation gradients. Additionally, shola forests demonstrate elevated capacities compared to lowland tropical forests, storing substantial —up to 271 tons per in montane systems—due to dense and cooler climates that slow decomposition. Research on shola biodiversity has advanced, but earlier studies, including key works up to 2009, often underestimate climate change impacts on endemism by overlooking shifting elevation ranges and habitat suitability for narrow-range species. Analyses from 2021 onward reveal accelerating threats from warming temperatures, potentially displacing endemic amphibians and reptiles to vanishing high-altitude refugia. As of 2025, recent studies indicate further impacts, including shortened seasons by 17 days over the past decade in Western Ghats forests and rising forest fire frequency due to increasing temperatures and drier conditions, emphasizing the need for ongoing modeling and adaptation strategies.

Threats and Conservation

Major Threats

Shola ecosystems face severe threats from the proliferation of invasive non-native species, which disrupt native plant communities and alter ecological processes. Introduced primarily through commercial and plantation drives, species such as , , , and aggressively outcompete indigenous by forming dense stands that suppress growth and modify chemistry, including elevated levels and increased acidity. In the Nilgiri Hills, plantations host approximately 70% of surveyed non-native invasives across shola , enabling secondary invasions that further degrade habitat quality and reduce native . Human-induced deforestation represents another critical danger, driven by the conversion of land for and plantations, infrastructure, excessive , and uncontrolled burning practices. These activities have caused a 31% loss of native shola forests over the past 40 years, with over 50% of shola cover disappearing in key areas like the due to widespread establishment and clearance. In , plantations alone accounted for about 30% of land conversion between 1977 and 1997, fragmenting contiguous shola landscapes and diminishing their ecological integrity. Climate change intensifies these pressures through rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and decreased frost events, which historically preserved the delicate shola-grassland balance by limiting forest encroachment into open areas. Reduced frost events in the southern have increased shola seedling survival rates in exposed grassland sites from near zero (under frost conditions) to about 40%, potentially enabling shola forest encroachment into adjacent grasslands and altering the forest-grassland balance, while broader warming may drive upslope migration of and compress habitats for frost-dependent montane endemics. Projections indicate temperature increases of 1-2°C by 2050, alongside more erratic monsoons, could further destabilize shola and distributions. Other anthropogenic pressures, including from adjacent agricultural fields and infrastructure projects, exacerbate in shola regions. and runoff from estates contaminates streams and soils, while and construction severs corridors, isolating small shola patches and increasing vulnerability to . In the , such fragmentation has reduced contiguous habitat availability, with linear developments like highways contributing to a moderate but persistent load that harms aquatic and terrestrial .

Conservation Strategies

Shola ecosystems in the are safeguarded through a network of protected areas that encompass key habitats, ensuring the preservation of their unique montane forest-grassland mosaics. These areas form part of the designated in 2012, which highlights the region's global significance for conservation. National parks such as , covering 89 square kilometers and serving as a core zone of the , integrate shola forests with adjacent grasslands to maintain ecological connectivity. Similarly, and protect extensive shola landscapes, supporting endemic species and acting as refuges against . The Longwood Shola Reserve Forest in the of was designated as a Ramsar wetland site in 2023, recognizing its role as one of the last intact natural shola forests near human settlements and its high , including 40 tree species and several threatened birds like the vulnerable Nilgiri wood-pigeon. This 116-hectare site, part of the , benefits from collaborative management involving local resident committees and forest officials to combat encroachment and . Management practices in shola ecosystems emphasize maintaining the forest-grassland mosaic through targeted interventions. Controlled burning is employed in grassland areas to mimic natural fire regimes, preventing shrub encroachment and promoting native grass regeneration while protecting adjacent shola forests from uncontrolled wildfires. Invasive species removal programs, particularly targeting exotics like wattle () and lantana (), involve manual uprooting and mechanical clearing in sites such as Pampadum Shola , where community-led efforts have reshaped restoration landscapes since 2020. Reforestation initiatives focus on planting native species, such as those from the family, under existing exotic canopies to facilitate natural regeneration, as demonstrated in the Upper where shola tree saplings have shown viability beneath acacia stands. Policy frameworks guiding shola conservation stem from the (WGEEP) report of 2011, which recommended classifying the region into ecologically sensitive zones (ESZs) and establishing a Western Ghats Ecology Authority to regulate development and enforce habitat protection. These guidelines, emphasizing decentralized governance and community involvement, have influenced post-2020 updates, including strengthened monitoring amid climate pressures highlighted in 2025 assessments. Community-based programs in areas like Pampadum Shola National Park promote sustainable visitation through guided nature trails, generating local income while funding habitat maintenance. Parallel efforts include monitoring, with investments from the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) assessing over 100 species since 2011 to prioritize conservation actions. Post-2020 advancements have enhanced shola protection through technology and landscape-level planning. and drone mapping have been utilized to identify in grassland-shola interfaces, enabling precise restoration targeting in the Nilgiris and . Initiatives like the Amazon-backed Wild Carbon program, launched in 2025, support climate-resilient wildlife corridors by planting native trees across fragmented habitats, fostering connectivity for species movement amid rising temperatures. Success stories include protections for Kurinji () blooming cycles, with Tamil Nadu's ongoing scheme since 2018 safeguarding mass flowering events in shola grasslands, as evidenced by the 2025 bloom in Gudalur Reserve Forest following its IUCN Vulnerable listing in 2024.

References

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